Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in

Arhitectură Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha

ENHANCING USER EXPERIENCE THROUGH WAYFINDING

IN EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS

Mansha SAMREEN
Associate Professor, School of Architecture and Design, K R Mangalam
University, Gurugram, Haryana, India,
e-mail: mansha.samreen@krmangalam.edu.in

Gargi JHA
Architect, Studio. M, Sector 108, Gurugram, Haryana, India,
e-mail: ar.gargijha@gmail.com

Abstract. The process of navigating through an environment to reach a

desired destination is known as wayfinding. It involves understanding
one's current location, determining the desired destination and choosing a
path to get there. Wayfinding design plays a significant role in enabling
users to navigate an environment with ease and reach their desired
destinations in a timely manner. However, poorly designed wayfinding
systems can lead to confusion, stress and insecurity, which negatively
impacts the user experience. This research paper explores the concept of
wayfinding in educational buildings limited to universities, and its
potential to enhance the user experience of students, faculty and visitors.
Wayfinding can be a challenging task in large and complex buildings such
as educational institutions. The study investigates the different factors that
can affect wayfinding in educational buildings, including signage, lighting,
spatial layout and technology. The paper presents case studies of two
university buildings to investigate how a wayfinding system can improve
user experience. The findings show that efficient wayfinding can improve
the user experience greatly by reducing confusion, boosting efficiency and
increasing overall happiness. The paper concludes with guidelines for
educational institutions to improve wayfinding in their buildings with the
help of signages and enhance user experience.

Key words: navigation, built environment, signage, spatial layout

1. Introduction imaging (Lynch, 1960). These concepts

The concept of wayfinding dates to the
sixteenth century and was originally
referred to as "wayfaring." Over time, the
term has evolved to describe the
navigation of one's environment. Kevin
Lynch published the first book on
wayfinding, which focused on urban
wayfinding and introduced concepts
such as spatial direction and ecological
form the basis of wayfinding design theory.
In his book "Wayfinding: People, Signs
and Architecture," Passini defines
wayfinding as the process of finding
one's way to a destination through spatial
problem solving, involving decision
making, decision executing, and
information processing (Arthur and

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 • Urbanism. Arhitectură. Construcţii • Vol. 15 • Nr. 2 • 2024
Passini, 1992). Wayfinding is an essential
element of daily life, and it is especially
crucial in unfamiliar surroundings.
However, this seemingly simple task
involves complex cognitive processes
(Tversky, 1993). To effectively solve
wayfinding problems, designers must
provide easily perceivable and
distinguishable information tailored to
users' behaviors in the space. Despite the
acceptance of wayfinding as an important
concept, it has not fully impacted the
design profession. In the nuanced
exploration of indoor wayfinding,
recognizing the intricate interplay of
factors such as color, light, spatial layout,
and environmental design becomes
essential. Understanding the pivotal roles
of these elements are emphasized.
Effective wayfinding design is essential in
enabling users to navigate through
complex environments and reach their
destinations efficiently (Hidayetoglu et
al., 2012). There is still a need for
research-based design projects that
incorporate wayfinding behaviors into
environmental design. The gap between
studies and design output remains
significant and requires further attention.
The study focuses on educational
institutions, recognizing the various
navigation requirements coming from
different purposes and user groups. The
research seeks to illuminate how an
integrated strategy can greatly improve
wayfinding and increase the entire user
experience by looking into aspects such as
identity, direction, information, and
regulation. Furthermore, the study will
focus on the importance of local landmarks
in wayfinding, and how complementing
these landmarks with clear instructions
might further optimize travel within
educational campuses. (Raubal and Winter,
2002). This research aims to improve
wayfinding in educational facilities for all
170
users, with a focus on emergency
circumstances such as fires and
earthquakes. In addition to addressing
these important circumstances, the
research will also delve into factors of
spatial orientation and environmental
perception in order to establish a thorough
grasp of wayfinding requirements. By
taking these elements into account, the goal
is to design a more resilient and user-
friendly navigation system that meets the
different needs of individuals navigating
educational institutes (Hunter, 2010;
Bernardini et al., 2016). Through case
studies, the research investigates
circulation paths, identifies problems and
suggests incorporating wayfinding
principles into design. The findings aim to
provide recommendations for designers to
enhance the overall user experience and
inform interdisciplinary approaches to
wayfinding design, leading to safer and
more accessible built environments for all
users (Gopal et al., 1989; Carattin, 2011).
Every year, new students arrive on
university campuses around the world,
creating uncertainty as everyone adjusts
to their new routine. Wayfinding can
immensely benefit institutions seeking to
alleviate this chaos, as it not only assists
new students in finding their bearings
but is also valuable for anybody on
campus, regardless of their experience
with the environment (Holscher et al.,
2005; Alansari, 2022). Wayfinding entails
not only knowing where things are, but
also navigating the place effortlessly.
A navigation system can help universities
in the following ways:
1. Make transitions between classes and
other commitments easier by assisting
students and professionals in arriving on
time and in good spirits.
2. Orient visitors to the campus so they may
find the people and locations they need.

