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Data Science and Data Analytics: Opportunities and

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Data Science for Genomics
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Data Science for Genomics
Edited by
Amit Kumar Tyagi

Department of Fashion Technology,
National Institute of Fashion Technology,
New Delhi, India
Ajith Abraham
Director,
Machine Intelligence Research Labs,
United States
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changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
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Typeset by TNQ Technologies
Contents
Contributors xi 3. Machine learning in genomics:

Preface xiii identification and modeling of
Acknowledgment xv anticancer peptides
1. Genomics and neural networks in Girish Kumar Adari, Maheswari Raja
electrical load forecasting with and P. Vijaya
computational intelligence 1. Introduction 25
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri 2. Materials and methods 26
2.1 Google Colaboratory 26
1. Introduction 1
2.2 Data sets 26
2. Methodology 2
2.3 Pfeature package 26
2.1 RNN 2
2.4 Feature extraction functions 28
2.2 Long short-term memory 4
2.5 Machine learning implementation 29
3. Experiment evaluation 6
2.6 Conclusion 66
3.1 Testing methods effectiveness for References 67
PGVCL data 6
3.2 Testing methods effectiveness for 4. Genetic factor analysis for an early
NYISO data 8 diagnosis of autism through
4. Conclusion 9 machine learning
References 9
A. Chaitanya Kumar, J. Andrew John,
2. Application of ensemble Maheswari Raja and P. Vijaya
learninge based classifiers for 1. Introduction 69
genetic expression data 2. Review of literature 70
classification 3. Methodology 71
Saumendra Kumar Mohapatra, Abhishek Das 3.1 Using KNIME software 71
and Mihir Narayan Mohanty 3.2 Data set analysis through ML
algorithms 72
1. Introduction 11
3.3 Naive Bayes learner 72
2. Ensemble learningebased classifiers for 3.4 Fuzzy rule learner 73
genetic data classification 12
3.5 Decision tree learner 73
2.1 Bagging 13
3.6 RProp MLP learner 74
2.2 Boosting 13
3.7 Random forest learner 74
2.3 Stacking 13
3.8 SVM learner 75
3. Stacked ensemble classifier for leukemia 3.9 K-nearest neighbors learner 75
classification 14
3.10 Gradient boosted trees learner 76
3.1 Proposed classification model 14
3.11 K-means clustering 76
3.2 Deep-stacked ensemble classifier 14
4. Results 77
3.3 SVM meta classifier 15
4.1 Graphs obtained 77
3.4 Gradient boosting meta classifier 16
4.2 Inference 82
4. Results and discussion 17
5. Conclusion 82
5. Conclusion 21
Appendix 83
References 21
References 83
v
vi Contents
5. Artificial intelligence and data 2. Materials and method 109

science in pharmacogenomics- 2.1 Target protein preparation 110
based drug discovery: future of 2.2 Ligand preparation 110
medicines 2.3 Binding site/catalytic site prediction 110
2.4 Structure minimization 110
Vikas Jhawat, Sumeet Gupta, Monika Gulia
2.5 Grid generation 110
and Anroop Nair
2.6 Molecular docking of proteineligand
1. Introduction 85 using Autodock software 111
2. Artificial intelligence 86 2.7 Hydrogen bond interaction using
3. Artificial intelligence in drug research 88 LigPlot software 111
4. Drug discovery 88 2.8 Screening of compounds for drug
4.1 Drug screening 88 likeness 111
4.2 Drug designing 89 2.9 Screening of compounds for
4.3 Drug repurposing 89 toxicity 111
4.4 ADME prediction 89 3. Results and discussion 111
4.5 Dosage form and delivery system 89 4. Conclusion 125
4.6 PK/PD correlation 89 Declaration 125
5. Pharmacogenomics 90 Nomenclature 125
6. Pharmacogenomics and AI 92 Acknowledgments 126
7. Integration of pharmacogenomics and AI 92 References 126
8. Pharmacogenomic-based clinical
evaluation and AI 95 8. Toward automated machine
9. Discussion 95 learning for genomics: evaluation
10. Conclusion 95 and comparison of state-of-the-art
Abbreviations 96 AutoML approaches
References 96 Akbar Ali Khan, Prakriti Dwivedi, Sareeta
Mugde, S.A. Sajidha, Garima Sharma and
6. Recent challenges, opportunities, Gulshan Soni
and issues in various data analytics
1. Into the world of genomics 129
Kannadhasan Suriyan and Nagarajan
2. Need and purpose of analytics in
Ramalingam
genomics 129
1. Introduction 99 3. Literature review 129
2. Big data 99 4. Research design 131
3. Data analytics 100 4.1 Research design methodology 131
4. Challenges in data analytics 101 4.2 AutoML tools used: PyCaret and
5. Various sectors in data analytics 102 AutoViML 133
6. Conclusion 105 5. AutoML 133
References 105 5.1 Why AutoML and why it should be
democratized 133
7. In silico application of data science, 5.2 Architectural design of AutoML 134
genomics, and bioinformatics in 5.3 Democratization of AutoML and
screening drug candidates against beyond 134
COVID-19 6. Research outcome 135
Rene Barbie Browne, Jai Narain Vishwakarma, 6.1 Exploratory data analysis 135
Vedant Vikrom Borah, Raj Kumar Pegu and 6.2 Analysis using PyCaret 137
Jayanti Datta Roy 6.3 Analysis using AutoViML 140
6.4 Model comparison: PyCaret and
1. Introduction 107
AutoViML 143
1.1 A brief overview of SARS-CoV-2 108
7. Business implications 148
1.2 Compounds reported with antiviral
8. Conclusion 151
activities 109
References 151
1.3 Herb extracts with antiviral property in
Further reading 152
India 109
Contents vii
9. Effective dimensionality reduction 2.3 PIN diodes uses and advantages 171
model with machine learning 2.4 PIN photodiode applications 171
classification for microarray gene 3. Results and simulations 171
expression data 3.1 Effect of light on a PIN photodiode 171
3.2 Procedure to design and observe the
Yakub Kayode Saheed
effect of light 171
1. Introduction 153 3.3 VeI characteristic of a PIN photodiode 174
2. Related work 154 4. Conclusion 176
3. Materials and methods 155 Appendix (Silvaco Code) 176
3.1 Feature selection 155 Effect of light on the characteristics of pin
3.2 Principal component diode code 176
analysis 155 Effect of light on the characteristics of SDD
3.3 Logistic regression 157 diode code 177
3.4 Extremely randomized trees References 177
classifier 157
3.5 Ridge classifier 157 11. One step to enhancement the per-
3.6 Adaboost 157 formance of XGBoost through GSK
3.7 Linear discriminant analysis 157 for prediction ethanol, ethylene,
3.8 Random forest 157 ammonia, acetaldehyde, acetone,
3.9 Gradient boosting machine 157 and toluene
3.10 K-nearest neighbors 158 Samaher Al-Janabi, Hadeer Majed and Saif
3.11 Data set used for analysis 158 Mahmood
4. Results and discussion 158
4.1 Experimental analysis on 10-fold 1. Introduction 179
cross-validation 158 2. Related work 180
4.2 Experimental analysis on 3. Main tools 181
eightfold cross-validation 159 3.1 Internet of Things (IoTs) 181
4.3 Comparison of our findings with 3.2 Optimization techniques 181
some earlier studies 160 3.3 Prediction techniques 184
5. Conclusion and future work 160 4. Result of implementation 194
References 161 4.1 Description of dataset 194
4.2 Result of preprocessing 194
10. Analysis the structural, electronic 4.3 Checking missing values 195
and effect of light on PIN 5. Conclusions 201
photodiode achievement through References 202
SILVACO software: a case study
12. A predictive model for classifying
Samaher Al-Janabi, Ihab Al-Janabi and Noora colorectal cancer using principal
Al-Janabi component analysis
1. Introduction 165 Micheal Olaolu Arowolo, Happiness Eric
1.1 Photodiode 165 Aigbogun, Precious Eniola Michael, Marion
1.2 Effect of light on the IeV characteristics Olubunmi Adebiyi and Amit Kumar Tyagi
of photodiodes 165
1.3 IeV characteristics of a photodiode 167 1. Introduction 205
1.4 Types of photodiodes 168 2. Related works 206
1.5 Modes of operation of a photodiode 168 3. Methodology 207
1.6 Effect of temperature on IeV char of 3.1 Experimental dataset 208
photodiodes 168 3.2 Dimensionality reduction tool 208
1.7 Signal-to-noise ratio in a photodiode 169 3.3 Classification 209
1.8 Responsivity of a photodiode 169 3.4 Research tool 210
1.9 Responsivity versus wavelength 169 3.5 Performance evaluation metrics 210
2. PIN photodiode 170 4. Results and discussions 210
2.1 Operation of PIN photodiode 170 5. Conclusion 215
2.2 Key PIN diode characteristics 170 References 215
viii Contents
13. Genomic data science systems 15. Genomic privacy: performance

