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Coding Art
A Guide to Unlocking Your
Creativity with the Processing
Language and p5.js in Four
Simple Steps
Second Edition
Mathias Funk
Yu Zhang
Coding Art: A Guide to Unlocking Your Creativity with the Processing
Language and p5.js in Four Simple Steps
Mathias Funk Yu Zhang
Eindhoven, The Netherlands Eindhoven, The Netherlands
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9779-7 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9780-3

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9780-3
Copyright © 2024 by Mathias Funk and Yu Zhang
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Table of Contents
About the Authors��xiii
About the Technical Reviewer��xv
Acknowledgments��xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction��1
1.1. Coding Art��3
1.2. Motivation��4
1.2.1. How to Talk with a “Machine”��4
1.2.2. Practice a Practice��5
1.2.3. Do It and Own It��6
1.3. How to Read This Book��7
1.3.1. Calling All Creatives��7
1.3.2. Four Steps, One Example, One Zoom��8
1.3.3. Getting Ready��11
Chapter 2: Idea to Visuals��13

2.1. Visual Elements��13
2.1.1. Shapes��14
2.1.2. Shaping Up in Processing��18
2.1.3. Colors, Transparency, and Filters��21
2.1.4. Working with Form and Texture��25
v
Table of Contents
2.2. Canvas Secrets��29

2.2.1. Scaling Visual Elements��30
2.2.2. Resetting or Restoring the Canvas��32
2.2.3. Rotation and Translation��34
2.3. Animation: From Frames to Motion��39
2.3.1. Animation Basics��39
2.3.2. Simple Movement��40
2.3.3. Rhythm in Motion��43
2.4. Interaction as Input for Animation��49
2.4.1. Combining Mouse Presses and Movement��50
2.5. Summary��52
Chapter 3: Composition and Structure��53

3.1. Data and Code Structure��54
3.1.1. Creating Many Things��54
3.1.2. Controlling Many Things��64
3.2. Visual Structure��68
3.2.1. Composition and Alignment��68
3.2.2. Composing with Layers��73
3.2.3. Controlling Layers��78
Chapter 4: Refinement and Depth��85

4.1. Randomness and Noise��85
4.1.1. Working with Randomness��86
4.1.2. Controlling Randomness��91
4.1.3. Selecting and Making Choices with Randomness��97
4.1.4. Working with Noise��102
vi
Table of Contents
4.2. MemoryDot��106
4.2.1. Smoothing��106
4.2.2. Smoothly Working with Many Things��113
4.3. Using Computed Values��116
4.3.1. Computing Values with Functions��116
4.3.2. The Space Between Two Values: Interpolation��122
4.3.3. Interpolation with Functions��124
4.4. Interactivity��129
4.4.1. Mouse Interaction��130
4.4.2. Keyboard Interaction��133
4.4.3. Other Input��142
Chapter 5: Completion and Production��145

5.1. Making Things Big for Print��145
5.1.1. High-Resolution Rendering��147
5.1.2. Migrating to Scalable Version��149
5.1.3. Rendering Snapshots of Dynamic Work��151
5.2. A Backstage for Control��157
5.2.1. Tweak Mode in Processing��158
5.2.2. Centralizing Control with Variables��159
5.2.3. “Backstaging” with the Keyboard��161
5.3. More Stable and Less Risky Code��165
5.3.1. The Right Things in the Right Place��165
5.3.2. Avoiding Resource Bloat��169
5.3.3. Code Structure��169
5.3.4. Don’t Reinvent the Wheel��172
vii
Table of Contents
5.4. Testing Before Deployment��175

5.4.1. Depending on Dependencies��176
5.4.2. Anticipating Differences��176
5.4.3. Preparing for Unattended Operation��178
Chapter 6: Taking a Larger Project Through All Four Steps��181

6.1. Context, Inspiration, and Starting Point��184
6.2. Concept and Artwork��185
6.3. Step 1: Idea to Visuals��187
6.4. Step 2: Composition and Structure��190
6.4.1. Composition: The Fog��191
6.4.2. Composition: Creating the Mountains��192
6.4.3. Structure: Creating the Particles��194
6.5. Step 3: Refinement and Depth��197
6.5.1. Refinement: Reshaping the Particles��198
6.5.2. Depth: Adding Interaction��203
6.6. Step 4: Completion and Production��206
6.6.1. Completion: Installation in Space��206
6.6.2. Production in Print��207
Chapter 7: Flow Fields and Particle Storms with p5.js��213

7.1. Getting Started with p5.js��214
7.1.1. Structure of p5.js Sketches��215
7.1.2. From Processing to p5.js��218
7.1.3. Fine-Tuning the Presentation��219
7.1.4. How to Spot Errors?��220
7.1.5. Making Your Work Publically Accessible��221
viii
Table of Contents
7.2. Generative Art on the Web��223

7.2.1. Flow Fields��223
7.2.2. From Flow Field to Particle Flow��228
7.2.3. From Particle Flow to Dotted Particle Traces��236
7.2.4. Giving Particle Traces Different Colors and Shapes��242
7.2.5. Painting Particle Traces As a Whole��251
Chapter 8: Making Sense of Touch and Sensors with p5.js��255

8.1. Preparing for Mobile Browsers, Accidental Interaction,
and Device Orientation��255
8.1.1. Preventing Accidental Interactions��257
8.1.2. Device Orientation��258
8.1.3. Grid-Based Example Case��260
8.2. Touch and Multi-touch��264
8.2.1. Working with Multiple Touches��265
8.2.2. Multi-touch Interaction��267
8.3. Working with Device Sensors��273
8.3.1. Activating Sensors��273
8.3.2. Working with Device Rotation��274
8.3.3. Working with Device Acceleration��276
Chapter 9: Dealing with Problems��281

9.1. Helping Yourself��282
9.1.1. Error Messages or Nothing Happens��282
9.1.2. Working with Copy–Paste��283
9.1.3. Reference Documentation��285
9.1.4. Searching for Symptoms��286
ix
Table of Contents
9.2. Getting Help from Others��288

9.2.1. Finding Help��288
9.2.2. Asking the Right Questions Right��289
9.2.3. Minimal Working Example��290
9.3. Working with Experts��291
9.3.1. How Can Experts Help You?��291
9.3.2. How to Manage a Project with Experts?��292
Chapter 10: Learning Path��295

10.1. Going Deeper��295
10.1.1. Challenges to Pick��296
10.1.2. Building Your Own Toolset��297
10.1.3. Sharing Your Toolset with Others��298
10.2. Different Technologies��298
10.2.1. Enhancing Processing and p5.js��298
10.2.2. Assessing Feasibility��299
10.2.3. Moving Away from Processing and p5.js��300
Chapter 11: Creative Processes��303

11.1. Two Types of Ideation��303
11.1.1. Concept-Based Ideation��304
11.1.2. Material-Based Ideation��304
11.2. Using Abstraction Layers��305
11.2.1. First Loop: Behavior to Output��306
11.2.2. Second Loop: Adding Data��307
11.2.3. Third Loop: Adding Input and Interaction��308
11.2.4. Fourth Loop: Adding a Backstage��311
11.2.5. Creative Processes with Layers��312
x
Table of Contents
Conclusion��315
Epilogue��317
References��321
Index��325
xi
About the Authors
Mathias Funk is Associate Professor in the
Future Everyday group in the Department of
Industrial Design at the Eindhoven University
of Technology (TU/e). He has a background
in Computer Science and a PhD in Electrical
Engineering (from Eindhoven University of
Technology). His research interests include
data design methodologies, data-enabled
design, systems for musical expression, and
design tools for data and AI. In the past he has researched at ATR (Japan),
RWTH Aachen, Philips Consumer Lifestyle and Philips Experience
Design, Intel labs (Santa Clara), National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology, and National Taiwan University. He is also the co-founder of
UXsuite, a high-tech spin-off from Eindhoven University of Technology.
He has years of experience in software architecture and design, building
design tools, and web technologies. As a teacher, he teaches various
courses in the Industrial Design curriculum about designing with data and
visualization approaches, systems design, and technologies for connected
products and systems. He is regularly invited to hold international
workshops, and as an active musician for years, he is very interested in the
intersection of music, art, and design in particular.
xiii
About the Authors
An artist by training, Yu Zhang finished

