Lecture 2 - Physicl and Mechanical Properties of Materials

Production Technology
Dr. Mohamed Fahmy

Lecture 2
Physical And Mechanical

Properties in Manufacturing
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
.
I-Physical Properties
▪ Important in manufacturing because they often influence process performance
▪ Examples:
▪ In machining, thermal properties of the work material determine the cutting

temperature, which affects tool life
▪ In microelectronics, electrical properties of silicon and how these properties can

be altered by chemical and physical processes is the basis of semiconductor
manufacturing
Density and Specific Gravity Defined
▪ Density = weight per unit volume

▪ Typical units are g/cm3 (lb/in3)
▪ Specific gravity = density of a material relative to
density of water and is a ratio with no units
Why Density is Important
▪ Important consideration in material selection for a given application, but it
is generally not the only property of interest
▪ Strength is also important, and the two properties are often related in a
strength-to-weight ratio, which is tensile strength divided by density
▪ Useful ratio in comparing materials for structural applications in

aircraft, automobiles, and other products where weight and energy are
concerns
Thermal Expansion
▪ Density of a material is a function of temperature
▪ In general, density decreases with increasing temperature
▪ Volume per unit weight increases with increasing temperature
▪ Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of temperature on density
▪ Measured by coefficient of thermal expansion 
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
▪ Change in length per degree of temperature, such as mm/mm/C (in/in/F)

▪ Length ratio rather than volume ratio because this is easier to measure and
apply
▪ Change in length for a given temperature change is:
L2 - L1 = L1 (T2 - T1)
where  = coefficient of thermal expansion; L1 and L2 are lengths
corresponding respectively to temperatures T1 and T2
Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing
▪ Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and expansion fit assemblies
▪ Part is heated to increase size or cooled to decrease size to permit
insertion into another part
▪ When part returns to ambient temperature, a tightly-fitted assembly is
obtained
▪ Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat treatment and welding due to
thermal stresses that develop in material during these processes
Melting Characteristics for Elements
▪ Melting point Tm of a pure element = temperature at which it transforms
from solid to liquid state
▪ The reverse transformation occurs at the same temperature and is called
the freezing point
▪ Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to accomplish transformation
from solid to liquid
Importance of Melting in Manufacturing
▪ Metal casting - the metal is melted and then poured into a mold cavity
▪ Metals with lower melting points are generally easier to cast
▪ Plastic molding - melting characteristics of polymers are important in nearly all
polymer shaping processes
Thermal Properties
▪ Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are thermal properties
because temperature determines the thermal energy level of the atoms,
leading to the changes in materials
▪ Additional thermal properties:
▪ Specific heat
▪ Thermal conductivity
▪ These properties relate to the storage and flow of heat within a substance
Electrical Properties
▪ Engineering materials exhibit a great variation in their capability to conduct
electricity
▪ Flow of electrical current involves movement of charge
carriers - infinitesimally small particles possessing an electrical charge
▪ In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
▪ In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive and negative ions
Electrical Properties
▪ Movement of charge carriers is driven by the presence of electric voltage
▪ And resisted by the inherent characteristics of the material, such as
atomic structure and bonding between atoms and molecules
E
Ohm's law: I =
R
where I = current, A, E = voltage, V, and R = electrical resistance, 
Materials and Electrical Properties
▪ Metals are the best conductors of electricity, because of their metallic bonding
▪ Most ceramics and polymers, whose electrons are tightly bound by covalent
and/or ionic bonding, are poor conductors
▪ Many of these materials are used as insulators because they possess high
resistivities
Electrical Properties in Manufacturing
▪ The important welding processes, such as arc welding and resistance spot
welding, use electrical energy to melt the joint metal
Mechanical Properties in
Design and Manufacturing
Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior when subjected to mechanical
stresses
▪ Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and various measures of
strength
▪ Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the designer, such as high strength,
usually make manufacturing more difficult
▪ The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the design viewpoint
▪ And the designer should be aware of the manufacturing viewpoint
Stress-Strain Relationships
Three types of static stresses to which materials can be subjected:

