Mechanics of Materials

NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

Stability of structures

Consider a model consisting of a pinned rigid rod 𝐴𝐵 constrained by a torsional

spring of constant 𝐾 as shown below left. A vertical force 𝑃 is applied on the top point

𝐴. Obviously, the original configuration, in which the rod 𝐴𝐵 remains vertical, is an

equilibrium configuration. However, the system has other equilibrium configurations

in addition to the original configuration.

𝑃
𝑃
𝐴
𝐴

𝐿 𝜃
𝐿

𝐾 𝐵 𝐵
𝐾𝜃
𝑅

To identify these equilibrium configurations, we need to consider the equilibrium

conditions in a deformed configuration. Refer to the FBD as shown above right. The

moment balance of rod 𝐴𝐵 requires that 𝑃𝐿 sin 𝜃 = 𝐾𝜃, or

sin 𝜃 = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝜃 (1)

where 𝛼 = 𝐾/𝑃𝐿 . The equilibrium solution is the intersection of sin 𝜃 and the line 𝛼𝜃.

As can be seen from the figure shown on

the right, for 𝛼 1 or 𝑃 𝑃 = , the only

possible equilibrium solution is 𝜃 = 0, which is

the original configuration. However, for 𝛼 <

1 or 𝑃 > 𝑃 = , there exist equilibrium

solutions where 𝜃 is nonzero. The results can be represented schematically as in the

1
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

figure shown on the left. If the vertical load 𝑃 is

𝑃
gradually increased from zero, rod 𝐴𝐵 will remain

vertical, i.e., 𝜃 = 0, until a critical value 𝑃 is reached.

𝑃
After that, there exist multiple equilibrium solutions
θ
𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝜃∗ ≠ 0

For the convenience of discussion, we call the equilibrium solution 𝜃 = 0, the trivial

solution; the equilibrium solution 𝜃 ∗ ≠ 0 is called a non-trivial solution.

To get further insights into the properties of these equilibrium positions, we

proceed to consider the total energy of the system associated with these equilibrium

positions. The total energy of the system can be expressed as

𝑈 = −𝑃𝐿(1 − cos 𝜃) + 𝐾𝜃 /2 = 𝑃𝐿(cos 𝜃 + 𝛼𝜃 /2 − 1)

Where 𝛼 = 𝐾/𝑃𝐿.

The equilibrium position can be determined from the fact that 𝑈 is stationary at an

equilibrium position. That is

𝑑𝑈
= 𝛼𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 0 (2)
𝑑𝜃
which is identical to Eq. (1).

The left figure shows the total energy

function for three different values of 𝛼 .

As can be seen from the figure, at the

trivial solution 𝜃 = 0, the total energy is

a minimum for 𝛼 > 1 and a maximum

for 𝛼 < 1. Hence the trivial equilibrium

position is stable for 𝛼 > 1 and unstable

for 𝛼 < 1. On the other hand, the non-trivial solution exists only for 𝛼 > 1 and is stable.

平衡解的位能是極大或極小可由該處總位能的二次微分的正負號決定，如果
2
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

二次微分為正代表為極小值，相對的二次微分為負為極大值。由式(2)

𝑑 𝑈
= 𝛼 − cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
因此
𝛼 > cos 𝜃 stable
(3)
𝛼 < cos 𝜃 unstable
當𝜃 = 0時，上式顯示 𝛼 > 1 或者 𝑃 < 𝑃 ，明顯解（trivial solution）是穩定的；

當𝛼 < 1或是𝑃 > 𝑃 時，明顯解為不穩定。另一方面，由上式不容易得到非明顯解

（𝜃 ≠ 0）為穩定的結論。退而求其次，我們討論𝛼 = 1 − 𝜀, 0 < 𝜀 ≪ 1的情形，

此時 𝜃 ≪ 1。因此，sin 𝜃 ≈𝜃 − 𝜃 /6，代入式(1)得到

𝜃
1− =1−𝜀 ⇒𝜃 = √6𝜀
6
此時，
𝜃
𝛼 − cos 𝜃 ≈1−𝜀− 1− = 2𝜀 > 0
2
代表（由式(3)）非明顯解為穩定。

我們也可由力的角度來分析平衡解的穩定度。假設 𝜃 為平衡解，由式(1)

sin 𝜃 = 𝛼 𝜃 , 𝛼 = 𝐾/𝑃𝐿 (4)