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3. Provide information about the nearest
first-aid station, campus police and
emergency exit in emergency situations.
4. Increase accessibility for those with
special needs by displaying the location
of handicap access and other amenities
that can help them.
It is critical for individuals to navigate
through complex environments, such as
buildings or public spaces, as it improves
efficiency, accessibility, and safety. Also,
effective navigation in complex; built
environment is needed for various
mobility needs. A well-designed
wayfinding system should be intuitive,
nonverbal, and informative, guiding
individuals to different spaces within a
structure and reducing stress (Foltz, 1998).
Several principles must be followed in
order to construct an effective
wayfinding system.
1. Develop a distinct persona for each place.
2. Restrict user navigation options.
3. Make use of landmarks as direction
signals.
4. Provide maps and information using
survey views.
5. Create well-structured routes for quick
overview navigation.
6. Create visually distinct sections.
7. Use sight lines to show what is ahead
of you.
In educational buildings, such as college
campuses, wayfinding is particularly
important due to the complex layout of
the grounds and the high volume of
visitors. In this context, wayfinding
systems help students, faculty, and staff
to navigate between buildings,
classrooms, offices, and other facilities
(Christian et al., 2014). It can also help to
promote a sense of community and
improve communication between
different departments. Additionally,
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Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha
well-designed wayfinding can create a
positive first impression for prospective
students and visitors, enhancing the
reputation of the institution (Maina and
Umar, 2015). Effective wayfinding is
crucial in providing a positive user
experience and enhancing safety in
various building typologies. It requires a
thoughtful and integrated approach,
incorporating architectural and interior
design elements, as well as signage and
graphics. By prioritizing wayfinding in
building design, we can create more
intuitive and accessible environments
that benefit everyone (Chang and Fotios,
2009).
To design an effective wayfinding system,
one must understand the layout of the
environment and consider spatial design
components like layout and flow systems.
Wayfinding design features such as ways,
edges, areas, nodes, and landmarks are
crucial. Maps and direction signs are
useful tools for navigation, and
wayfinding design is important for
emergency situations. Embracing
sustainable practices in wayfinding design
contributes to reducing the carbon
footprint of educational institutions. This
includes using recycled materials,
adopting energy-efficient digital signage
systems, and considering the end-of-life
disposal of signage components (Wan et
al., 2019). By incorporating urban trends
and creating an expressive and enjoyable
atmosphere, universities can create
smoother wayfinding experiences and
foster a sense of identity and innovation
among their students, faculty, and visitors.
Understanding perception and
psychological mapping is key to achieving
prosperity in outdoor environments (Farr
et al., 2012). Following sustainable
principles not only enhances the user
experience but also contributes to a
greener and more responsible future.
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2. Material and Methods
Wayfinding is a process of orientation
and navigation to guide people through
physical environments. It involves
creating visual cues and directional signs
to facilitate the movement of people
within a space. Incorporating
architectural guides, urban routes, and
cultural events can significantly
contribute to enhancing user experiences
within educational buildings. By
embracing urban trends and creating an
expressive and enjoyable atmosphere,
universities can create smoother
wayfinding experiences and foster a
sense of identity and innovation among
their students, faculty, and visitors. There
are four main parameters of wayfinding
(Weisman, 1981) that help people
navigate through a space: Identification
and approach, Circulation, Information
and Regulation.
Identification and Approach refers to the
way people identify and approach a
space. This includes building signage and
ground signage that can help people
identify the location and entrance of a
building (Caduff and Timpf, 2007).
Circulation refers to the way people
move through a space. This includes the
layout of the space, the pathways people
take, and the architectural cues and signs
that help or hinder circulation.
Information refers to the signs and
displays that provide information about a
space, including maps, directories, and
directional signs. Regulation refers to
safety and security considerations,
including fire exits and emergency
evacuation routes. To gain a deeper
understanding of wayfinding principles
and techniques, case studies have been
conducted on complex, multi-functional
buildings located in urban contexts with
diverse audiences. These case studies
analyze the four parameters of
172
wayfinding to provide insights into
creating effective wayfinding systems.
2.1. Case Study: Allard Hall, City Centre
Campus, MacEwan University, Canada
MacEwan University in Edmonton,
Canada has a Faculty of Fine Arts and
Communications that includes the Centre
for Culture and Arts with five
departments. The case study examines
the university's wayfinding system for
primary and secondary audiences, which
include students and visitors. The
university has developed a wayfinding
system that is designed to help both
primary and secondary audiences
navigate the campus and find their way
to the various departments and buildings
within the campus. The major audiences
for the navigation system are the
university's students as well as the
academicians and staff who work there.
These individuals are familiar with the
campus and its layout to some extent, but
the wayfinding system makes it easier for
them to find their way around and locate
specific departments or buildings within
the campus. The secondary audience for
the wayfinding system includes visitors
to the university, such as prospective
students, parents, and members of the
community who attend events or
performances at the Allard Hall, building
number eleven. These individuals may
not be familiar with the campus and its
layout, so the wayfinding system is
designed to be intuitive and easy to use,
providing clear directions and signage to
help them find their way.
Allard Hall is situated at City Centre
Campus where 112 Street meets 104
Avenue. It offers information to current
and prospective students, employees, and
visitors and houses spaces such as a
theatre of almost 400 plus seating