her PhD in 2017 on the theory and artistic
practice of interactive technologies for public,
large-scale installations. She approaches
visual art with mixed reality installations and
projections, sensor-based interactives, and
computational arts. She roots her artistic
intent in the symbolism of Asian traditions and
transforms the artistic unpacking of drama
and cultural signifiers into experiences of
interactivity and connectivity that ultimately bridge artistic expression and
audience experience. She uses systems design toolkit to realize a complex
multifaceted experience playing with the spatiotemporal context of the
audience's interaction with the installations when digital and physical
converge. Starting from interactivity, she constructs layers of different
connections between artist, artwork, audience, and the environment to
express how far such connectivity can impact and reshape the structure
and relations of objects, space, and time within a dynamic audience
experience. Apart from her artistic research and practice, Yu’s teaching
experiences cover over 10 years and a broad space including traditional
classrooms and design-led project-based learning activities.
xiv
About the Technical Reviewer
Dr. Bin Yu is currently an Assistant Professor
in Digital Innovation at Nyenrode Business
University. He worked in Philips Design
from 2019 to 2022. Bin received his PhD in
Industrial Design (2018) from TU/e and
M.S. in Biomedical Engineering (2012) from
Northeastern University, Shenyang, China.
Dr. Bin Yu had rich experience, from both
academia and industry, in digital product
design, user interface design, healthcare
design, and data visualization. He has published more than 40 papers in
top journals and conferences. Besides, his work has been invited to several
design exhibitions, like Dutch Design Week, Milan Design Week, New York
Design Week, and Dubai Design Week.
xv
Acknowledgments
We started this book in October 2018 and went through the process of
writing for several months, ending with an intensive summer writing
retreat at Tenjinyama Art Studio in Sapporo. We are grateful for the
hospitality and kindness of Mami Odai and her team, and we will always
remember these weeks on the hill with the wind rushing through the
dark trees.
From October 2019, we sent out the manuscript to the reviewers, and
we would like to acknowledge their hard work and sincerely thank them
for great feedback and suggestions, warm-hearted encouragement, and
praise: Loe Feijs (Eindhoven University of Technology), Jia Han (Sony
Shanghai Creative Center), Garyfalia Pitsaki (3quarters.design), Bart
Hengeveld (Eindhoven University of Technology), Joep Elderman (BMD
Studio), Ansgar Silies (independent artist), and Rung-Huei Liang (National
Taiwan University of Science and Technology). Without you, the book
would not have been as clear and rich. We also thank the great team at
Apress, Natalie and Jessica, and especially Bin Yu for his excellent technical
review. We express our gratitude to Tatsuo Sugimoto, our translator for the
Japanese edition of Coding Art. Finally, we deeply appreciate the support
from friends and family for this project.
xvii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The art world is interwoven with technology and actually quite innovative
and playful. From cave paintings to the use of perspective, novel colors,
and lighting, to printing techniques and direct inclusion of machines and
code, there are examples of how art broke ground and changed its shape
forever. Already before the beginning of the twenty-first century, artists
used code and programmed machines to generate art or even be part of it.
There are so many examples of technology in art. It is also interesting
to see the path of how it has grown in the past 70 years. Famous examples
are, for instance, of earlier pioneers in computer art like Georg Nees,
Michael Noll, Vera Molnár, and Frieder Nake who brought the use of
pseudo-randomness and algorithm about fractals and recursion in code
drawing. The more recent generation of artists like Casey Reas, who is
well known for developing the Processing software, extend artistic ideas
through the programming language. Some artists like Jared Tarbell
introduce real data into art creation and connect the complexity with the
data availability. It is remarkable that for most of their works, computer
artists open the source code to the public, so we can learn from them.
In this book, we want to make the point that the use of modern
technology and machines in creative work does not contradict “creative
expression.” Instead, if used well, technology can help creatives take steps
in new directions, think of new ideas, and ultimately discover their ideal
form of expression.
© Mathias Funk and Yu Zhang 2024 1

M. Funk and Y. Zhang, Coding Art, Design Thinking,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9780-3_1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Why data and information in art? The use of data can connect artworks
to the human body, signals from outer space, or contemporary societal
issues, important events happening all over the world. With data streams,
creative works can become “alive.” As they represent data in visual or
auditory forms, they comment on what is happening in the world; they
provide an alternative frame to news and noteworthy. They can react and
even create their own data as a response.
Why is interaction interesting for creatives? Interaction in an artwork
opens a channel for communication with individual viewers or an entire
audience. Interaction can make a work more immersive and let viewers
engage in new ways with the artist’s ideas. Some might want to engage
with art emotionally; some others prefer a more rational approach. The
creative is in charge of defining and also limiting interactivity – from fully
open access to careful limitations that preserve the overall aesthetics and
message of the work. Interaction can help create multifaceted artworks
that show different views on the world, or even allow for exploration of
unknown territory.
Using computation and code can help a creative express ideas
independent of medium and channel – the work is foremost conceptual
and can be rendered in any form susceptible to the viewer. So, when we
express an artistic concept in the form of code or machine instructions, we
can direct the machine to produce its output in a number of ways: print
a rendered image on a postcard or t-shirt, project an animation onto a
building, or make an expressive interaction accessible from a single screen
or for a global audience on the Internet. By disconnecting from physical
matter, we create ephemeral art that might even change hands and be
changed by others.
Ultimately, technology transforms what it is applied to. We show you
how to do this with creativity.
2
1.1. Coding Art
What is “coding art” all about? The title is intentionally ambiguous, ranging
in meaning from how to code art to coding as creative expression. Probably
the message that resonates most with you is somewhere in the middle.
Tips We are curious what you think during or after reading and
working with this book. Please let us know on our website.1
In this book, “coding” simply means an action that translates meaning

from one language into another, for example, from a natural language into
a computer language. This translation, as any translation, implies a change
in who can and will interpret what we express in the new language. It also
implies thinking about how this interpretation might work out toward a
result. For natural languages, we empathize with other people, how they
think and act. For machines, we need something called “computational
thinking” [3, 6, 21].
Learning how to code is quite similar to learning how to speak another
language. Some people might follow a more theoretical approach and
learn vocabulary and grammar before attempting to speak and converse.
Some others start with a conversation and gradually understand the
structure of the language behind it. Depending on the circumstances, any
approach might work well.
For teaching how to code in a computer or programming language,
both approaches have been used in the past. There are very theoretical
ways to approach coding. They often come with a steep learning curve and
the full richness of what the language creators intend you to know about it.
And there are also ways to playfully get used to simple examples that teach
1
https://codingart-book.com/feedback
3
the basics before moving to more complicated examples. In the context of

creative work, we strongly feel that the second approach, starting with the
“conversation,” works far better. However, we have seen in practice that
the playful approach often hits a limitation: how to make the step from toy
examples to something that is useful and also complex and intricate. This
is hard and the reason why we write this book.
1.2. Motivation
Every profession, every vocation, is about doing something difficult with
high quality, often using specific approaches or techniques. This works for
engineers, researchers, marketing, and doing business. For creatives, the
“difficult thing” is the invention of meaning and purpose out of a large set
of options, constraints, and relations. It is a very human thing to create,
which means we apply both our intuition and our training and knowledge
to a challenge. Creatives apply various technologies in a creative process,
and coding is a part of that. In this book, the use of coding in creative
work is based on the situation that we try to construct meaning through
understanding the logic and structure of coding. We use coding as a
creative tool rather than being hardcore programmers or mere end users.
1.2.1. How to Talk with a “Machine”