接時給桿件小擾動 𝛿𝜃 (|𝛿𝜃| ≪ 1)，此時桿件所受到的合力矩

𝛿𝑀 = 𝑃𝐿 sin(𝜃 + 𝛿𝜃) − 𝐾(𝜃 + 𝛿𝜃) ≈ (𝑃𝐿 cos 𝜃 − 𝐾)𝛿𝜃

如果上式等號右邊 𝛿𝜃 的係數為負，代表合力矩的方向和擾動角度的方向相反。

舉例來說，當擾動是順時針方向，合力矩是反時針方向；此時合力矩會將桿件推

回平衡位置，平衡位置為穩定。相反的，如果等號右邊 𝛿𝜃 的係數為正，代表合

力矩的方向和擾動角度的方向相同；此時合力矩會將桿件推離平衡位置，平衡位

置為不穩定。總結如果
𝑃𝐿 cos 𝜃 < 𝐾 or cos 𝜃 <𝛼 stable
(5)
𝑃𝐿 cos 𝜃 > 𝐾 or cos 𝜃 >𝛼 unstable
這個結果和式(3)相同。

Consider the situation where the external load 𝑃 is increased gradually from zero.
3
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

The original configuration is the only equilibrium solution until the critical load 𝑃 =

𝑃 = is reached. In the range, 𝑃 < 𝑃 , the original configuration is stable. Then, with

a little increase of 𝑃 beyond the critical load 𝑃 , the total potential energy at 𝜃 = 0

becomes a maximum, which indicates that the original configuration becomes unstable.

In the meanwhile, a nontrivial stable equilibrium solution 𝜃 ∗ emerges. The slant angle

𝜃 ∗ of rod 𝐴𝐵 increase significantly with the applied load. In this case, a slight increase

in the applied load would produce a relatively large deformation of the structure, which

may result in a catastrophic failure of the structure.

The critical value 𝑃 is called the critical load. The critical load can be determined

by considering a small deformation as shown below. Assuming that 𝜃 = Δ𝜃 << 1, Eq.

(1) becomes
𝐾
− 1 Δ𝜃 = 0
𝑃𝐿
If the coefficient in the parentheses is nonzero, the only solution is the trivial solution

Δ𝜃 = 0. For the non-trivial solution to exist, the terms in the parentheses must be zero.

Consequently, 𝑃 = 𝑃 .

It is worth noting that the critical load can be determined by the existence of non-

trivial solutions for a linearized version of the equilibrium equation in the deformed

configuration. However, the load-displacement relation of the structure can only be

obtained through a complete nonlinear analysis.

This simple model exhibits important qualitative features regarding the buckling

of a column under compressive loads.

Buckling load

This section discusses the buckling load for columns with different end conditions.

4
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

Pinned-Pinned Column

Consider the equilibrium of portion 𝐴𝑄 of the

v column in the deformed configuration. The bending

moment at section 𝑄 is （Note that 𝐴𝐵 is a two-

force member, therefore the reaction forces at ends

𝐴 and 𝐵 are in the direction of line 𝐴𝐵.）

𝑀 = −𝑃𝑣

Substituting into the bending-moment equation

gives

𝑣 ′′ + 𝑘 𝑣 = 0 (6)

where

𝑘= 𝑃/𝐸𝐼

The boundary conditions are:

𝑣(0) = 𝑣(𝐿) = 0 (7)

Note that Eq. (6) is a homogeneous differential equation subjected to homogeneous

boundary conditions, Eq. (7). Certainly, 𝑣 = 0 is a solution called the trivial solution.