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capacity, rehearsal studios, conference
center, design studio etcetera.
Fig. 1. The building's exterior is home to a big
metal sign that serves as its logo (Source: Author).
The organic layout of the building
contrasts the rectilinear building's facade
beautifully. The building entrance, refer
Fig. 1 features ground and building
signage for easy identification. These
signs, both inside and outside the
campus, make identification easy, and
approachable for visitors, refer Fig. 2.
The campus aims to support all users in
navigating the space effectively and
showcase its innovative community. The
signage in the Allard Hall, MacEwan
University creates a unique wayfinding
system inspired by unconventional
disciplines, refer Fig. 3. It efficiently guides
users while incorporating creative design
elements and providing informative
directions. The system's distinct identity
enhances user experience, making it easily
recognizable and engaging.
Allard Hall has well-developed exit and
entry routes. The emergency exits are
designed keeping in mind the maximum
footfall of the campus refer Fig. 4 and 5.
All the fire exits are strategically placed
to ensure quick and effective egress and
evacuation during emergencies. The case
study identified that signages are the best
option for all age-inclusive wayfinding
support, as maps and mental maps can be
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Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha
challenging for older adults to use or
maintain.
The university's wayfinding system
prioritizes good visibility with
strategically placed bold signages.
Analyzing user footfall density, Fig. 6 and
7 pinpoint high and medium user areas,
guiding optimal signage placement.
2.2. Case Study: Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi
A case study was conducted at the Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, a public
technical and research university in
Delhi, India, to examine its wayfinding
system for primary audiences such as
engineering, Ph.D, and design students,
as well as professors, and secondary
audiences like visitors and residents.
The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) is
a prestigious college in India located in a
central location that is easily accessible
through all modes of transportation. The
campus is known for its visually striking
entry gate, refer Fig. 8a signages, and
landmarks that play a significant role in
justifying its importance. The main
entrance is equidistant from two adjacent
metro stations, refer Fig. 8b while other
entrances are also conveniently connected
to nearby bus stops and markets.
The campus circulation path includes
Entry, Institutional Area, Student Hostels,
Central Library, Housing, and Exit. The
path for primary and secondary users are
separate and does not interfere with each
other. A ground map of the campus, refer
Fig. 9 assists both types of visitors in
navigating the campus. IIT's large
campus can be difficult to navigate, but
non-motorized transport options like
bicycles are available. However, there is a
lack of frequent and readable signage
which makes it challenging for the first-
time visitors to navigate the campus.
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Fig. 2. Campus tour guide detailed parking map to help students and visitors with ease of transportation
access (Source: Author).