Confronted with the particular but different characteristics of art, design,
and technology, we have seen creatives struggle with questions about
“how to start,” “how to continue,” and “how to end” while working with
code and coding practice. Like writing a book or essay, it is difficult to
code an idea in an individual context and condition, so that a machine
can produce something meaningful for us. Unlike writing, the machine
will respond swiftly to anything we feed it. It will never complain about too
much work and always accurately reflect what we write in coded language.
And when we get things wrong, make a mistake, which happens more
4
often than we are comfortable with, then this is on us. The machine is a
“stupid” thing, dull and rational. Whatever creativity emerges is ours only.
This book is essentially about how to let the machine express and amplify
our human creativity by using precise instructions (“code”) and input (“data”).
For many creatives, the use of code in their projects brings new
challenges, beyond successfully completing a project. For example, an
unforeseen challenge is to let the work operate reliably for hours, days, and
weeks. With traditional “static” material, creative output eventually turns
into a stable form that rests in itself. Paper, photo, clay, concrete, metal,
video, or audio documentary are stable. There are established ways to
keep them safe and maintain their quality. If you want, you can study this
conservation craft as a university subject even.
Things are different for art or design based on code. Code always
needs a machine to run on, an environment to perform its function.
This essentially counteracts technological progress: there is always a
newer machine, a more modern operating system, a more powerful way
to program something. Any of these get in and code written for earlier
machines may stop working. This does not happen that easily to a painting
or a designed and manufactured object.
1.2.2. Practice a Practice
When we write about “coding” as a practice, we try to combine the creative
process with computational thinking. Over the years, our art or design
students, inevitably, encounter similar problems. They often ask questions
like “why do we need to learn coding?”, “coding is so difficult to continue
once you are stuck, what is it worth?”, and “I could understand the
examples (from the programming software references) well, but I cannot
do my idea just by using those examples, how to do that?” These questions
(or often passionate complaints) point at the difficulty of learning coding
as a new language. It seems that there is a big disconnect of “brainy”
coding from creative practice. There is a common understanding that
5
creative expression is fueled by inspiration and directed by intuition. In

contrast, coding or working with technology seems to be very rational
and thought through. We think creative coding is an exciting mix of these
two, alternating between different modes of thinking and doing. Often we
start with a loose idea of what we want to create, then throw a few shapes
on our computational canvas. Then figure out a technical issue and go
back to tweak the colors, position, or movement. Soon, this will turn into
something intuitively creative and much faster than learning to wield a
brush and master the skills to paint.
1.2.3. Do It and Own It

Before we can start, here is yet another big “why” question: even if coding
is an indispensable part of a creative project, why do artists or designers
need to do the code themselves? Cooperative skills are basic for any
contemporary artist and designer, there are cases of successful artists who
command a multidisciplinary team to work on their ideas. Sadly, this is
quite rare. More realistically, we see creatives who cannot afford a team of
qualified experts and who work on smaller budgets and projects. We see
creatives who don’t want to give up control and who want to keep their
creative agency. And even if you want to collaborate, without understanding
coding and technology to some extent, it will be very difficult to work with
experts productively or get help when you run into problems. The point
about creative technology is: you want something? Then do it and own it.
We are aware that creatives who are learning or exploring interactive
art, digital art, and new media art are no longer just following one
traditional approach. Instead, they need to work with their ideas from a
broader perspective – in the principles of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM). When we move into the field where art meets
code, creatives may need a new way of thinking and working which can
help them see this new field through the lens of an old field where they
have been active in and professional at.
6
In projects where code is involved, you as the creative need the ability
to read code, understand code, perhaps even write code, and think in a
computational structure. This is necessary for effectively communicating
with technology experts in a common “language.” We think these are
essential abilities creatives today need to have. Besides, creatives who rely
mostly on the help of experts often feel uncertain as to how much control
they have to relinquish to achieve their goal. We actually have a section on
working with technology experts toward the end of the book.
1.3. How to Read This Book

This book can be read in different ways, from different perspectives and
also with different pre-knowledge and backgrounds. It is hard to find a
common ground, but we hope that, with patience and openness, you will
soon see our point.
1.3.1. Calling All Creatives

First of all, this book is dedicated to creatives who might be designers, artists,
design or art students. We also wrote this book for musicians, architects,
engineers, and researchers. They all share that creativity makes their
profession special and their work unique. The creative will benefit mostly by
taking the main road from beginning to end, visiting all examples and typing
along. Why not bring this book to your favorite café once a week and slowly
make your way through the different chapters. If you space it out over several
weeks, you will see that the breaks will spark new thoughts of how to code art
and what you could do yourself with the current week’s topic.
We also wrote this book for educators who could take a jump to the last
three chapters first. There we explain more about the rationale behind the
concepts we introduce and our methodology. We show how everything fits
together, also from an educational point of view.
7
Third, this book is written for technical experts, who know it all actually
and who might be surprised by the simplicity of the code examples. Why
would they read this book? Because they realize that knowing code as a
second native language and being able to construct the architecture of
code is not enough, by far. The embedding of code in a process, driven by
creativity or business interests, is where the challenges lie. As a technical
expert, you will find the last three chapters most interesting and can use it
as a lens to scan the other parts of the book.
1.3.2. Four Steps, One Example, One Zoom

In the first chapters of this book, we will go through a creative process in four
steps and explain how coding works in each step. The steps will each unfold
through several practical examples and conclude with a short summary.
The first step, idea to visuals, gives you a short primer into working
with Processing and the different visual elements that are readily available
to you. We quickly proceed to working with the visual canvas before
diving into animation and interaction. From this point onward, you know
how to draw moving things on a canvas that might even respond to your
interactive control. The second step is about composition and structure,
that is, how we let art emerge from a multitude of different elements on
the canvas. We will introduce data and code structure that help you in
working with many visual elements at the same time. Together, we apply
this in several examples around visual structure. In the third step, we show
you how to work things out in more detail and how to give depth to your
creations. You will learn about randomness and noise and how to control
them artistically. We show you how to create smooth animations and
transitions between different elements and colors. Interactivity returns
in this step, and we show you how to combine interactive input with
composition and refinement. The fourth step is about production, how
to bring your creation to the stage, how to produce and present it well in
different media from high-resolution printing to interactive installations.
8
On the next page, we show an example that we created inspired by an

abstract geometrical painting of Kazimir Malevich (Suprematisme, 1915)
as inspiration (Figure 1-1). We chose this work because, for us, it visually
hinted at a very interesting motion of otherwise static blocks that seems
to be captured in a moment just before toppling over. We started with a
recreation of the visual composition of ten basic elements in similar primary
colors on a cream-colored canvas (step 1). In a second step, we connected
to the impression of inherent motion and work with the blocks: we shifted
and redrew the same composition recursively, adding more and more layers
over time (step 2). The third step involved adding three large-scale rotated
copies of the composition to complete the circular perspective. We also fine-
tuned the timing of adding the different elements and operations over time,
so the work developed in a few minutes from the first screen and visually
stabilized in the last screen. Finally, we added a gradual shift of the entire
canvas that, over several minutes, zoomed out and shifted the center of the
canvas from the left top to the right bottom (step 3). In the fourth step, we
“produce” the images that you see: we let the animation play and live select
tens of frames to be automatically rendered. From these frames, we finally
select eight frames as they exhibit good composition individually and also
show the motion of the entire work well (step 4).
This example shows how we borrow from the four large steps described
in this book, by picking a few pieces from each step that match our concept.
From a process point of view, steps 1, 3, and 4 were relatively straightforward.
We took more time for the second step because we went into two different
directions, one more playful and one more technical, of which the playful
was the right one at the end after trying both. Only after resolving this, we
could move faster again. There are chances that you will struggle as well
while working with this book; don’t forget to take breaks and never let go.
9
Figure 1-1. Example of generative art taking an abstract geometrical

painting of Kazimir Malevich (Suprematisme, 1915) as inspiration
10
Throughout these four steps, we will teach you about creative

computation, and, at some point, you will see also bits of strategies,
patterns, and more complex concepts appear. Afterward, we will roll up
all steps in a larger example, MOUNTROTHKO, in Chapter 6. Then, we
take a turn to p5.js, the Processing version for the web. Here we show
how to creatively reproduce generative art and take your own turn, while
introducing important features of p5.js. Chapter 7 also shows how to
creatively mix and order the four steps to match a project better. In
Chapter 8, we show you how to work with multi-touch input and
movement sensors to create an interactive art piece. Finally, in the last
three chapters of the book, we zoom out and turn toward the practice of
creative coding, through learning and collaboration. This part shows you
how you can make progress using this book and how to go beyond, what
you can do when you feel stuck, and how to get help. It’s all there; you just
need to go step by step toward it.
1.3.3. Getting Ready
This book contains a lot of examples, and they are written in code (“source
code”). Most examples can be used directly, and the resulting visual output
is shown close to the source code.
CODE EXAMPLES
// How to quickly find code examples in the book?

