Chemistry

# States of Matter

-> Solids, liquids and gases

- Properties

Solid Liquid Gas

Shape: fixed Shape: not fixed Shape: not fixed

Volume: fixed Volume: fixed Volume: not fixed

Density: high Density: moderate Density: low

Fluidity: non-fluid Fluidity: fluid Fluidity: fluid

- Structure in terms of separation, arrangement and motion

Solid Liquid Gas

Separation: closely packed Separation: quite closely packed Separation: widely spread

Arrangement: regular Arrangement: irregular Arrangement: irregular

Motion: vibrates Motion: flows Motion: moves freely

- Changes of state

Melting and Boiling: when heat is added to a substance the bonds between the particles are broken or weakened
as the particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces. This causes the particles to move farther apart

Freezing and Condensation: when heat is reduced the bonds between the particles strengthen as particles begin
to lose energy and become unable to overcome the forces. This causes the particles to come closer together

- Effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas

External pressure and volume are inversely proportional. When external pressure increases, the gas is compressed
and, so, contracts (decreases in volume). On the other hand, when external pressure decreases, the gas is
decompressed and, so, expands (increases in volume).

Temperature and volume are directly proportional. When temperature increases, the particles of the gas gain more
kinetic energy and hit the wall of their container more often and with more force. This causes an increase in
internal pressure and overall an increase in volume. The opposite happens when temperature decreases.

-> Diffusion

- Effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of diffusion of gases

Relative molecular mass and rate of diffusion are inversely proportional. This is because lighter gases with a
small relative mass diffuses faster than heavier gases.

Temperature and rate of diffusion are directly proportional. This is because gas particles move faster as they
are heated because they gain kinetic energy.

# Atoms, Elements and Compounds

-> Elements, compounds and mixtures

Atom: the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction Element: a

substance made up of only one type of atom

Compound: a substance made up of two or more types of elements chemically bonded together Mixtures:

" not chemically bonded together

-> Atomic structure and the periodic table

Atoms have a nucleus containing the protons and nucleons which is orbitted by electrons in shells

Protons Neutrons Electrons

Relative charge +1 0 -1
Relative mass 1 1 1/1840

Proton number (atomic no.) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Nucleon number (mass no.) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Electronic configuration -> 2, 8, 8, 8

-> Isotopes

Isotopes are the different atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons

Isotopes of the same elements have the same properties because they have the same number of electrons and, therefore,
the same electronic configuration

Relative atomic mass

R.A.M of X = ( isotope 1 of X * its abundance in % ) + ( isotope 2 of X * its abundance in % )

-> Ions and ionic bonds

Formations

Cations (+) are formed when metals lose their outer shell electrons in order to acquire a full outer shell and
stability

Anions (-) are formed when non-metals gain electrons in order to acquire a full outer shell and stability

Definitions

Ionic bonds: the strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions of metals and non-metals Giant

lattice structures: the regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
Ionic compounds are made up of giant lattice structures

Properties

High melting and boiling point: a lot of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces between
the oppositely charged ions

Good conductors of electricity when molten: as the charges flow - ions can move freely in a molten state

Ions are not free to move in solid state as the charge can't flow

Ionic compounds are soluble in water: the positive and negative ions are attracted to the water

Solid at room temperature: have strong electrostatic forces between ions which form a lattice structure

Other:

Brittle

-> Simple covalent bonds

Definition

Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons to form an electron pair between atoms of non-metals

Types

Single bonds e.g Chlorine Double

bonds e.g Carbon dioxide Triple

bonds e.g Nitrogen

Properties

Covalent compounds have weak intermolecular forces but strong covalent bonds

Low melting and boiling point: little energy required to break the weak intermolecular forces Poor

electrical conductors: no free electrons or ions present to carry electrical current

-> Giant covalent structures (Macromolecules)

Definition

Giant covalent structures: solids with very high melting points which have atoms made of pure carbon

Diamond

Properties

One carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms

High melting and boiling point: strong covalent bonds

No delocalized or free electrons

Hard in structure

Can't conduct electricity due to no free electrons

Rigid tetrahedral structure

Used in cutting tools

Graphite

Properties

One carbon atom is joined to three carbon atoms

High melting and boiling point: strong covalent bond within layers but the layers are attracted to each
other by a weak intermolecular force

Has delocalized or free electrons

Soft: layers can slide easily

Can conduct electricity due to presence of free electrons

Layer of hexagonal rings held by weak intermolecular force

Used in lubricants and electrode in Electrolysis

Silicon Dioxide

Properties

Its structure is very similar to diamond

One silicon is joined to four oxygen atoms

One oxygen atom is joined to two silicon

High melting and boiling point: strong covalent bonds

No delocalized or free electrons

Hard in structure

Can't conduct electricity due to no free electron

Rigid tetrahedral structure

Used in production of glass and concrete

-> Metallic bonds

Formation

When atoms of metals lose the electrons to form positive ions, the lost electrons for a sea of delocalized electrons.
The positive ions and the sea of electrons have an electrostatic force of attraction which together form a lattice
like structure

Definition

Metallic bonds: the electrostatic forces between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a "sea" of
delocalized electrons

Properties

High melting and boiling point: a lot of energy is required to break the strong electrostatic forces between the
positive metal ions and the sea of delocalized electrons

Good conductor of electricity: delocalized electrons can move through the structure and carry a current

Malleability: can be hammered into shape as layers can easily slide past each other
Ductility: can be drawn into wires

# Experimental Techniques

-> Measurement

Pipette: used for known, specific measurements

Burette: used for accurate measurement with d.p.

Measuring cyclinder: used for quick measurements that don't require accuracy

-> Criteria for purity

- Definite melting and boiling point

- One spot on chromatogram

Impure solids have a range of melting points slightly below the melting point Impure

liquids have a range of boiling points slightly above the boiling point

Rf value = distance of spot

distance of solvent

-> Separation Methods

Evaporation or crystallization - to get solute(solid)

Distillation - to get solvent(liquid)

Fractional distillation - to separate miscible liquids(can mix)

Diffusion - to separate mixed gases

Separating funnel - to separate immiscible liquids(can't mix)