Here, we want to determine the critical load 𝑃 at which Eq. (6) admits nontrivial

solutions. The general solution for Eq. (6) can be expressed as

𝑣 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥

Applying the boundary condition 𝑣(0) = 0 gives 𝐶 = 0 and the deflection curve

becomes

𝑣 = 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 (8)

The remaining boundary condition, 𝑣(𝐿) = 0, requires that

𝐶 sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0

This equation is satisfied if either 𝐶 = 0 or sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0. If 𝐶 = 0, Eq. (8) reduces to

5
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

the trivial solution. For the second condition, sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0, to be satisfied,

𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 (9)

or

𝑛 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿
The smallest value of 𝑃 defines the critical load (or buckling load)

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = (10)
𝐿
This equation is known as Euler’s formula, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard

Euler. Substitution of Eq. (9) for 𝑘 into Eq. (8), for 𝑛 = 1, gives
𝜋𝑥
𝑣 = 𝐶 sin
𝐿
which is the equation of the elastic curve after the column has buckled. However, the

amplitude of deflection cannot be determined by this kind of linearized analysis.

Free-fixed column

Let 𝛿 be the transverse deflection at the free end. The

bending moment at the section a distance x from the fixed end is

𝑀 = 𝑃(𝛿 − 𝑣)

The bending-moment equation can be written as Gere

𝑣 ′′ + 𝑘 𝑣 = 𝑘 𝛿

and the general solution is

𝑣 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿 (11)

Applying the boundary conditions

𝑣(0) = 0 and 𝑣 (0) = 0

gives

𝐶 = −𝛿 and 𝐶 = 0

Substitute the expressions for 𝐶 and 𝐶 into the general solution Eq. (11) to obtain the
6
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

deflection curve for the buckled column:

𝑣 = 𝛿(1 − cos 𝑘𝑥) (12)

Note that 𝛿 denotes the deflection at the free end, i.e., 𝑣(𝐿) = 𝛿. Using this condition

with Eq. (12), we get

𝛿 cos 𝑘𝐿 = 0

For nontrivial solutions to exist, 𝛿 ≠ 0, and hence

cos 𝑘𝐿 = 0

or
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜋
𝑘𝐿 = , 𝑛∈ℕ
2

Using the expression 𝑘 = , we obtain the critical load

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
4𝐿

Fixed-fixed column

The bending moment in the buckled column at 𝑃

𝑀
distance 𝑥 from the bottom can be expressed in terms of

the vertical load 𝑃 and the reactive moment 𝑀 at the top

𝑥
𝑣
as (由對稱可知上、下兩端沒有剪力)

𝑀 = 𝑀 − 𝑃𝑣
𝑦
The bending-moment equation becomes
𝑀
𝑣 ′′ + 𝑘 𝑣 =
𝐸𝐼
whose general solution is
𝑀
𝑣 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 +
𝐸𝐼𝑘
Applying the boundary conditions at 𝑣(0) = 0 and 𝑣′(0) = 0, we obtain

7
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

𝑀
𝑣= (1 − cos 𝑘𝑥)
𝐸𝐼𝑘
The boundary conditions at the top, 𝑣(𝐿) = 0 and 𝑣 (𝐿) = 0, require that

cos 𝑘𝐿 = 1 and sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0

or
2𝑛𝜋
𝑘= , 𝑛∈ℕ
𝐿
Hence, the critical load is

4𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝐿

Pinned-fixed column

The bending moment in the buckled column at distance

Gere
𝑥 from the bottom is

𝑀 = 𝑅(𝐿 − 𝑥) − 𝑃𝑣

In this case, the bending-moment equation can be written as

𝑅
𝑣 +𝑘 𝑣 = (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼
The general solution of this equation is
𝑅
𝑣 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼𝑘
Applying the fixed conditions at the bottom, 𝑣(0) = 0 and 𝑣 (0) = 0, we obtain
𝑅𝐿 𝑅 sin 𝑘𝑥
𝑣= (1 − cos 𝑘𝑥) + −𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑘 𝐸𝐼𝑘 𝑘
The pinned upper end requires that
𝑅 sin 𝑘𝐿
𝑣(𝐿) = 𝐿(1 − cos 𝑘𝐿) + −𝐿 =0
𝐸𝐼𝑘 𝑘
For nontrivial solutions to exist, we must have

tan 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑘𝐿

The solution of this equation gives the critical load as

8
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

2.046𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝐿
In summary, the critical load for columns with various end conditions can be

expressed in a unified form as

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝐿
where 𝐿 is the effective length of the column of the specified end conditions.