Look for text in a box like this!
All source code listed in this book is written in the open source
software Processing. Processing itself is available from https://
processing.org, and we recommend that you install it on your computer
to get the most out of this book. Processing is a medium for understanding
11
the structure and logic of code. We will explain this shortly. The code
examples are available online from our Processing library.2 Throughout
the book we call these examples also Processing sketches, which is a
common way to refer to code files in the Processing community. Although
it might be tempting to just download the examples and play with them,
we recommend typing them yourself (at least some of them). This way,
you will pick up the programming style much faster and allow your muscle
memory to support your learning. And if you are lucky, you will make a few
small mistakes that give you surprising results.
Finally, we will address you, the reader, informally. Think of this book
as a conversation in your favorite café over coffee, and your laptop is right
in front of you. Feel free to pause the conversation and dive into a topic
on your own, or explore the code of the examples, and then resume to the
next page. Let’s begin.
2
The Processing library can be found here: https://codingart-book.com/
library. You can install it using the Processing library manager.
12
CHAPTER 2
Idea to Visuals
In this first part of the book, we will go through four process steps and
show for each step how coding becomes a meaningful part of our creative
process. In step 1, idea to visuals, we take a bottom-up approach and
start directly with visuals and code. Our entry point to this approach is
to use code directly from the ideation stage of the creative process. More
specifically, instead of making mood boards, sketching, writing, searching
the web, or talking to experts, we suggest that you just start the Processing
application and give it a spin. First, we look at how we can express our
ideas using Processing and a few lines of code. Yes, we start really simple.
2.1. Visual Elements
For many artists, even if visual elements in their work are coded, the
standards for effectiveness in their work are still based on either cognitive
or aesthetic goals [12, 18, 20]. When we analyze any drawings, paintings,
sculptures, or designs, it is similar – we examine and decompose them
to see how they are put together to create the overall effect of the work.
Lines, colors, shapes, scale, form, and textures are the general fundamental
components of aesthetics and cognition for both art and design and for
coding art as well.
Processing can draw a wide range of forms that result from variation
and combination of simple shapes. When you take an example from the
Processing reference, try to change the numbers in the example to explore
how the shape changes and responds to different numbers.
© Mathias Funk and Yu Zhang 2024 13
M. Funk and Y. Zhang, Coding Art, Design Thinking,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9780-3_2
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
own to Stalbridge, a business I must still mind you of, though you
give me cause to doubt you will as hardly pardon me those few
words as the rest of the trouble given you here by your K. R.”
But there was to be no other fair lady in Robyn’s letters or in
Robyn’s life—no lady whose conversational powers ever again
produced in him an “amorous rapture.” He returned to his “kind of
Elysium,” and the lethal chamber of chemical research. And when
once a rumour reached his relatives in Ireland that he was actually
married, and his nephew Barrymore’s wife[180] was foremost in her
congratulations, there was a touch of the philosopher-uncle in Robert
Boyle’s superlatively polite reply. “Alas! The little gentleman and I,”
he assured her, “are still at the old defiance.”
Not till 1652, after Cromwell’s campaign was over, and the war in
Ireland nearly at an end, did Robert Boyle revisit the land of his birth.
And then he did not like it. “I must sadly confess,” he wrote, in very
evident dejection, to his Dorsetshire friend, John Mallett, “that the
perpetual hurry I live in, my frequent journeys, and the necessary
trouble of endeavouring to settle my long-neglected and disjointed
fortune, has left me very little time to converse with any book save
the Bible, and scarce allowed me time to sew together some loose
sheets that contain my thoughts about the Scriptures.”
It must have been with a strange conflict of feelings that he found
himself at last in Youghal, standing before the tomb of his great
father, on the very scene of the old Earl’s last struggle in the
Protestant and Royalist cause. He wandered about the house and
gardens of Lismore once again, and found this home of his
childhood, in his father’s day “one of the noblest seats and greatest
ornaments of the province of Munster,” now “ruined by the sad fate
of war.”[181] The fortunes of the Boyle family were at this time at their
lowest ebb, and everywhere that he went he was in the track of the
brutalities of war; the very bloodstains of those last engagements
could scarcely have been dried; the severed head and limbs must
still have been sticking on the poles. “About the years 1652 and
1653 ... the plague and famine had swept away whole counties, that
a man might travel twenty or thirty miles and not see a living
creature, either man, beast, or bird, they being either all dead, or had
quit those desolate places.” And in the mountains so greatly had the
number of wolves increased, that rewards were being offered for
wolves’ heads.[182]
But already, under Cromwell’s powerful lord-lieutenancy, and with
Fleetwood as head of the Irish Government, the work of settlement
and transplantation had been begun. It was in part, perhaps, the
work of transplantation in Connaught—for Robert Boyle had lands
there as well as in Munster—that called him to Ireland in 1652. He
was back in London, on a flying visit, in the autumn of 1653, just
between Cromwell’s dismissal of the Rump and the sitting of the
Barebones Parliament; when, in fact, “This House” was “to be let—
now unfurnished.”[183]
But he was in Ireland again a month or two before Cromwell’s
Protectorate was proclaimed in London, and living in Dublin through
the winter of 1653-4. William Petty, his fellow-Invisible, was also
there, and Benjamin Worsley, the old Army surgeon, a great friend of
Hartlib and of the Boyle family. Petty had been appointed by Ireton
physician-general to the Army, and was doing wonderful things in
organisation, amongst other things saving the Government several
hundreds a year in their drug department alone. Worsley, a delightful
man in his way, full of the most astonishing scientific projects for the
benefit of seventeenth-century science, had been appointed
surveyor-general, to take in hand the land-survey necessary in the
process of transplantation. In Petty’s opinion Worsley was a bit of a
quack, whose “mountain-bellied conceptions” ended usually in
“abortive mice”; and when Worsley began his survey Petty thought it
could be better and quicker done, and said so. The Government
backed Petty, in whom they had got hold of a man of extraordinary
genius and energy; and while Worsley was kept on as surveyor-
general, Petty was allowed to contract to do the work of land-survey
in thirteen months, importing skilled labour and London-made
instruments.[184] And meantime, Robert Boyle, under Petty’s
guidance, was working quietly in an anatomical laboratory in Dublin.
Petty, in his outspoken way, had written to Boyle while Boyle was on
his flying visit to London in 1653. Petty and Robert Boyle’s own
relations in Dublin were at this time a little anxious about Boyle’s
health and spirits; and urged by the relatives, Petty had written in the
character of physician and friend, offering Boyle some sound advice.
He wrote to “dissuade” him from “some things which my lord of Cork,
my lord of Broghill, and some others of your friends think prejudicial
to you; one of which is your continual reading.” Too much reading,
Petty thought, “weakens the brain,” which weakness “causeth
defluxions” and these “hurt the lungs.” In Petty’s opinion Boyle, who
knew so much already, could get but little advantage from the
constant study of books. Warming with his subject, Petty adventures
a little more advice.
“The next disease you labour under is your apprehension of many
diseases, and a continual fear that you are always inclining, or falling
into, one or other.” He reminds Boyle how “this is incident to all that
begin the study of diseases”; how “inward causes” may produce
“different outward signs,” and those “little rules of prognostication,
found in our books, need not always be so religiously believed.” And
even if people do fall ill, do they not also sometimes get well again?
“Why may not a man as easily recover of a disease, without much
care, as fall into it?” And then, to wind up with: “The last indictment
that I lay against you is, practising upon yourself with medicaments
(though specifics) not sufficiently tried by those that administer or
advise them.”
Physician as he was, Petty did not put his faith in “medicaments”—
witness his savings in the Army drug department. “There is a conceit
current in the world,” he told Robert Boyle, “that a medicament may
be physic and physician alike.” What a mistake!
“Recommendations of medicaments do not make them useful, but
do only incite me to make them so by endeavouring experimentally
to find out the virtues and application of them.” And it is a hard
matter to discover their true virtues. “As I weep to consider,” says
Petty, “so I dread to use them, without my utmost endeavour first
employed to that purpose.”
It is a manly, outspoken letter, though it may have seemed a little
caustic at the time. And it had its effect. Robert Boyle came back to
Dublin to work, under Petty’s direction, at anatomical dissection—
and possibly to read less. He was still ailing, still dejected, still
longing to be back in London; but, “that I may not live wholly
useless,” he wrote to Mr. Clodius, Hartlib’s doctor son-in-law in
London, “or altogether a stranger in the study of Nature, since I want
glasses and furnaces to make a chemical analysis of inanimate
bodies, I am exercising myself in making anatomical dissections of
living animals, wherein (being assisted by your father-in-law’s
ingenious friend, Dr. Petty (our General’s Physician)) I have satisfied
myself of the circulation of the blood and the (freshly discovered and
hardly discoverable) receptaculi chyli, made by the confluence of the
venæ lacteæ, and have seen (especially in the dissections of fishes)
more of the variety and contrivances of Nature and the majesty and
wisdom of her Author than all the books I ever read in my life could
give me convincing notions of.” While he is kept a prisoner in Ireland,
he says, he will be delighted if there is anything he can do to help
Clodius in an anatomical way; if there is anything “wherein my knives
may give you any satisfaction, I shall be very proud to employ them
to so elevated an end.” Meantime he was doing as Clodius had
asked him—looking into the “mineral advantages of Ireland.” But “in
this illiterate country, I find all men so perfect strangers to matters of
that nature, that my inquiries have been as fruitless as diligent.” He
can hear nothing about antimony mines; “but for iron I may be able
to give you a good account of it, and to bring you over of the ore, my
eldest brother having upon his land an iron-work that now yields him
a good revenue, and I having upon my own land an iron-mine, to
which, before the wars, belonged a (since ruined) work, which I have
thoughts of resetting up. I am likewise told (but how truly I know not
yet) of a little silver-mine lying in some land of mine; and very lately
in a place which belongs to a brother of mine they have found silver
ore very rich, for, being tried, it is estimated (as he tells me that
means to deal for it) at between thirty and forty pounds a ton; but
whether or no this be a mine of proportionable value we do not yet
know. I was yesterday with an officer of the Army who farms a silver-
mine for the State, who hath promised me what assistance he can in
my mineral inquiries, and told me that a metallist and refiner whom
he extolled with superlative elogies assured him that there was no
country in Europe so rich in mines as Ireland, had but the inhabitants
the industry to seek them, and the skill to know them.”
But Robert Boyle was impatient to leave Ireland. “I live here in a
barbarous country,” he told Clodius in this letter, “where chemical
spirits are so misunderstood, and chemical instruments so
unprocurable, that it is hard to have any hermetic thoughts in it and
impossible to bring them to experiment.”
In the autumn of 1654 he was back in England. In the previous
year, during his flying visit to London, he had talked with Dr. Wilkins,
of Wadham, about Oxford, and had probably ridden down to Oxford
to see what it was like. Stalbridge was all very well, but it was
removed from the by-paths of intelligence; somehow, since his
illnesses, there was a sadness over its orchards which Vulcan
himself could not dispel. London was a fascinating labyrinth of
interests, but in Oxford he believed he could “live to philosophy.”
Oxford was to be his Athens. Thither, already, some of the Invisibles
had migrated from London. For it was no longer the old Royalist
Oxford, where the sunburnt boy with the bow and arrows had once
thought of joining the King’s Army. It was Oxford six years after the
Parliament’s Visitation and Purgation; Oxford after the imposition of
the Covenant. The old Heads had conformed or been summarily
ejected, the new Heads were Commonwealth men; and Cromwell
himself was Chancellor. It was an Oxford where the use of the
Liturgy was not openly permitted. And yet, “speech is thrall, but
thocht is free,” says the old Scottish proverb. At Oxford a man could
still fast quietly, if he was so minded, for forty-one hours, without
being sent down for it.[185] At Oxford one might still study philosophy,
and mathematics, and Oriental languages unimpeded. And there
was the Bodleian. Oxford was indeed “the only place in England
where, at that time, Mr. Boyle could have lived with much satisfaction
to himself.”[186]
His horse would carry him between Oxford and London at any
time: each night, on the road, he might lie under some hospitable
roof of friend or relative, in mansions set in shady parks, amid flower-
gardens and fishponds. And once in London, his sister Ranelagh’s
door in the Old Mall was always open to him. And Gresham College,
and Mr. Hartlib, and Mr. Clodius, and the rest of the Invisibles would
receive him with ecstasy. The Hartlib family had moved to Charing
Cross; and Hartlib and his “very chemical son” were excessively
happy in their new abode.
“As for us, poor earthworms, we are crawling in my house about
our quondam back-kitchen, whereof my son hath made a goodly
laboratory; yea, such a one, as men (who have had the favour and
privilege to see or be admitted into it) affirm they have never seen
the like for its several advantages and commodiousnesses. It hath
been employed days and nights with no small success, God be
praised, these many weeks together.”[187]
London was labyrinthine: there was an undeniable fascination
about Hartlib’s quondam back-kitchen; but Oxford beckoned. And so,
at the age of twenty-seven, Robert Boyle went to Oxford; a student
always, already known as a scholar and philosopher, one of the chief
of the Invisibles,—a ready-made Don.
CHAPTER XII
OXFORD: A LEARNED JUNTO
“... I see no cause to despair that, whether or no my writings be protected, the
truths they hold forth will in time, in spite of opposition, establish themselves in the
minds of men, as the circulation of the blood, and other, formerly much contested,
truths have already done. My humour has naturally made me too careful not to
offend those I dissent from, to make it necessary for any man to be my adversary
upon the account of personal injuries or provocations. And as for any whom either
judgment or envy may invite to contend, that the things I have communicated to
the world deserved not so much applause as they have had the luck to be
entertained with; that shall make no quarrel betwixt us: for perhaps I am myself as
much of that mind as he; and however I shall not scruple to profess myself one of
those who is more desirous to spend his time usefully, than to have the glory of
leaving nothing that was ever written against himself unanswered; and who is
more solicitous to pursue the ways of discovering truth than to have it thought that
he never was so much subject to human frailties as to miss it.”—Robert Boyle:
Preface to A Defence of the Doctrine touching the Spring and Weight of the Air.
Several of the original Philosophical Society had migrated to