of Prediction and prevention of analysis, open issues, and future
pneumonia from chest X-ray images research directions
using a two-channel M. Shamila, K. Vinuthna and
dual-stream convolutional neural Amit Kumar Tyagi
network
1. Introduction 249
Olalekan J. Awujoola, Francisca N. Ogwue-
1.1 Genome data 249
leka, Philip O. Odion, Abidemi E. Awujoola
1.2 Genomic data versus other types of
and Olayinka R. Adelegan
data 250
1. Introduction 217 2. Related work 251
2. Review of literature 218 3. Motivation 252
2.1 Introduction 218 4. Importance of genomic data/privacy in
2.2 Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) 219 real life 252
3. Materials and methods 220 5. Techniques for protecting genetic
3.1 Dataset 220 privacy 254
3.2 The proposed architecture: 5.1 Controlled access 254
two-channel dual-stream CNN 5.2 Differential privacy preservation 254
(TCDSCNN) model 220 5.3 Cryptographic solutions 254
3.3 Performance matrix for classification 223 5.4 Other approaches 255
4. Result and discussion 224 5.5 Some useful suggestions for protecting
4.1 Visualizing the intermediate layer genomic data 255
output of CNN 224 6. Genomic privacy: use case 255
4.2 Model feature map 224 7. Challenges in protecting genomic data 256
4.3 Model accuracy 224 8. Opportunities in genomic data privacy 258
5. Conclusion and future work 224 9. Arguments about genetic privacy with
References 227 several other privacy areas 259
10. Conclusion with future scope 260
14. Predictive analytics of genetic Appendix A 260
variation in the COVID-19 genome Authors’ contributions 262
sequence: a data science Acknowledgments 262
perspective References 262
V. Kakulapati, S. Mahender Reddy, Sri Sai
Deepthi Bhrugubanda and Sriman Naini 16. Automated and intelligent systems
for next-generation-based smart
1. Introduction 229 applications
1.1 Objectives 231
H.R. Deekshetha and Amit Kumar Tyagi
2. Related work 231
3. The COVID-19 genomic sequence 232 1. Introduction 265
3.1 The relevance of genome sequences 2. Background work 265
to disease analyses 233 3. Intelligent systems for smart
3.2 Utilization of COVID-19 genome applications 266
sequencing for processing 233 4. Automated systems for smart
4. Methodology 235 applications 266
4.1 Implementation analysis 240 5. Automated and intelligent systems for
Lung epithelial similarity 241 smart applications 266
5. Discussion 243 6. Machine learning and AI technologies for
6. Conclusion 243 smart applications 267
7. Future outlook 245 7. Analytics for advancements 267
References 245 8. Cloud strategies: hybrid, containerization,
Further reading 247 serverless, microservices 267
Contents ix
9. Edge intelligence 268 20. Conclusion and future scope 274