Setting 𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿 the critical load 𝑃 can be expressed as

𝜋
𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = 𝛼
𝐿

Setting 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟 , where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area and 𝑟 its radius of gyration, the

corresponding critical stress

𝜋
𝐸
𝜎 = 𝛼 (13)
(𝐿/𝑟)

9
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

The quantity 𝐿/𝑟 is the slenderness ratio of the column.

𝜎
The critical stress is the average compressive stress on

the cross section at the instant the load reaches its critical

value. The curve of the critical stress as a function of the

𝐿/𝑟
slenderness ratio, as shown on the right, is known as

Euler’s curve (Fig. 11-10). If the critical stress obtained from Eq. (13) is larger than the

allowable stress 𝜎 , this value is of no interest, since the column will be damaged

before it has a chance to buckle.

Revisit fixed-fixed column

MB P
Revisit the problem of determining the buckling
V
load of a fixed-fixed column without assuming that the
𝑥
𝑣
deformed beam is symmetric about a transverse plane

passing the beam’s middle point. As a consequence, there

𝑦
may exist a shear force as well as the bending moment at

the top. The bending moment in the buckled column at

distance 𝑥 from the bottom can be expressed in terms of the vertical load 𝑃, the reactive

moment 𝑀 and the shear force 𝑉 at the top as

𝑀 = 𝑀 − 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑉(𝐿 − 𝑥)

The bending-moment equation becomes (with 𝑘 = )

𝑀 + 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑥
𝑣 +𝑘 𝑣 = −
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
whose general solution is
𝑀 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑥
𝑣 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 +
𝐸𝐼𝑘
Applying the boundary conditions at 𝑣(0) = 0 and 𝑣 (0) = 0, we obtain

10
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Buckling 2024/4/30

sin 𝑘 𝑥
𝑣 = 𝐴(1 − cos 𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵 −𝑥 (14)
𝑘
where
𝑀 + 𝑉𝐿 𝑉
𝐴= , 𝐵=
𝐸𝐼𝑘 𝐸𝐼𝑘
If Eq. (14) represents a nontrivial solution, then 𝐴 and 𝐵 cannot both be zero. In other

words

𝐴 +𝐵 ≠0 (15)

The boundary conditions at the top, 𝑣(𝐿) = 0 and 𝑣 (𝐿) = 0, require that

sin 𝑘 𝐿
(1 − cos 𝑘𝐿)𝐴 + −𝐿 𝐵 =0
𝑘 (16)
(𝑘 sin 𝑘𝐿)𝐴 + (cos 𝑘𝐿 − 1)𝐵 = 0

which is a set of homogeneous linear equations in 𝐴 and 𝐵 . The condition

that 𝐴 and 𝐵 cannot both be zero, Eq. (15), requires that the determinant of the

coefficient matrix of Eq. (16) vanishes, i.e.,

−(1 − cos 𝑘𝐿) − sin 𝑘𝐿 + 𝑘𝐿 sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0

which can be rewritten as

𝑘𝐿 2 𝑘𝐿
𝑘𝐿 sin − cot =0
2 𝑘𝐿 2
The above equation is satisfied if (recall that k is nonzero)

𝑘𝐿
sin = 0 ⇒ 𝑘𝐿 = 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 3𝜋, …
2
𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐿
tan = ⇒ 𝑘𝐿 = 2.861𝜋, 4.918𝜋, …
2 2

The smallest value of 𝑘𝐿 is 2𝜋. Hence, the critical load is

4𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝐿
which is the same as before.

11