Oxford before Robert Boyle joined them there. Dr. Wilkins had been
appointed Warden of Wadham at the Visitation and Purgation of the
University in 1648; Dr. Wallis, at the same time, had been made
Savilian Professor of Geometry; and Dr. Goddard, of Wood Street
celebrity, had become Warden of Merton. Robert Boyle does not
seem to have been in Oxford during the Encænia in July 1654.
There is, at least, no mention of him in Evelyn’s description of “the
civilities of Oxford” during that happy week; and the friendship
between Boyle and Evelyn, that was to last “neare fourty yeares,”
was not to begin till a little later. But Evelyn has described Oxford
society exactly as it was when Robert Boyle entered it.
Mr. and Mrs. Evelyn arrived in Oxford “on the eve of the Act,”[188]
and next day, after midday dinner, “the Proctor opened the Act at St.
Marie’s (according to custome) and the Prevaricators their drollery.
Then the Doctors disputed. We supp’d at Wadham College.” On
Sunday, Dr. French, Canon of Christ Church, the preacher at St.
Mary’s, had his little fling at the Philosophers. “True wisdom,” he
said, “was not to be had in the books of the Philosophers, but in the
Scriptures alone.” He based his observations on a text from St.
Matthew xii. 42: “And, behold, a greater than Solomon is here.” On
Sunday afternoon the famous Independent, Dr. Owen, now
“Cromwell’s Vice-Chancellor,” preached a wonderful sermon,
“perstringing Episcopacy”—a sermon that Evelyn and some others
present must have found particularly trying to listen to. They dined
that day with Dr. Seth Ward, who had been one of the “Prevaricators”
himself, when he was at Cambridge, and was so alarmingly witty on
the occasion that he nearly lost his degree. And at night they supped
in Balliol College Hall—Evelyn’s own college.
On Monday they sat through the whole Act in St. Mary’s;[189]—the
long speeches of the Proctors, Vice-Chancellors and Professors,
and the creation of Doctors “by the cap, ring, kisse,” etc. The
Inceptor[190] made a most excellent oration, “abating his
Presbyterian animosities which he could not withhold.” And after all
this paraphernalia “there were but 4 in Theologie and 3 in Medicine,”
which was thought not bad, “the times considered.” And again there
was a magnificent supper with Evelyn’s “dear and excellent friend,”
Dr. Wilkins of Wadham.
Happy days, two hundred and sixty years ago! There was music at
All Souls, “voices and theorbos,” performed by “ingenious scholars.”
And Dr. Barlow, the learned Librarian,[191] took them over the
Bodleian, and showed them all the treasures, including the 800-
years-old manuscript of the Venerable Bede. The Divinity School
vied with the Physical and Anatomical School in entertaining the
visitors; and, at St. John’s, the Library was almost eclipsed by poor
Laud’s gift of mathematical instruments, and by “2 skeletons, finely
cleaned and put together.” New College Chapel, much to Evelyn’s
satisfaction, was still in statu quo, “notwithstanding the scrupulosities
of the times”; and at Christ Church they saw the “Office of Henry
VIII,” the gift of Cardinal Wolsey, with its wonderful miniatures and
gilding, and the famous painted windows of the Cathedral, now
“much abused.” In Magdalen Chapel, everything was in its “pontificall
order,” except that the Altar had been “turn’d table-wise;” and there
the famous musician, Mr. Gibbon, kindly played to them upon the
double organ. The Physick garden was visited, “where the sensitive
plant was shewed us for a greate wonder.” Canes, olives and
rhubarb grew there, “but no extraordinary curiosities, besides very
good fruit, which, when the ladys had tasted, we return’d in our
coach to our lodgings.”
And the Encænia festivities wound up with midday dinner at
Wadham. “We all din’d at that most obliging and universally-curious
Dr. Wilkins’s at Wadham College.” There, after dinner, they were
shown the Warden’s new transparent beehives, from which the
honey could be drawn without destroying the bees, and Evelyn was
presented with an empty hive to carry back with him to his own
garden at Deptford. Mr. Christopher Wren, that “prodigious young
scholar,” that “miracle of a youth,” was of the company; and
everybody wandered at will among Dr. Wilkins’s scientific and
mechanical curiosities, conic sections, magnets, thermometers,
“way-wisers,”[192] and all the rest, in the upper rooms and gallery of
the Warden’s lodging.
The Warden, it may be observed, was still a bachelor: it was not till
two years later that he married Cromwell’s sister. At the time of Mr.
and Mrs. Evelyn’s visit to Oxford, that lady was still Mrs. French, wife
of the worthy Canon of Christ Church, who had preached on the text,
“Behold, a greater than Solomon is here!”
This, then, was the Oxford of 1654 that was to welcome Robert
Boyle. He had evidently been there, looking about him, during his
flying visit from Ireland in 1653; and Lady Ranelagh—an
experimentalist too in her own way—had gone to Oxford afterwards
to inspect the lodgings selected by her brother.[193]
“My Brother,
“It has pleased God to bring us safe to Oxford, and I am
lodged at Mr. Crosse’s, with design to be able to give you
from experience an account which is the warmer room; and
indeed I am satisfied with neither of them, as to that point,
because the doors are placed so just by the chimnies, that if
you have the benefit of the fire you must venture having the
inconvenience of the wind, which yet may be helped in either
by a folding skreen; and then I think that which looks into the
garden will be the more comfortable, though he have near
hanged, and intends to matt, that you lay in before. You are
here much desired, and I could wish you here as soon as you
can: for I think you would have both more liberty and more
conversation than where you are, and both these will be
necessary, both for your health and usefulness.”
Mr. Crosse was an apothecary, and his house was in the High
Street, adjoining University College. He seems to have been
recommended to Boyle as a convenient landlord, not only on
account of Boyle’s own fickle health, but as one who might be useful
to him in laboratory work. He was a staunch Churchman, and a
particular friend of John Fell, the son of the famous old Royalist
Dean of Christ Church, who had been ejected at the Visitation of
1648. Many scenes have been enacted in Christ Church quadrangle,
but none more melodramatic than the ejection of Mrs. Fell and her
family after the Dean himself had been carried off in custody to
London. Mr. and Mrs. Evelyn must have shaken their heads indeed if
they were shown the identical spot in the Quad where Mrs. Fell and
her lady friends had been deposited, having chosen to be forcibly
carried out, rather than voluntarily walk out, of the Deanery. John
Fell, the son, a student of Christ Church, had been ejected too, but
he lived on in Oxford; and one of his sisters married Dr. Willis, the
physician, who set up in practice in a house in Merton Street,
opposite to Merton College. In a room in this house, thanks to John
Fell and his brother-in-law Dr. Willis, with one or two more strong
Churchmen, the Services of the Church were to be privately
maintained through all the years of the Commonwealth.
Did Robert Boyle, Geneva-bred, make one of the little semi-
forbidden congregation of men and women that gathered in Dr.
Willis’s house for service and Communion? It is doubtful. Boyle’s
own letter to John Durie, written in 1647, speaks his mind on
denominational differences.[194]
“It has long been,” he says, “as well my wonder as my grief, to see
such comparatively petty differences in judgement make such wide
breaches and vast divisions in affection. It is strange that men should
rather be quarrelling for a few trifling opinions, wherein they dissent,
than to embrace one another for those many fundamental truths
wherein they agree. For my own part, in some two or three and forty
months that I spent in the very town of Geneva, as I never found that
people discontented with their own Church government (the
gallingness of whose yoke is the grand scarecrow that frights us
here) so could I never observe in it any such transcendent
excellency as could oblige me either to bolt Heaven against, or open
Newgate for, all those that believe they may be saved under
another....”
Evelyn, who knew Robert Boyle intimately for nearly forty years,
was of opinion that he “held the same free thoughts,” in matters of
religion and religious discipline, “which he had of Philosophy.” He
practised Christianity “without noise, dispute, or determining.” He
owned no master in religion but the Divine Author of it; and, what is
more, he owned “no religion but primitive, no rule but Scripture, no
law but right reason; for the rest allways conformable to the present
settlement, without any sort of singularity.”[195]
Only once is Robert Boyle known to have been persuaded to enter
a conventicle. Curiosity led him, on one occasion, to Sir Henry
Vane’s house, to hear the great man preach “in a large thronged
room a long sermon.”[196] The text was from Daniel xii. 2: “And many
of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to
everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.”
Looking, from a modern point of view, to the possibilities of such a
text on the Resurrection, it is a little disappointing to learn that Mr.
Boyle stood up at the end of Sir Henry Vane’s discourse and
submitted, in his gentlest Oxford manner, that the preacher had
suffered the meaning to “evaporate into Allegory.” Sir Henry Vane
was at this time at the very height of his authority in the State; and
Robert Boyle, telling the story to Sir Peter Pett, explained that Sir
Henry’s congregation that day was composed of “dependants on
him, and expectants from him,” who would never have dreamed of
questioning his interpretations of Scripture, whatsoever they might
have been. “But I,” said Boyle, “having no little awes of that kind
upon me, thought myself bound to enter the lists with him as I did,
that the sense of the Scriptures might not be depraved.”
According to Birch, Sir Henry Vane had the last word. He had
recognised in his critic the celebrated Mr. Robert Boyle; and when
Mr. Boyle sat down, Sir Henry assured him and the rest of his
audience that he had only intended his remarks on the words of
Daniel to be in the way of occasional reflections.[197]
But there was another little congregation, which met in an upper
room in Oxford; a room in the house of the obliging and universally
curious Dr. Wilkins of Wadham. This was the weekly meeting of the
Invisibles; the “learned Junto,” as Evelyn has dubbed them; a society
which may be described as non-militant and non-party, and was
certainly non-sectarian—the Oxford branch of the original Invisible or
Philosophical College, begun in London in 1645, before Wilkins and
Wallis and Goddard removed to Oxford. The Oxford branch kept up
a regular correspondence with the London Society; and after a time,
when Wilkins forsook Oxford for Cambridge, the weekly meetings of
the Invisibles were transferred from Wadham to Robert Boyle’s own
rooms.
And what a brilliant little “learned Junto” it was, in spite of the
scrupulosities of the times! There was Wilkins himself, an Oxford
man by birth, son of the Oxford goldsmith with the “very mechanicall
hands” and a head that “ran much on perpetuall motion.” Wilkins was
a man of about forty, “lustie, strong-groune, well-sett and broad-
shouldered.” His manners were courteous, as became a man who
had been Chaplain to Charles I’s nephew, the Prince Palatine, elder
brother of Prince Rupert. A Parliament-man himself, Wilkins had
taken the Covenant and the Wardenship of Wadham, and his
Theological Degree. Under his tolerant rule, Wadham was
flourishing, still patronised by some of the great “Malignant” families
of England: Dr. Wilkins’s cheerful tolerance was greasing all wheels.
And meanwhile the Warden himself was the life and spirit of the New
Philosophy at Oxford—known, not only for his universal curiosity and
irresistible manners, but as a writer of books. Had he not, as early as
1638, when still quite a young man, attempted to prove that the
Moon might be a habitable world? And had he not, to a third edition,
added the bold hypothesis, that the Moon might one day be reached
“by volitation”? And in 1640 he had propounded in print the
probability that this Earth itself was a planet. Clearly, the Warden
was before his time; and many things besides the consciences of
young cavalier-manhood were safe in his keeping.
And then there was Dr. Wallis, the mathematician, since 1649
Savilian Professor of Geometry. Wallis was about thirty-eight; a man
of “moderate principles,” robust and energetic, with a serene temper
that was “not easily ruffled,” but all the same a man who could hit out
from the shoulder when he wanted to; as he did when he carried on
his famous controversy with Dr. Hobbes. Wallis, as a believer in the
New Philosophy, was to be among the first men to “maintain the
circulation of the blood.” But the particular feat which had made
Wallis’s fortune, some years before he went to Oxford, was a feat in
“cryptologie.” In December 1642 he was private chaplain to a great
family in London; and one evening at supper a cypher letter had
arrived, which brought important political news. The Chaplain, in two
hours, succeeded in deciphering it; and after that he seems to have
become “cryptologist-in-chief” to the Parliamentarian Army: he is
said to have had the deciphering of the King’s private
correspondence taken at the battle of Naseby. He held successive
City livings, was Secretary to the Westminster Assembly, and one of
the founders of the Invisible Society. And in 1649—a married man,
then—he went to Oxford as Savilian Professor of Geometry and one
of the most vigorous of the “learned Junto.”
Dr. Goddard of Wood Street was another of them. He was a
Deptford man, son of a ship-builder; in 1654 a man of about thirty-
seven. He had been a student at Oxford, but had left it to study
medicine abroad; and on his return he had taken his medical
degrees at Cambridge. Since 1646 he had been in London, a Fellow
of the College of Physicians, living in Wood Street, where he
entertained the Invisibles and manufactured his arcana—the famous
“Goddard’s drops” among them—in his own private laboratory. As
Cromwell’s physician, he had been with Cromwell in the Irish and
Scottish campaigns and in Cromwell’s severe illness in Edinburgh;
and on his return with him to London, after the battle of Worcester,
he had been appointed Warden of Merton.
And living just opposite to Merton College was the Oxford-bred
Willis, with his strong royalist and episcopal sympathies, son-in-law
of the stubborn old Dean of Christ Church and the lady who had
been deposited in the quadrangle. Willis was a greater man in his
own profession than the inventor of “Goddard’s drops.” A firm
believer in the New Philosophy, he was to dissect many brains: a
little bit of our cerebral geography is still known as the “Circle of
Willis.” He is the man who discovered diabetes mellitus, and he may
be called our first specialist in diseases of the nervous system.
These, with the “miracle of a youth” Christopher Wren, then Fellow
of All Souls, and Seth Ward, the dangerously witty Savilian Professor
of Astronomy, who lodged in the chamber over the gateway of
Wadham, formed the “learned Junto” that welcomed Robert Boyle to
Oxford. But the Librarian of the Bodleian, Dr. Barlow,[198] must not
be forgotten, though he was not an Invisible, and not at all in favour
of the New Philosophy. Boyle, like many men of his time, was a
student of divinity as well as of science; and he had come to Oxford
partly, perhaps, on account of the Orientalists there. For he was
studying Hebrew, Greek, Chaldee and Syriac, so as to be able to
read the Scriptures for himself. He had learnt by himself, he says,
“as much Greek and Hebrew as sufficed to read the Old and New
Testaments,” merely that he might do so in the Hebrew and Greek,
and thereby free himself from the necessity of relying on a
translation. And “a Chaldee grammar I likewise took the pains of
learning, to be able to understand that part of Daniel, and those few
other portions of Scripture that were written in that tongue; and I
have added a Syriac grammar purely to be able one day to read the
divine discourses of our Saviour in His own language.” And he
quotes the “known saying”—
“Though we stream waters not unpleasant think,
Yet with more gusto of the Spring we drink.”[199]
Accordingly the Orientalists in Oxford—men like Pococke, Hyde