10. Data governance and quality for smart Acknowledgments 274
applications 268 References 274
11. Digital Ops including DataOps, AIOps, Further reading 276
and CloudSecOps 269
12. AI in healthcaredfrom data to 17. Machine learning applications for
intelligence 270 COVID-19: a state-of-the-art review
13. Big data analytics in IoT-based smart Firuz Kamalov, Aswani Kumar Cherukuri, Hana
applications 271 Sulieman, Fadi Thabtah and Akbar Hossain
14. Big data applications in a smart city 271
1. Introduction 277
15. Big data intelligence for cyber-physical
2. Forecasting 278
systems 272
3. Medical diagnostics 280
16. Big data science solutions for real-life
4. Drug development 283
applications 272
5. Contact tracing 284
17. Big data analytics for cybersecurity and
6. Conclusion 286
privacy 272
References 287
18. Data analytics for privacy-by-design in
smart health 273
19. Case studies and innovative applications 273
19.1 Innovative bioceramics 273 Index 291
Contributors
Girish Kumar Adari, School of Electronics Engineering, Aswani Kumar Cherukuri, School of IT and Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, Vellore Institute of Technology, Katpadi, Vellore, India
India Abhishek Das, Department of Electronics and Communi-
Marion Olubunmi Adebiyi, Department of Computer cation Engineering, ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan
Science, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
State, Nigeria H.R. Deekshetha, School of Computer Science and
Olayinka R. Adelegan, Department of Computer Science, Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai,
Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria Tamil Nadu, India
Happiness Eric Aigbogun, Department of Computer Sci- Sri Sai Deepthi Bhrugubanda, Mamatha Medical Col-
ence, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, lege, Khammam, Telangana, India
Nigeria Prakriti Dwivedi, Research & Business Analytics-PGDM,
Samaher Al-Janabi, Department of Computer Science, Welingkar Institute of Management Development and
Faculty of Science for Women (SCIW), University of Research, Mumbai, India
Babylon, Babylon, Iraq Monika Gulia, Department of Pharmacy, School of
Ihab Al-Janabi, Babylon Electricity Distribution Branch, Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University,
Electricity Distribution Company for the Middle, Min- Gurugram, Haryana, India
istry of Electricity, Babylon, Iraq Sumeet Gupta, Department of Pharmacy, MM College of
Noora Al-Janabi, Department of Laser physics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ambala, Haryana, India
Science for Women (SCIW), University of Babylon, Akbar Hossain, School of Engineering, Auckland Uni-
Babylon, Iraq versity of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
J. Andrew John, School of Electronics Engineering, Vikas Jhawat, Department of Pharmacy, School of Med-
Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, ical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University,
India Gurugram, Haryana, India
Micheal Olaolu Arowolo, Department of Computer Sci- V. Kakulapati, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technol-
ence, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, ogy, Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Nigeria; Department of Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, Firuz Kamalov, Department of Electrical Engineering,
MO, United States Canadian University Dubai, Dubai, UAE
Olalekan J. Awujoola, Department of Computer Science, Akbar Ali Khan, Research & Business Analytics-PGDM,
Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria Welingkar Institute of Management Development and
Research, Mumbai, India
Abidemi E. Awujoola, Department of Biotechnology,
Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria Saif Mahmood, Department of Computer Science, Faculty
of Science for Women (SCIW), University of Babylon,
Vedant Vikrom Borah, Department of Bio-Sciences, Babylon, Iraq
Assam Don Bosco University, Guwahati, Assam, India
Hadeer Majed, Department of Computer Science, Faculty
Rene Barbie Browne, Department of Biochemistry, of Science for Women (SCIW), University of Babylon,
Assam Don Bosco University, Guwahati, Assam, India Babylon, Iraq
A. Chaitanya Kumar, School of Electronics Engineering, Precious Eniola Michael, Department of Computer Sci-
Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, ence, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State,
India Nigeria
xi
xii Contributors
Mihir Narayan Mohanty, Department of Electronics and S.A. Sajidha, School of Computer Science and Engineer-
Communication Engineering, ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anu- ing, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil
sandhan (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Nadu, India
Odisha, India M. Shamila, Department of Computer Science and
Saumendra Kumar Mohapatra, School of Information Engineering (AIML), Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of
Technology, SRM University Sikkim, Gangtok, Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana,
Sikkim, India India
Sareeta Mugde, Research and Business Analytic, Garima Sharma, IIC & Research, Welingkar Institute of
Welingkar Institute of Management Development and Management Development and Research, Mumbai,
Research, Mumbai, India India
Sriman Naini, Rosenheim Technical University of Applied Gulshan Soni, Department of Computer Science and
Science, Rosenheim, Germany Engineering, School of Engineering, O.P. Jindal Uni-
Anroop Nair, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, versity, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, India
College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Hana Sulieman, Department of Mathematics and Sta-
Al-Ahsa, Al-Ahsa Oasis, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia tistics, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
Philip O. Odion, Department of Computer Science, Kannadhasan Suriyan, Department of Electronics and
Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria Communication Engineering, Study World College of
Francisca N. Ogwueleka, Department of Computer Engineering, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Science, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria Fadi Thabtah, School of Digital Technologies, Manukau

Institute of Technology, Otara, Auckland, New Zealand
Raj Kumar Pegu, Department of Botany, Assam Don
Bosco University, Guwahati, Assam, India Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri, Department of Com-
Maheswari Raja, Centre for Smart Grid Technologies, puter Science and Engineering, GITAM School of
SCOPE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Technology, GITAM Deemed to be University,
Tamil Nadu, India; School of Computer Science Engi- Bengaluru, India
neering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Amit Kumar Tyagi, Department of Fashion Technology,
Tamil Nadu, India National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi,
Nagarajan Ramalingam, Department of Electrical and India; Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil
Electronics Engineering, Gnanamani College of Tech- Nadu, India
nology, Namakkal, Tamilnadu, India P. Vijaya, Modern College of Business and Science,
S. Mahender Reddy, Otto-Friedrich University of Bam- Bowshar, Sultanate of Oman; Department of Mathe-
berg, IsoSySc, Bamberg, Germany matics and Computer Science, Modern College of
Business and Science, Bowshar, Sultanate of Oman
Jayanti Datta Roy, Department of Bio-Sciences, Assam
Don Bosco University, Guwahati, Assam, India K. Vinuthna, Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, Neil Gogte Institute of Technology,
Yakub Kayode Saheed, School of Information Technol- Hyderabad, Telangana, India
ogy and Computing, American University of Nigeria,
Yola, Adamawa, Nigeria Jai Narain Vishwakarma, School of Life Sciences,
Assam Don Bosco University, Guwahati, Assam, India
Preface
Genomics is a branch of genetics coined by Tom Roderick in 1986. Genetics is the study of a single gene, whereas ge-
nomics refers to the study of a group of genes called genomes. Genomes can be considered as an instruction manual for
human life. Originally, the analysis of these genomic data was very costly. However, due to advancements in technology,
the sequencing cost has been reduced incredibly, so that we are now able to include genomic analysis in daily medical
routines. The more we explore our genomes, the better we are able to take medical decisions and cure diseases.
Genomic data do not only include the individual’s data but also their family and ancestors’ data. Any leakage of this
type of information could cause very serious issues. Therefore, it is very much necessary to protect this data from reaching
the outside world. Privacy laws such as GINA (Genetic Information Non-discrimination Act), HIPAA (Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act of 1996), and GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) help users to protect their
privacy by restricting the sharing of patients’ sensitive information. However, we really need to focus more on privacy
issues in an era of such rapid developments in the healthcare sectors.
The main categories of privacy in healthcare include data privacy, location privacy, identity privacy, and genomic
privacy. Existing tools are insufficient to handle genomic data because of the large size of the datasets. This book focuses
on genomic data sources, analysis tools, and the importance of privacy preservation. We cover tools such as tensor flow
and BioWeka, privacy laws, HIPAA, and technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), IoT-based cloud, cloud computing,
edge computing, and blockchain technology.
On the other side, data science is a broad field encompassing some of the fastest-growing subjects in interdisciplinary
statistics, mathematics, and computer science. It encompasses the process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and
modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, including diverse techniques under a variety of names, in different
business, science, and social science domains. This book starts with a basic introduction to data science, machine learning,
deep learning, data analysis, and visualization techniques, etc. Further, we also include genomes, genomics, genetics,
transcriptomes, and proteomes as basic concepts of modern molecular biology. The book concludes with future per-
spectives with respect to genomic privacy.
The book also provides numerous practical case studies (including self-assessments) using real-world data throughout;
supports understanding through hands-on experience of solving data science problems in healthcare (for genomics); de-
scribes techniques and tools for statistical analysis, machine learning, graph analysis, and parallel programming; reviews a
range of applications of data science, including recommender systems and sentiment analysis of text data; and provides
supplementary code resources and data at an associated website. In summary, this book on Data Sciences for Genomics
addresses the needs of a broad spectrum of scientists and students who utilize quantitative methods in their daily research.
xiii
Acknowledgment
First of all, we would like to extend our gratitude to our family members, friends, and supervisors, which stood as advisors
in the completion of this book. Also, we would like to thanks our almighty “God” who enabled us to write this book. We
also thank Elsevier Publishers (who provided their continuous support during the COVID-19 pandemic), and our col-
leagues with whom we have worked together both within and outside of our college/university positions who have
provided their continuous support toward our completing this book on Data Science for Genomics.
Also, we would like to thank our respected colleagues, Prof. G. Aghila, Prof. Siva Sathya, Prof. Sir N. Sreenath and
Prof. Aswani Kumar Cherukuri, for their valuable inputs and helping us in completing this book.
-Dr. Amit Kumar Tyagi
-Dr. Ajith Abraham
xv
Chapter 1
Genomics and neural networks in