1. Tensile - tend to stretch the material
2. Compressive - tend to squeeze it
3. Shear - tend to cause adjacent portions of material to slide
against each other
▪ Stress-strain curve - basic relationship that describes
mechanical properties for all three types
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pS2HSTwHpSw
Tensile Test
Most common test for studying stress-strain relationship,
especially metals
In the test, a force pulls the material, elongating it and reducing
its diameter
Figure 3.1 Tensile test: (a) tensile force applied in (1) and (2) resulting
elongation of material
Tensile Test Sequence
Figure 3.2 Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning
of test, no load; (2) uniform elongation and reduction of
cross-sectional area; (3) continued elongation, maximum
load reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to
decrease; and (5) fracture. If pieces are put back together
as in (6), final length can be measured.
Engineering Stress
Defined as force divided by original area:
F
e =
Ao
where e = engineering stress,

F = applied force, and
Ao = original area of test specimen
Engineering Strain
Defined at any point in the test as
L − Lo
e=
Lo
where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

point during elongation; and Lo = original gage
length
Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot
Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile test of a metal.
Two Regions of Stress-Strain Curve
The two regions indicate two distinct forms of behavior:
1. Elastic region – prior to yielding of the material
2. Plastic region – after yielding of the material
Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Relationship between stress and strain is
linear
▪ Material returns to its original length when
stress is removed
Hooke's Law: e = E e
where E = modulus of elasticity
▪ E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a
material
▪ Its value differs for different materials
Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ As stress increases, a point in the linear relationship is finally
reached when the material begins to yield
▪ Yield point Y can be identified by the change in slope at the upper
end of the linear region
▪ Y = a strength property
▪ Other names for yield point = yield strength, yield stress, and
elastic limit
Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Yield point marks the beginning of plastic deformation
▪ The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided by Hooke's
Law
▪ As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds at a much
faster rate than before, causing the slope of the curve to change
dramatically
Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Elongation is accompanied by a uniform
reduction in cross-sectional area, consistent
with maintaining constant volume
▪ Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum
value, and engineering stress at this point is
called the tensile strength TS (a.k.a. ultimate
tensile strength)
Fmax
TS =
Ao
Ductility in Tensile Test
Ability of a material to plastically strain without
fracture
▪ Ductility measure = elongation EL
Lf − Lo
EL =
Lo
where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length

at fracture; and Lo = original specimen length
Lf is measured as the distance between gage
marks after two pieces of specimen are put
back together
True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the
instantaneous area into applied load
F
=
A
where  = true stress; F = force; and A =

actual (instantaneous) area resisting the
load
True Strain
Provides a more realistic assessment of
"instantaneous" elongation per unit length
L
dL L
=  = ln
L L o
Lo
True Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 3.4 - True stress-strain curve for the previous engineering
stress-strain plot in Figure 3.3.
Resilience
resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading
•Hardness
Resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability.
It also mean ability of material to cut another metal
‫الصمود‬
- ‫القساوة – الصالبة –القوة‬
Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation
▪ Good hardness generally means material is resistant to
scratching and wear
▪ Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for
scratch and wear resistance
▪ Effect of Temperature on Properties
Figure 3.15 General effect of temperature on strength and ductility.
How to build a building in the sea
• State some of the important consecration when you
think to build a building in the sea or on the sea
Building a house in the middle of the ocean presents several challenges due to
the harsh environmental conditions, such as strong winds, waves, and corrosive
saltwater. However, there are technologies and designs for structures that can be
built in the ocean, such as offshore platforms and floating homes. These
structures are typically designed to withstand the forces of the ocean and provide
a stable living environment. If you're interested in this concept, it's important to
consider the feasibility, environmental impact, and regulatory requirements
before pursuing such a project.

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Production Technology

Dr. Mohamed Fahmy

Physical And Mechanical

▪ Important in manufacturing because they often influence process performance

▪ In machining, thermal properties of the work material determine the cutting

▪ In microelectronics, electrical properties of silicon and how these properties can

▪ Density = weight per unit volume

▪ Useful ratio in comparing materials for structural applications in

▪ In general, density decreases with increasing temperature

▪ Volume per unit weight increases with increasing temperature

▪ Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of temperature on density

▪ Measured by coefficient of thermal expansion 

▪ Change in length per degree of temperature, such as mm/mm/C (in/in/F)

where I = current, A, E = voltage, V, and R = electrical resistance, 

Three types of static stresses to which materials can be subjected:

where e = engineering stress,

where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile test of a metal.

where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length

where  = true stress; F = force; and A =

- ‫القساوة – الصالبة –القوة‬

Figure 3.15 General effect of temperature on strength and ductility.

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