and Clarke—were to be among his new friends; but perhaps the
most intimate of all was Dr. Barlow of the Bodleian. Barlow, logician
and casuist, the man who saw both sides—to our modern ideas a bit
of a trimmer—was yet “a man of prodigious learning and
proportionall memory.” He knew exactly “what the fathers,
schoolmen and casuists had said upon any question of divinity or
case of conscience”;[200] and with all his accomplishments, and in
spite of his limitations, he was a delightful companion—“very
communicative of his knowledge”—and Robert Boyle liked him.
One other man there was, a mere boy in 1654, but in a way,
perhaps, the most notable of them all: a little deformed man, with a
pale, sharp, clever face, and lank dark hair that hung about his eyes;
a man with a stooping figure and a quick step; a queer little solitary
man who ate little and slept less, and worked restlessly and
incessantly; a man, even in those young days, of a melancholy,
jealous temper, warped by ill-health. This was Robert Hooke, who
had come to Oxford in 1653, when he was eighteen, as servitor or
chorister of Christ Church. He was the sickly, gifted son of a country
parson,[201] and, too delicate to learn lessons, had used his little
brain and fingers to make toy-ships that would sail, toy-guns that
would go off, and toy-clocks that would go on. Then, for a time, he
was with Dr. Busby at Westminster School; and at Christ Church his
restless genius brought him to the notice of the Invisibles. Dr.
Wilkins, with his pet dream of an excursion to the Moon, must have
been pleased to find a young man who could work out “thirty ways of
flying.” With Seth Ward’s help, Hooke studied mathematics and
astronomy; and he worked for Willis in Willis’s own laboratory. It was
Willis who recommended him to Boyle; and when Boyle set up a
laboratory at Oxford, Hooke became Boyle’s personal assistant.
“Boyle’s Law”[202] and “Hooke’s Law”[203] go together in the
Handbooks of Physical Science. The air-pump, the Machina
Boyleana, invented for his own purposes by Robert Boyle, was
“perfected” for him by Hooke. “Mr. Hooke,” wrote Boyle in the
Introduction to his Spring of the Air,[204] “was with me when I had
these things under consideration.” The years spent working for and
with Robert Boyle were perhaps the happiest in Hooke’s life. His
chatty letters to Boyle, after the two parted company and Hooke
became Curator of the Royal Society, show real affection and trust.
They begin “Ever honoured Sir,” and end “Your Honour’s most
affectionate, most faithful, and most humble Servant.”
But these things were not the work of a day or a year. The air-
pump was only the beginning, to enable its inventor to make a “just
theory of the air.” By this he “demonstrated its elasticity” and “that
property alone was a means to find out abundance more.”[205]
Boyle’s first publication, New Experiments, physico-mechanical,
touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects, made for the most part
in a new Pneumatical Engine, was printed at Oxford, 1660.[206] The
dedicatory letter to his nephew, the young Lord Dungarvan, is dated
from Beaconsfield, December 20, 1659—where, in all probability,
Boyle was spending Christmas with his friend Edmund Waller, the
Poet, at his house, Hall Barn. The book was attacked by Franciscus
Linus and by Hobbes; and Boyle answered his “objectors” in the
Defence of the Doctrine touching the Spring and Weight of the Air,
published 1662, answering more especially Franciscus Linus, as Dr.
Wallis had taken Hobbes in hand.
Do people who are not scientifically employed ever realise the
absorbing, baffling, fascinating work that goes on inside a chemical
or a physical laboratory? The “painful patience in delays,” the
“faithfulness in little things,” the flash of success, the hard wall of
“negative result”? Who but the “Scepticall Chymist” himself
understands the Spirit of his Research?
“But it is scarce one day (or hour in the day) or night,” wrote Hartlib
to Boyle, in 1659, “but my soul is crying out—
“‘Phosphore! redde diem; quid gaudia nostra moraris.