electrical load forecasting with
computational intelligence
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, GITAM School of Technology, GITAM Deemed to be University, Bengaluru, India
1. Introduction
Load forecasting is defined as a procedure used for predicting the future electricity demand using historical data to be able
to manage electric generation and electric demand of electric utilities. In the present scenario the load forecasting is an
essential task in a smart grid. The smart grid is an electrical grid that uses computers, digital technologies, or other
advanced technologies for real-time monitoring, maintaining generation and demand, and to act on particular information
(information such as behavior of electric utilities or consumers) for improving efficiency, reliability, sustainability, and
economics [1]. To fulfill the applications of a smart grid the load forecasting plays an important role. A smart grid has
various modes of forecasting in electric grids, which are load forecasting, price forecasting, solar-based electricity gen-
eration forecasting, and wind-based electricity generation forecasting. The load forecasting is classified into four categories
[2e4]: (i) very short-term load forecasting, (ii) short-term load forecasting, (iii) mid-term load forecasting, and (iv) long-
term load forecasting. The strong focus done in this paper is on short-term load forecasting. As the demand of electricity is
increasing the very short-term load forecasting and short-term load forecasting are helpful to provide additional security,
reliability, and protection to smart grids. Also, it is useful for energy efficiency, electricity price, market design, demand
side management, matching generation and demand, and unit commitment [5]. The machine learning will accurately
predict the electrical load to fulfill the needs of smart grids.
The well-defined long short-term memory (LSTM) and recurrent neural network (RNN) are used in many papers for
load forecasting, and these methods are hybridized to improve the predictions. The review on well-defined RNN and
LSTM methods used for load forecasting is as follows. In paper [6], the author has applied LSTM RNN for nonresidential
energy consumption forecasting. The real-time energy consumption data is from South China, which contains multiple
sequences of 48 nonresidential consumers’ energy consumption data. The unit of measured data is in kilowatts, and data is
collected from Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) with sampling interval of 15 min. To calculate the prediction
accuracy, the Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Absolute Percent Error (MAPE), and Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE)
method is used. In paper [7], the author has applied a RNN-LSTM neural network for long-term load forecasting. The real
time ISO New England load data is used for 5-year load prediction. The MAPE method is used to calculate the accuracy of
forecasted results. Year-wise and season-wise MAPE is calculated from which the majority MAPE is below 5% and not
exceeding 8%.
In paper [8], the author mentions multiple sequence LSTM is become an attractive approach for load prediction because
of increasing volume variety of smart meters, automation systems, and other sources in smart grids. For energy load fore-
casting the multisequence LSTM, LSTM-Genetic Algorithm (GA), LSTM-Particle swarm optimization (PSO), random
forecast, Support vector machines (SVM), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), and extra tree regressor methods are used, and a
comparison is made between them using RMSE and MAE. The load data was obtained from Réseau de Transport d’Éle-
ctricité (RTE) Corporation, French electricity transmission network. In paper [9], the author has used LSTM for power
demand forecasting, and LSTM prediction is compared with Gradient Boosted Trees (GBT) and Support Vector Regression
Data Science for Genomics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98352-5.00009-4

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Data Science for Genomics
(SVR). The LSTM gives better prediction than GBT and SVR by decreasing MSE by 21.80% and 28.57%, respectively.
Timeseries features, weather features, and calendar features are considered for forecasting. University of Massachusetts has
provided the power data for forecasting. The evaluation of model accuracy is calculated using MSE and MAPE.
In paper [10], the electricity consumption prediction is carried out for residential and commercial buildings using a deep
recurrent neural network (RNN) model. The Austin, Texas, residential buildings electricity consumption data is used for
mid-term to long-term forecasting and for commercial buildings, and the Salt Lake City, Utah, electricity consumption data
is used for prediction. For commercial buildings the RNN performs better than a multilayered perceptron model. In paper
[11], the author has used LSTM method for power load forecasting. The eunite real power load data has been used for
forecasting. The next hour and next half day prediction has been made using a single-point forecasting model of LSTM and
multiple-point forecasting model of LSTM. The model accuracy has calculated using MAPE. The single-point forecasting
model of LSTM performs better than multiple-point forecasting model of LSTM.
In paper [12], the author has applied RNN for next 24-h load prediction. The RNN prediction result is compared with
Back-Propagation neural network. In paper [13], the author has used deep RNN, DRNN-Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU),
DRNN-LSTM, multilayer perceptron (MLP), Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), SVM, and MLR
methods for load demand forecasting. For prediction the author has used residential load data from Austin, Texas, USA.
Methods evaluation was calculated based on MAE, RMSE, and MAPE. In paper [14], the author has used RNN, LSTM,
and GBT for wind power forecasting. Using the wind velocity data from Kolkata, India, the wind power output forecasting
was carried out. The methods accuracy was calculated using MAE, MAPE, MSE, and RMSE.
In paper [15], the author used LSTM for short-term load forecasting. Here, 24-h, 48-h, 7-day, and 30-day ahead
predictions were made and compared with actual load. The LSTM accuracy was tested using RMSE and MAPE. In paper
[16], the author made long-term energy consumption prediction using LSTM. The real-time industrial data was used for
forecasting. The LSTM result was compared with ARMA, ARFIMA, and BPNN prediction result; out of this the LSTM
performed better. MAE, MAPE, MSE, and RMSE was used to evaluate methods accuracy.
The contribution of this paper is to accurately forecast the load using well-defined machine learning methods. In this
paper, two different zones of a real-time load dataset are used for prediction. The first load dataset is of Paschim Gujarat Vij
Company Ltd. (PGVCL), India, and the second load dataset is of NYISO, USA. For both datasets the well-defined machine
learning methods called RNN and LSTM are applied for load prediction. The accuracy of forecasted load is calculated
using root mean squared error and mean absolute percentage error. Further, the machine learning methods results are
compared with time series models prediction results that tried to achieve better prediction than time series models. In most
cases the machine learning works excellently. The time series models result is taken from Ref. [17] or this paper is
extended work of Ref. [17].
The rest of the paper is prepared as follows. Section 2 includes explanations of the well-defined applied machine
learning method, i.e., RNN and LSTM. Section 3 shows the output prediction result of applied machine learning methods
for both load datasets. Section 4 will conclude the paper in short.
2. Methodology
2.1 RNN
The concept of RNN is introduced to process the sequence data and to recognize the pattern in sequence. The reason to
develop the RNN is the feed forward network fails to predict the next value in sequence or the feed forward network
predicts the next value poorly. The feed forward network is mostly not used for sequence prediction because the new
output has no relation with previous output. Now let us see how the RNN can solve the feed forward network problem for
prediction. Fig. 1.1 illustrates the generalized way to represent the RNN, in which there is a loop where the information is
flowing from the previous timestamp to the next timestamp. For a better understanding, Fig. 1.2 shows the unrolling of a
generalized form of RNN, i.e., Fig. 1.1 [18].
From Fig. 1.2, we have input at “t-1,” which will feed it to the network; then we will get the output at “t-1.” Then at the
next time stamp, i.e., at “t” we have input at time “t” that will be given to a network along with the information from the
previous timestamp, i.e., “t-1,” and that will help us to get the output at “t.” Similarly, for output “tþ1,” we have two
inputs: one is a new input at “tþ1” that we feed to the network, and the other is the information coming from the previous
time stamp, i.e., at “t” to get the output at time “tþ1.” Likewise, it can go on [19]. Fig. 1.3 indicates the mathematical
structure of RNN. From Fig. 1.3, two generalized equations can be written as follows:
ht ¼ gh ðWi xt þ WR ht1 þ bh Þ (1.1)