Fig. 3. The image displays sign types with descriptions and quantities, visualizing their placement in the
building for the user
(Behance, 2016).

Fig. 4. A comprehensive ground map of Allard Hall, MacEwan University had been made, showing the
different areas used by people to assess footfall density based on the size and function of the areas (Source:
Author).

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 Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Arhitectură Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha

Fig. 5. By analyzing footfall density, the figure depicts the positions of emergency exits in a way that ensures
the efficient evacuation of users (Source: Author).

Fig. 6. Enhancing exit efficiency: assessing user footfall density to strategically design entry exits (Source:
Author).

Fig. 7. Based on the information provided by the ground map the figure depicts the various high and
medium user areas on campus, this graph shall be used to determine the best locations for signage (Source:
Author).

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Fig. 8a. The image depicts the campus's grand Fig. 8b. There are plenty of signage on metro
name (Source: Author). station. Signage at the entry gate, platforms and
gates to help with environmental awareness
(Source: Author).

Fig 9b. A color-coded campus map of the institution with various legends depicting all necessary points to
assist all users in finding their way around (IIT Delhi, 2018).

refer Fig. 10 and campus maps, to make

navigation easy. The wayfinding
system also considered the various
modes of transportation used to reach
the campus, such as public transport,
private vehicles, and walking.

The case study found that the use of

color-coded buildings was an effective
wayfinding strategy, making it easy for
Fig. 10. Various wayfinding cues found around users to identify the buildings they
the campus of IIT Delhi (Source: Author). need to reach. The study also found
that the wayfinding system could be
The campus has a complex layout, and improved by providing better
the case study here identifies several accessibility for people with
wayfinding strategies, such as color- disabilities, such as wheelchair ramps
coding of buildings, directional signs, and Braille signs.