Phosphore! redde diem!’”[207]
It was in this spirit that Robert Boyle worked in his Oxford
laboratory, through the years of the Protectorate and on to the
coming of Charles II. Slowly and laboriously, and very gently, careful
not to offend those from whom he dissented, he amassed and
examined evidences that were to break down the old mistaken
notions of the Greek and mediæval philosophy, and to build up—a
very little way, perhaps, but on a new and sure foundation—the
mighty structure of physical and chemical science. Its golden keys
were to be handed over to Isaac Newton and Dalton, and a long and
brilliant line of workers in experimental science. What if Robert
Boyle, in the seventeenth century, spoke of phosphorus as “nocte-
luca” and of gaseous elasticity as “spring of the air?” Dr. Wilkins, of
Wadham, was only then preparing his treatise on a Real Character.
[208] As early as 1647, Boyle himself, then only twenty, wrote to
Hartlib: “If the design of the Real Character take effect, it will in good
part make amends to mankind for what their pride lost them at the
tower of Babel.”[209] But even Dr. Wilkins’s Real Character would
scarcely have been the vocabulary of to-day. Boyle’s Law, in
whatever words he expressed it, remains incontrovertible.[210] What
if he just missed the discovery of Hydrogen after actually collecting it
in a receiver? The oversights of science are the inevitable dear
companions of research. What if, after giving to science the definition
of an element, as distinguished from a mixture or compound, he
could not go further, with the means then at hand, by suggesting any
one substance as elementary? None the less, he had realised and
stated a great natural fact, founding thereby a new era in science.
The “Elements” of the Ancients, that had terrified him in childhood,
were to be broken up; their secrets were to be extorted from them,
for the good of mankind. There is an echo of the old Genevan
thunderstorm, and the older Benedicite, in Boerhaave’s eulogium of
Boyle—“to him we owe the secrets of fire, air, water, animals,
vegetables and frosts”; but in modern times, and in modern terms,
Robert Boyle has had his recognition—
“In the days of the early Greeks, the word ‘element’ was applied
rather to denote a property of matter than one of its constituents.
Thus, when a substance was said to contain fire, air, water, and
earth (of which terms a childish game, doubtless once played by all
of us, is a relic), it probably meant that they partook of the nature of
the so-called elements. Inflammability showed the presence of
concealed fire; the escape of ‘airs’ when some substances are
heated or when vegetable or animal matter is distilled, no doubt led
to the idea that these airs were imprisoned in the matters from which
they escaped; and hardness and permanence were ascribed to the
presence of earth, while liquidity and fusibility were properties
conveyed by the presence of concealed water. At a later date the
‘Spagyrics’ added three ‘hypostatical principles’ to the quadrilateral;
these were ‘salt,’ ‘sulphur,’ and ‘mercury.’ The first conveyed
solubility, and fixedness in fire; the second, inflammability, and the
third, the power which some substances manifest of producing a
liquid, generally termed ‘phlegm,’ on application of heat, or of
themselves being converted into the liquid state by fusion.
“It was Robert Boyle, in his Skeptical Chymist, who first
controverted these ancient and medieval notions, and who gave to
the word ‘element’ the meaning that it now possesses—the
constituent of a compound.”[211]
So the truths that Robert Boyle’s writings held forth have, in spite
of opposition, established themselves, as he himself believed they
would establish themselves, in the minds of men.
CHAPTER XIII
POLITICS AND PHILOSOPHY
“Died that arch rebell Oliver Cromwell, cal’d Protector.”—Evelyn’s Diary, Sept.
3, 1658.
“And if the common charity allowed to dead men be exercised towards him, in
burying his faults in the grave with himself, and keeping alive the memory of his
virtues and great aims and actions, he will be allowed to have his place amongst
the worthiest of men, ... I doubt his loss will be a growing affliction upon these
nations, and that we shall learn to value him more by missing him—a
perverseness of our nature that teaches us, in every condition wherein we are,
therewith to be discontent, by undervaluing what we have, and overvaluing what
we have lost. I confess his performances reached not the making good of his
professions; but I doubt his performances may go beyond the professions of those
who may come after him.”—Lady Ranelagh to Lord Broghill, from Youghal,
Sept. 17, 1658.
“O human glory vain! O death! O wings!