y t ¼ gy W y ht þ by (1.2)
Genomics and neural networks in electrical load forecasting with computational intelligence Chapter | 1 3
Output
Input
FIGURE 1.1 Representation of RNN.
Output Output Output

at ‘t–1’ at ‘t’ at ‘t+1’
Info from Info from

input ‘t–1’ input ‘t’
A A A
Input Input Input

at ‘t–1’ at ‘t’ at ‘t+1’
FIGURE 1.2 Unrolling of RNN.
y0 y1 y2
Wy Wy Wy
WR WR WR
h0 h1 h2
Wt Wt Wt
x0 x1 x2
FIGURE 1.3 Mathematical representation of RNN.

Where, wi is the input weight matrix, wy is output weight matrix, WR is hidden layer weight matrix, gh and gy are activation
functions, and bh and by are the biases. Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) are useful to calculate the h0, h1, h2, . and y0, y1, y2, . values,
as shown in Fig. 1.3, respectively.
For calculating ℎ0 and y0, let us consider time “t” equals zero (i.e., t ¼ 0), and at t ¼ 0 the input is x0. Now by
substituting t ¼ 0 and input x0 in Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), we get
h0 ¼ gh ðWi x0 þ WR h1 þ bh Þ (1.3)
But in Eq. (1.3) the term WR * ℎ1 cannot be applied because time can never be negative, so Eq. (1.3) can be rewritten
as
h0 ¼ gh ðWi x0 þ bh Þ (1.4)

y 0 ¼ gy W y h 0 þ by (1.5)
From Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5), we can calculate ℎ0 and y0. Now, let us consider t ¼ 1 and the input x1 at t ¼ 1 for calculating
ℎ1 and y1, so by putting values of t ¼ 1 and input in Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), we get

y 1 ¼ gy W y h1 þ by (1.7)
From Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7), we can find ℎ1 and y1. Similarly, for input x2 at t ¼ 2, we can calculate the value of ℎ2 and y2.
By substituting values into Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), we get

y 2 ¼ gy W y h2 þ by (1.9)
From Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9), we can calculate ℎ2 and y2. Likewise, it can go on up to “n” period of time. So, this is how
RNN works mathematically. This method is explained by referring to various sources [11,18,19].
2.2 Long short-term memory

The LSTM neural network is a time RNN, and it is a special case of RNN, which was proposed by Hochreiter and
Schmidhuber [20,21]. The LSTM can solve the various problems faced by RNN. As sequence length is increases the
problems faced by RNN are vanishing gradient, limited storage, limited memory, and short-term memory. In LSTM
structure, there are cell state and three different gates, which will effectively solve the RNN problem. The cell state will
carry the relevant information throughout the processing of a network, and cell state acts as “memory” of the network.
Because of cell state, the earlier time stamp values can be used in later time stamps, so the LSTM can reduce the effect of
short-term memory. The various gates in LSTM are responsible to add or remove the information in cell state, and during
training the network the gates can learn what information is necessary to keep or to forget. The gates can regulate the flow
of information in the network. Fig. 1.4 illustrates the single LSTM cell or internal layout of LSTM. The LSTM has a
similar chain-type layer to RNN, where the only difference is the internal structure and way of calculating a hidden state
Cell state
ct–1 ct
tanh
ft it čt ot
σ σ tanh σ
ht–1 ht
xt
Forget Input Output
gate gate gate
FIGURE 1.4 LSTM cell.

(ℎt). The hidden state is passed from one cell to other in a chain. In internal RNN cells, there is only tanh activation, but
from Fig. 1.4 the LSTM has a complex internal cell. From Fig. 1.4 the s is the sigmoid activation.
For understanding the mathematics behind LSTM and how a hidden state is calculated in it, the forget gate, input gate,
cell state, and output gate are split into different parts, shown in Fig. 1.5AeD respectively. Before going to the mathe-
matics equation, let us see the function of tanh and sigmoid activation layers. The values that are flowing through the
LSTM network are regulated with the help of tanh activation. The tanh activation will squish (lessen) values between 1
and 1. A sigmoid activation has similar function as tanh activation; the difference is the sigmoid activation will lessen
values between 0 and 1. The value or values in the vector that come out from the sigmoid activation indicate values that are
closer to 0 are completely forgotten, and values that are closer to 1 are to be kept in the network or in cell state.
The forget gate is considered the first step in LSTM. This gate will make a decision (decide) regarding which infor-
mation should be kept or removed from the cell state or network. From Fig. 1.5A, the mathematical representation of the
forget gate is expressed as