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3. Results/Discussion
Based on the four key aspects of
wayfinding that were previously covered,
the case studies were undertaken. After the
user has successfully achieved their target,
at the end of their journey, these
parameters will have satisfied all their
needs. The conclusions of these case
studies, which were specifically based on
these four factors, are detailed in the table,
refer Table 1 along with the inferences that
may be used to define the guidelines for a
comfortable and safe built environment
with respect to wayfinding.
Based on both the studies, the following
findings were observed.
1. The use of advanced technology like
interactive digital signage and dynamic
online tour maps has greatly improved
wayfinding capabilities. Interactive
screens, for example, give real-time
information and customized navigation,
resulting in a more seamless navigation
experience within buildings.
2. Despite technological advances, there
is a notable lack of significant physical
improvements in building design
targeted at maximizing user experience.
The lack of observed natural wayfinding
in the buildings analyzed highlights the
need for a paradigm shift in physical
architecture to facilitate more intuitive
navigation.
3. When compared to habitual users, first-
time visitors face more difficulties with
navigation, with younger groups
demonstrating more ability in traversing
buildings. This implies a possible
generational trend in spatial orientation,
underlining the importance of natural
and efficient wayfinding solutions for
various age groups.
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Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha
Natural wayfinding, often referred to as
an innate sense of orientation and
navigation, is a concept encompassing the
ability to navigate without explicit
reliance on external aids. In the context of
this study, it highlights the untapped
potential within physical building
designs for individuals to navigate spaces
intuitively (Brosset et al., 2008).
In summary, while technological
interventions have reshaped the way we
navigate buildings, there's a concurrent
need to address the physical design
aspects. Bridging this gap, especially in
educational institutions, requires a
thoughtful approach encompassing
spatial layout, signage diversity, and
technology that resonates with the
preferences of different age groups. This
not only ensures effective wayfinding but
also contributes to the overall satisfaction
and well-being of the diverse user base
within these environments.
Wayfinding issues are more common for
first-time visitors compared to regular
users (Kato and Takeuchi, 2003; Iftikhar
and Luximon, 2022). This is because
regular users have had more time to
become familiar with the building's
layout and are more likely to have
developed mental maps of the space.
Younger individuals, such as students or
younger adults, may find it easier to
navigate buildings than older
individuals, as they are often more
familiar with using digital tools and have
better visual and spatial processing skills.
Signage is an important tool in
supporting wayfinding in all types of
buildings. However, preferences for
different types of signage can vary based
on age group.
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Table 1. Optimizing campus navigation: A case study on effective circulation, information, and regulation
strategies for improved wayfinding (Source: Author).
Case study MacEwan University, Centre for Culture and Case Study 2: Indian Institute of
Arts, Canada
Identification Big, bold signage: The value of large, bold signs was
and approach seen in the example of MacEwan University where it
served to not only provide guidance but also to give
the wayfinding system a unique identity. By making
navigation recognizable and interesting, this distinctive
brand improved user experience. Online tour guide:
An online tour guide can be a helpful resource for
people who are new to a campus or building.
Signage Map: Recognizing the importance of an
on-campus signage map requires delving into its
design specifics. Tailoring the map to user
preferences, integrating intuitive symbols, and
strategically placing it in high-traffic locations can
all considerably improve its usefulness.
Circulation Circulation tracings for four different personas
from both primary and secondary groups were
taken to identify clear and efficient routes,
accessible pathways, and safety features.
Signages placed all over the campus to aid the
journey, including at building entrances, for
wayfinding, parking, and transportation, and
emergency and safety.
Information The campus signages are designed to fit campus
aesthetics while providing clear directions to help
users reach their destinations.
The signages are easy to read and highly visible,
making navigation around the campus easier and
more efficient.
Regulations Heat maps:
Administrators can identify areas of congestion and
adjust traffic flow accordingly to improve efficiency.
Sensor technology: This can provide valuable data to
help manage foot traffic and ensure the safety of
individuals in the event of an emergency.
Clearly marked entries and exits:
Individuals are better able to navigate a space and
find their way to designated entry and exit points.
Inferences The use of heat maps and sensor technology,
along with clear marking of entries and exits,
helps to regulate the flow of people, ensuring
safety and efficient movement.
Additionally, the use of visible signages and
information cues helps visitors navigate the space
with ease. Overall, these measures contribute to a
better experience for all users of the space.
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Technology, Delhi
Prestigious reputation. Large and
noticeable entrance. Good
connectivity to public transportation
(e.g., bus stops and metro stations).
Visible college name tags for easy
identification
Different routes for pedestrians, cyclists,
and vehicles.
Allowance for private vehicles to enter
the campus, with designated parking
areas or zones. Signs and maps that
clearly indicate the different routes and
modes of transportation available
within the campus.
At IIT Delhi, the strategic use of symbols,
colors, and fonts improves wayfinding.
Exploring certain symbols and colors
that appeal to a wide range of age
groups is critical for maximum efficacy.
Information kiosks are important, but
their impact can be increased by
emphasizing user-friendly maps,
informational booklets, and an
intuitively designed interface.
Consistent and prominent use of
directional signs throughout the
campus, with clear labels and arrows
indicating the direction of buildings,
facilities, and landmarks
Campus maps available at key
locations such as entrances,
information kiosks, and online
platforms
The campus provides visitors with
clear signage, multiple routes, and
accessible transportation options.
Frequent directional signages would
make navigation through the
complex layout of the campus easier