O worthless world! O transitory things!
Yet dwelt that greatness in his shape decayed
That still, though dead, greater than death he laid,
And in his altered face you something feign
That threatens Death he yet will live again.”
Andrew Marvell, “A Poem upon the Death

of his Late Highness the Lord Protector.”
“My Lady Molkin,” Charles Rich’s wife, now lived almost always at
delicious Leeze. For Mary had long ago become devout, and was
surrounded by the Earl of Warwick’s chaplains. The story of her
conversion has been told by herself.[212] When she was scarcely
more than one-and-twenty, her little son, her only child—“which I
then doated on with great fondness”—had fallen dangerously ill. In
her agony of mind, Mary, like her brother Robyn in the thunderstorm,
had made a vow to God. If he would restore her child to her, she
would become “a new creature.” The little boy recovered, and Mary
“began to find in myselfe a greate desire to go into the country, which
I never remember before to have had, thinking it allways the saddest
thing that could be when we were to remove.” It was indeed a great
change for the little lady who had lived in “constant crowds of
company” ever since she had left the care of Lady Clayton in Cork.
Even after her marriage with Charles Rich and her separation from
Frank’s frivolous little wife Betty, Mary had remained “stedfastly set
against being a Puritan.” But after hearing the great Usher preach
“against Plays,” she had given up going to see them acted, and her
sister Ranelagh had encouraged her in her new course of life.
Moreover, Dr. Walker, the household chaplain at Leeze, had
preached “very awakingly and warmly”; and though some of the
Warwick family were inclined to laugh at her, Mary pursued her own
way, stealing from them into the wilderness at Leeze, and keeping to
her quiet life of reading, meditation, and prayer.
She was, however, at Warwick House in Holborn towards the end
of 1648, after Robert Boyle had finished writing his Seraphick Love
at Leeze; and in Holborn Mary fell ill of the smallpox. Lady Ranelagh
was then at her house in Pall Mall. She had been fortunate enough
to escape smallpox, but she was not afraid to sit with her little sister,
who had been isolated in Warwick House. The great Dr. Wright was
in attendance—“Cromwell’s Physician,” the man afterwards chosen
by the Council to be sent, with Dr. Bates and an apothecary, to
consult with Dr. Goddard when Cromwell was so ill in Edinburgh.
Mary was scarcely convalescent when the news was brought to her
sick-room of “that barbarous and unheard-of wicked action of
beheading Charles I.”[213]
A year or two later, while Robert Boyle was in Ireland, Mary fell ill
again; this time “strangely and extremely ill” at delicious Leeze. Poor
Charles Rich once more sent post-haste for Lady Ranelagh, who set
out from London the very next morning. She found My Lady Molkin
in an extraordinary condition, to all appearances well enough, but,
“her disease lying more in stupidness than pain,” she was “no more
joyed” to see her sister. It was “a mortifying encounter”; Mary was

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ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9779-7 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9780-3

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