ft ¼ s Wf ½ht1 ; xt þ bf (1.10)
In Eq. (1.10) the s is sigmoid activation, wf is weight, ℎt1 is output from the previous time stamp, xt is new input, and
bf is bias. In Fig. 1.5A and Eq. (1.10) to calculate ft, the previous output or previous hidden state ℎt1 and new input xt are
combined and multiplied with weight; after added to bias, the result is passed through the sigmoid activation. Now the
sigmoid activation will squish values between 0 and 1, and values that are nearer to 0 will be discarded and values that are
nearer to 1 will kept.
The next step is input gate, which will update the values of cell state. To update the cell state, the previous output (ℎt1)
and present input are passed through sigmoid activation. The sigmoid activation will convert the values between 0 and 1;
from this we can know which values should be updated or not. The output that comes from sigmoid activation is it. Further,
the previous output and present input are passed through tanh activation. The tanh activation will squish values between
1 and 11 to regulate the network [22]. The output that comes from tanh activation is C t. From Fig. 1.5B the mathematical
representation of input gate is expressed as
it ¼ sðWi ½ht1 ; xt þ bi Þ (1.11)
t ¼ tanhðWc ½ht1 ; xt þ bc Þ
C (1.12)
The next step is to update the old cell state, i.e., ct1, into the new cell state, i.e., ct; for this, first, the old cell state is
multiplied by ft, where the vector ft has values between 0 and 11, so the old cell state values that are multiplied by 0 will
become 0 or dropped. Now the sigmoid activation output (it) and tanh activation output (C t) are multiplied; here the
sigmoid activation will decide what to keep or to remove, i.e., it has vector values between 0 and 1. Then there is pointwise
addition to get a new cell state, shown in Fig. 1.5C. The mathematical equation is written as
t
ct ¼ ct1 ft þ it C (1.13)
ft it čt
ct
σ σ tanh
ht–1 ht–1 [ht–1, xt] tanh
xt xt ot
(a) (b) σ
ht–1 ht
ct–1 ct
xt
ft (d)
it čt
(c)
FIGURE 1.5 Various gates and cell states are split from LSTM cell to understand the mathematics behind it: (A) forget gate, (B) input gate, (C) cell
state, and (D) output gate.
The last step is output gate in which the hidden state (ℎt) is calculated, and this calculated hidden state is passed forward
to the next time stamp (next cell). Hidden state is used for prediction, and it has the information of previous input. To find
the hidden state, first the previous hidden state (ℎt1) and present input are passed through sigmoid activation to get the ot.
Now the new cell state (ct) is passed through tanh activation. Further, the tanh activation output and sigmoid activation
output, i.e., ot, are multiplied to get the new hidden state ht as shown in Fig. 1.5D. The mathematical equation is written as
Ot ¼ sðWo ½ht1 ; xt þ bo Þ (1.14)
ht ¼ ot tanhðct Þ (1.15)
Further, the hidden state ℎt and new cell state ct are carried over to the next time stamp. This method is explained by
referring to various sources [13,23,24].
3. Experiment evaluation
3.1 Testing methods effectiveness for PGVCL data
For the PGVCL load dataset the short-term load forecasting was carried out; i.e., day-ahead and week-ahead predictions
were made using RNN and LSTM. The actual observed data provided by PGVCL is from April 1, 2015 to March 31, 2019
(approximately 4 years), and the time horizon is hourly; i.e., each point was observed at each hour in a day. Fig. 1.6 shows
the real-time observed load by PGVCL [25].
For day-ahead, the method effectiveness was checked for March 31, 2019 (24 h). Here the load data from April 1,
2015 to March 30, 2019, historical data, is given in the training data set and March 31, 2019 data is given to testing data
set. Using the training set the prediction for day March 31, 2019 is done. Likewise, for week-ahead the method
effectiveness is checked for days in March 25, 2019 to March 31, 2019 (each hour in 1 week). Here the load data from
April 1, 2015 to March 24, 2019, historical data, is given in the training set, and March 25, 2019 to March 31, 2019 data
is given to the testing set. Using the training set the prediction for days March 25, 2019 to March 31, 2019 is made.
Fig. 1.7 illustrates the comparison between actual load data of PGVCL and predicted load by RNN and LSTM for day
ahead.
Also, this predicted load by RNN and LSTM is further compared with time series models prediction, as shown in
Table 1.1. The time series models prediction results is taken from Ref. [17]. In this paper, we tried to achieve a better
prediction with RNN and LSTM and experiment with how well the machine learning methods can work on PGVCL load
data. The AR (25) model gives a better prediction than the machine learning method (i.e., RNN and LSTM) for day ahead,
per Table 1.1. From Table 1.1, the AR (25) model gives a better prediction result with approximately 99% accuracy (1.92%
MAPE) and with 95.78 MW measured error, while the RNN gives a prediction result with approximately 97% accuracy
(2.77% MAPE) and with 148.83 MW measured error, and the LSTM gives a prediction result with approximately 97%
accuracy (2.85% MAPE) and with 153.38 MW measured error.
Fig. 1.8 illustrates the comparison between actual load data of PGVCL and predicted load by RNN and LSTM for week
ahead, respectively. Also, this predicted load by RNN and LSTM is further compared with the time series models
FIGURE 1.6 Observed PGVCL load PGVCL Load Data

data set from April 1, 2015 to March 31, 7000
2019.
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
01-06-15
01-04-15
01-08-15
01-10-15
01-12-15
01-02-16
01-04-16
01-06-16
01-08-16
01-10-16
01-12-16
01-02-17
01-04-17
01-06-17
01-08-17
01-10-17
01-12-17
01-02-18
01-04-18
01-06-18
01-08-18
01-10-18
01-12-18
01-02-19
FIGURE 1.7 Comparison of RNN and

LSTM prediction result for 1 day with
actual PGVCL load.
TABLE 1.1 Testing of day-ahead prediction.
Models/methods RMSE (MW) MAPE (%)

RNN 148.83 2.77
LSTM 153.38 2.85
AR (25) 95.784 1.92
ARMA (4,5) 201.86 3.70
ARIMA (4,1,5) 191.67 3.72
SARIMA (2,0,1) (1,0,1,24) 105.83 1.99
FIGURE 1.8 Comparison of RNN and

LSTM prediction result for 1 week with
actual PGVCL load.
prediction, as shown in Table 1.2. Also, for week ahead, we tried to achieve the better prediction with RNN and LSTM
than time series models, and here too, we experiment with how well the machine learning methods can work on PGVCL
load data for weekly prediction. The RNN gives a better prediction than time series models for week ahead, per Table 1.2.
From Table 1.2 the RNN gives a prediction result with approximately 97% accuracy (2.74% MAPE) and with 147.94 MW
measured error, and the LSTM worked well for week-ahead prediction giving a result with approximately 97% accuracy
(2.77% MAPE) and with 148.35 MW measured error. Both RNN and LSTM show better prediction than time series
models for week-ahead prediction.
TABLE 1.2 Testing of week-ahead prediction.

RNN 147.91 2.74
LSTM 148.35 2.77
AR (95) 191.89 3.577
ARMA (12, 7) 218.40 4.100
ARIMA (12, 1, 10) 180.57 3.325
SARIMA (2,0,1) (1,0,1,24) 280.81 5.53
3.2 Testing methods effectiveness for NYISO data

In this, Hudson Valley, NY, real-time observed load data is taken from publicly available NYISO [26]. The observed load
data is from October 1, 2018 to October 21, 2019, and the time resolution is hourly. The observed real-time load data unit
is in MW. Fig. 1.9 shows the measured load by NYISO. Using NYISO load data the week-ahead prediction is made by
RNN and LSTM. The observed data from October 1, 2018 to October 14, 2019 is given to the training set, and load data
from October 15, 2019 to October 21, 2019 is given to the testing set. Further, the prediction that was made by RNN and
LSTM is compared with time series model prediction and with NYISO prediction result [17,27]. Similarly, here too we
tried to achieve better prediction with RNN and LSTM and experiment with how well the machine learning method can
work on NYISO load data. Fig. 1.10 shows the comparison of RNN, NYISO, and LSTM prediction results with actual
NYISO load. From Table 1.3 the RNN gives good prediction results in terms of RMSE with 41.19 MW measured error,
while the NYISO gives a prediction of 44.74 MW measured error. But in terms of MAPE the NYISO gives a good
FIGURE 1.9 Observed NYISO load data set from

October 1, 2018 to October 21, 2019.
FIGURE 1.10 Comparison of RNN,

NYISO, and LSTM prediction results with
actual NYISO load.
TABLE 1.3 Testing of week-ahead prediction.