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For example, younger individuals may
prefer visual or digital signage, while
older individuals may prefer written or
colored signage. It's important to take
these preferences into account when
designing a wayfinding system to ensure
that it is accessible and usable for all
users (Kim et al., 2011).
New technologies and innovative signage
have been helpful in improving
wayfinding in buildings. However, there
is still room for improvement in building
design and natural wayfinding methods.
Additionally, by adopting a user centric
approach the needs and preferences of
different user groups can be addressed in
developing more effective and inclusive
wayfinding systems.
4. Conclusion
In the realm of wayfinding design,
perception emerges as a fundamental
factor in enhancing the overall user
experience. The research conducted on
educational buildings has illuminated
the pivotal role of thoughtful spatial
layout, effective signage, and user-
friendly technology in reducing
confusion and promoting efficient. This
study serves as a valuable guide for
educational institutions seeking to
implement user-centric wayfinding
solutions that foster improved comfort,
satisfaction, and well-being for students,
faculty, and visitors. The research has
led us to recognize the critical role of
wayfinding systems in creating a
positive user experience. To build an
effective wayfinding system, it is
essential to address four primary factors:
Identification and Approach,
Circulation, Regulation, and
Information. We have found that
integrating signage and technology is a
practical way to enhance these factors in
university environments.
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Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha
The insights gained from our case studies
underscore the critical role of signage and
technology in the effectiveness of
wayfinding systems within educational
buildings. Careful consideration of factors
such as dimensions and materials is
crucial when selecting signage for optimal
functionality. Considerations for effective
signage—dimensions, material, and
technology—should not only prioritize
functionality but also align with
sustainable practices. Opting for eco-
friendly materials, energy-efficient
technologies, and mindful design choices
contributes not only to effective
navigation but also to a more
environmentally conscious approach in
the built environment. To bridge this gap,
we have derived a set of guidelines based
on our observations and analyses. These
guidelines aim to provide practical
assistance in selecting appropriate signage
and materials, while also emphasizing the
integration of technology for a
comprehensive wayfinding solution.
Creating effective signage is essential in
environments where the spatial layout is
complex and difficult to navigate. To
ensure that signage is accessible and easy
to understand for all individuals, there are
six practical guidelines that may be
followed.
These guidelines are:
1. Emphasize what is significant by using
brighter colors, higher contrast with the
background, and lighter to make
important information stand out.
MacEwan University uses brightly
colored signs, such as at Allard Hall, to
make critical areas stand out. Brighter
colors and better contrast improve the
visual hierarchy, making critical
information stand out for a more
successful wayfinding experience.
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2. Streamline signage for clarity by
minimizing unnecessary elements and
avoiding distractions.
Signage at both MacEwan University
and IIT Delhi is purposefully kept
simple to avoid visual clutter and
distractions. The simple and clear
design, as seen in Allard Hall floors
and IIT campus gates, ensures that
users can traverse with ease, stressing
simplicity for an optimal navigation
experience.
3. Enhance user engagement through
interactive wayfinding experiences.
Leverage technology and design to
create dynamic and user-friendly
interactions, fostering a sense of
exploration and connection with the
environment.
MacEwan University's use of
interactive screens transformed
navigation into an immersive
adventure, providing real-time
information and tailored guidance.
This showcases the powerful synergy
of technology and design in creating an
engaging educational environment.
4. Keep signage simple and easy to
understand by using clear and concise
language, avoiding technical jargon, and
minimizing the use of abbreviations or
acronyms.
The signage system at IIT Delhi
demonstrated the significance of clear
and succinct language. The navigational
information was easily comprehended by
using basic yet effective language,
allowing for seamless navigation for
people of all backgrounds and linguistic
skill.
180
5. Promote sustainability in wayfinding
by choosing materials with minimal
environmental impact, integrating
energy-efficient technologies, and
embracing eco-conscious design to
enhance user experience and contribute
to a greener future.
By using environmentally friendly
methods in campus layout and
transportation, IIT Delhi exemplifies
sustainability in wayfinding. This
commitment increases the overall user
experience and is consistent with the
university's commitment to a greener
future.
By following these guidelines optimal
functionality can be achieved. These are
key factors to consider when selecting
signage dimensions and materials to
enhance navigation in complex
environments.
Considerations for effective signage:
dimensions, material, and technology are
exposed below.
1. Signage should be large enough to be
visible from a distance, but not so large
that it overwhelms the space or detracts
from the building's design.
2. Signage should be placed at eye level
and located in areas where visitors are
likely to look for guidance.
3. Signage can be made from a variety of
materials, such as acrylic, PVC, metal, or
glass.
4. The material should be durable and
easy to clean, as well as weather-resistant
if signage is located outside.
5. Interactive wayfinding systems can
provide detailed maps and directions, as
well as real time information on events
and schedules.
 Enhancing User Experience Through Wayfinding in
Arhitectură Educational Buildings • M. Samreen, G. Jha

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Received: 6 August 2023 • Revised: 26 October 2023 • Accepted: 21 January 2024

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