RNN 41.19 3.67
LSTM 41.56 3.80
NYISO 44.741 3.4
AR (20) 71.158 6.37
SARIMA (3, 0, 2) (2, 0, 2, 24) 56.51 4.9
prediction result with 3.4 MAPE, i.e., approximately 97% accurate, while the RNN and LSTM give 3.67 and 3.80 MAPE,
respectively. Both RNN and LSTM have the same accuracy as NYISO per MAPE, but the RNN and LSTM work better
than NYISO prediction per RMSE and as shown in the prediction graph in Fig. 1.10.
4. Conclusion
In this paper we have used two machine learning methods call RNN and LSTM for electrical load forecasting. Both
methods are well explained in Section 2 by studying various sources. The forecasting made by RNN and LTTM is further
compared with time series models predictions. Overall, the machine learning methods perform better for large sequence
predictions. For day-ahead PGVCL load data the time series model performs better than RNN and LSTM, while for week-
ahead the machine learning shows better prediction than the time series model. For week-ahead NYISO load data the
NYISO prediction gives better prediction than machine learning in terms of MAPE, but at the same time, the machine
learning gives better prediction than NYISO prediction in terms of RMSE.
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Chapter 2
Application of ensemble learningebased

classifiers for genetic expression data
classification
Saumendra Kumar Mohapatra1, Abhishek Das2 and Mihir Narayan Mohanty2
1
School of Information Technology, SRM University Sikkim, Gangtok, Sikkim, India; 2Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
1. Introduction
Nowadays, cancer is one of the major causes of death worldwide. Microarray data analysis is one of the most advanced
technologies in cancer diagnosis. It helps physicians to detect the disease at an early stage. This technology allows keeping
the genetic expressions that provide useful information about the complex biologic process. This advanced technology not
only gives a new approach to the biologic phenomenon but also helps in analyzing the activities of genes presented in the
human body. Due to this advanced feature of this technique, it will help physicians in providing an effective and reliable
diagnosis and prognosis. Recent health care is well equipped in terms of analysis, diagnosis, and research. This motivates
researchers to work in diversified fields with the application of recent engineering techniques wherever necessary. Day by
day, types of disease increase, as well as the patients due to population growth. In most cases, the mortality rate increases,
and this produces data on a huge scale. It belongs to patients and their characteristics, diseases and their characteristics, and
causes of mortality and their characteristics. This creates medical data mining and helps the researchers in analysis,
diagnosis, prevention, and cure [1]. The modern lifestyle generates many different types of diseases that spread generation-
wise. Therefore gene analysis is extremely important for all these and for the next generation. In this piece of work, a deep
learning approach is used for microarray data classification. For effective cancer diagnosis, early identification is one of the
important factors. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) microarray is used for cancer detection due to gene sequence disorder.
Machine learning algorithms are capable to handle high-dimensional data [2]. Typically, these types of data contain more
features for each sample, and a usual classification task is to distinguish the healthy and cancerous patients based on their
gene expression profile
Due to the greater number of features and small sample size, microarray data classification is a challenging task for
machine learning researchers. To deal with this high feature set, numerous feature selection algorithms were adopted in the
literature, including wrappers and embedded methods [3]. Along with these feature selection algorithms, different machine
learning classifiers were also adopted for classifying the microarray data. These methods include support vector machine
(SVM) [4], multilayer perceptron [4], fuzzy neural network [5], k-nearest neighbor [6], naive Bayes [7,8], decision tree
[9,10], and radial basis function network [11e13]. Most of these works are of a two-step process including feature se-
lection and classification. In some cases, authors have also adopted clustering techniques [14,15] to obtain the relevant
gene patterns. For selecting the optimal gene subset, numerous optimization algorithms were adopted by researchers that
include genetic algorithm [16e18], heuristic algorithm [10], artificial bee colony [7], particle swarm optimization [19],
harmony search [20], and memetic algorithm [21]. The major drawbacks in these microarray data analysis models are as
follows. Most of these algorithms fail to provide better results due to high-dimensional data. Overfitting problems also
occur due to the traditional architecture of the classifier. Due to the presence of various uncertainties during data gener-
ation, the conventional machine learning models fail to provide a reliable classification model. And, computational time is
greater due to the number of steps. To avoid such types of issues, deep learningebased approaches were adopted for
Data Science for Genomics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98352-5.00018-5

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 11
classifying the high-dimensional microarray data [22e24]. The performance of the deep learning models was also
improved by providing the optimized features to the classifier [25,26], and it is observed that the deep learning models
were providing better performance compared with the traditional machine learning-based classifiers in high-dimensional
data [27,28]. Most of the deep neural network classifiers are more specific to the training data, and sometimes they
may locate a dissimilar set of weights at each training epoch. This problem is generally referred to as a neural network
having maximum variance, and it creates chances of misclassification. Statistical, computational, and representation
problems are three major issues that can be found in single classification models. Instead of training a single model, a
combination of multiple models can be a successful approach to deal with the aforementioned issues. This combined model
is known as the ensemble model, and from the literature, it is observed that the performance of this model is better
compared with the single model [29,30].
Microarray data analysis and classification can be considered an effective way of cancer diagnosis. Different ma-
chine learningebased classifiers were adopted by researchers to develop an automated genetic expression data clas-
sification model, and it is observed that the traditional techniques fail to provide a satisfactory accuracy. To overcome
this issue, various ensemble models were used for classifying such types of imbalanced data. Authors in [31] have used
RotBoost techniques for classifying the genetic data. The performance of their proposed model was compared with five
different feature selection algorithms, and from the results, it was found that RotBoost with independent component
analysis features provided a better result. For finding the efficiency of that ensemble model, they have also compared
the accuracy with some other nonensemble models such as SVM and decision tree. A novel ensemble classifier was
presented in [29] for classifying five different types of microarray data. They have used an ensemble SVM classifier for
this purpose, and it is observed that their proposed model provided better results compared with standard, conventional
SVM. In [32], the author has proposed a novel optimized ensemble model to enhance performance by maximizing
behavioral diversity. The proposed model was also verified with three different types of microarray data as breast,
colon, and prostate cancer data. For selecting suitable features, the authors have also used an ensemble model that
combines multiple filters for selecting relevant features from the original data [33]. The main objective of their approach
was to improve the classification accuracy by reducing the dimensionality of the input data, and from their result, it can
be observed that the accuracy was better in ensemble filters compared with single filters in input data dimensionality
reduction. An ensemble of multiple neural networks was used for classifying the three different types of gene
expression data in [34]. Random forest is one of the most popular ensemble models in the classification of the different
data sets. Authors in [15] have used this popular bagging-based ensemble model for classifying the three different types
of the cancer data sets. They have compared the accuracy by using the clustering approach, and it was observed that
performance was found to be better with random forest with clustering approach. For selecting important genetic
features, a double-stage model was proposed in [18]. In the first stage, they developed an ensemble filter by taking the
union and interaction of the top three features selection algorithm. Again for getting more relevant features, a genetic
algorithm was also used in their work. For classification purposes, three different classifiers such as multilayer per-
ceptron, SVM, and k-nearest neighbor were used over five types of cancer data sets such as colon, lung, leukemia,
small-blue-round-cell tumor, and prostate.
In ensemble techniques, multiple submodels statistically contribute to a combined prediction problem. This approach is
generally referred to as the model averaging technique. Most of the ensemble models are classified into three categories
such as bagging, boosting, and stacking. Generally, the usual ensemble learning models consist of bagging and boosting in
the random subspace of data [35]. The main objective of the ensemble model is to derive a new classifier by combining
various base classifiers, and it will provide better performance compared with any constituent classifier. In Fig. 2.1, the
outline of an ensemble technique is shown, and it can be observed that the final output of this model is decided by using the
voting approach. From the literature, it can be observed that numerous works were done by using different ensemble
models, and this is discussed in the next subsection.
2. Ensemble learningebased classifiers for genetic data classification

For obtaining better performance in a machine learningebased data classification model, multiple individual models can be
combined to present an ensemble model. This ensemble model generally gives the final prediction by applying the voting
scheme to the output of each model. Generally, the ensemble models work on three basic principles as bagging, boosting,
and stacking. A detailed description of these three principles is presented in the next subsections.
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[95] Ex. 24:3-8; Heb. 9:18-20.
[96] Dr. Clarke has the following note on this verse: “It is very
likely that Moses went up into the mount on the first day of the
week; and having with Joshua remained in the region of the cloud
during six days, on the seventh, which was the Sabbath, God
spake to him.”—Commentary on Ex. 24:16. The marking off of a
week from the forty days in this remarkable manner goes far
toward establishing the view of Dr. C. And if this be correct, it
would strongly indicate that the ten commandments were given
upon the Sabbath; for there seems to be good evidence that they
were given the day before Moses went up to receive the tables of
stone. For the interview in which chapters 21-23 were given
would require but a brief space, and certainly followed
immediately upon the giving of the ten commandments. Ex.
20:18-21. When the interview closed, Moses came down to the
people and wrote all the words of the Lord. In the morning he rose
up early, and, having ratified the covenant, went up to receive the
law which God had written. Ex. 24:3-13.
[97] Ex. 24:12-18.
[98] Ex. 25-31.
[99] Ex. 31:12-18.
[100] Eze. 20:11, 12, 19, 20.
[101] See third chapter of this work.
[102] “To sanctify, kadash, signifies to consecrate, separate,
and set apart a thing or person from all secular purposes to some
religious use.” Clarke’s Commentary on Ex. 13:2. The same writer
says, on Ex. 19:23, “Here the word kadash is taken in its proper,
literal sense, signifying the separating of a thing, person, or place,
from all profane or common uses, and devoting it to sacred
purposes.”
[103] Gen. 17:7, 8; 26:24; 28:13; Ex. 3:6, 13-16, 18; 5:3; Isa.
45:3.
[104] Lev. 11:45.
[105] See chapter third.
[106] As a sign it did not thereby become a shadow and a
ceremony, for the Lord of the Sabbath was himself a sign.
“Behold, I and the children whom the Lord hath given me are for
signs and wonders in Israel from the Lord of hosts, which dwelleth
in Mount Zion.” Isa. 8:18. In Heb. 2:13, this language is referred to
Christ. “And Simeon blessed them, and said unto Mary his
mother, Behold, this child is set for the fall and rising again of
many in Israel; and for a sign which shall be spoken against.”
Luke 2:34. That the Sabbath was a sign between God and Israel
throughout their generations, that is, for the time that they were
his peculiar people, no more proves that it is now abolished than
the fact that Jesus is now a sign that is spoken against proves
that he will cease to exist when he shall no longer be such a sign.
Nor does this language argue that the Sabbath was made for
them, or that its obligation ceased when they ceased to be the
people of God. For the prohibition against eating blood was a
perpetual statute for their generations; yet it was given to Noah
when God first permitted the use of animal food, and was still
obligatory upon the Gentiles when the apostles turned to them.
Lev. 3:17; Gen. 9:1-4; Acts 15.
The penalty of death at the hand of the civil magistrate is
affixed to the violation of the Sabbath. The same penalty is affixed
to most of the precepts of the moral law. Lev. 20:9, 10; 24:15-17;
Deut. 13:6-18; 17:2-7. It should be remembered that the moral
law embracing the Sabbath formed a part of the civil code of the
Hebrew nation. As such, the great Law-giver annexed penalties to
be inflicted by the magistrate, thus doubtless shadowing forth the
final retribution of the ungodly. Such penalties were suspended by
that remarkable decision of the Saviour that those who were
without sin should cast the first stone. But such a Being will arise
to punish men, when the hailstones of his wrath shall desolate the
earth. Our Lord did not, however, set aside the real penalty of the
law, the wages of sin, nor did he weaken that precept which had
been violated. John 8:1-9; Job 38:22, 23; Isa. 28:17; Rev. 16:17-
21; Rom. 6:23.
[107] This fact will shed light upon those texts which introduce
the agency of angels in the giving of the law. Acts 7:38, 53; Gal.
3:19; Heb. 2:2.
[108] Ex. 32; 33.
[109] Ex. 34; Deut. 9.
[110] Ex. 34:21.
[111] The idea has been suggested by some from this verse
that it was Moses and not God who wrote the second tables. This
view is thought to be strengthened by the previous verse: “Write
thou these words: for after the tenor of these words I have made
a covenant with thee and with Israel.” But it is to be observed that
the words upon the tables of stone were the ten commandments;
while the words here referred to were those which God spoke to
Moses during this interview of forty days, beginning with verse 10
and extending to verse 27. That the pronoun he in verse 28 might
properly enough refer to Moses, if positive testimony did not
forbid such reference, is readily admitted. That it is necessary to
attend to the connection in deciding the antecedents of pronouns,
is strikingly illustrated in 2 Sam. 24:1, where the pronoun he
would naturally refer to the Lord, thus making God the one who
moved David to number Israel. Yet the connection shows that this
was not the case; for the anger of the Lord was kindled by the act;
and 1 Chron. 21:1, positively declares that he who thus moved
David was Satan. For positive testimony that it was God and not
Moses who wrote upon the second tables, see Ex. 34:1; Deut.
10:1-5. These texts carefully discriminate between the work of
Moses and the work of God, assigning the preparation of the
tables, the carrying of them up to the mount and the bringing of
them down from the mount, to Moses, but expressly assigning the
writing on the tables to God himself.
[112] Ex. 34:1, 28; Deut. 4:12, 13; 5:22.
[113] Ex. 24:12.
[114] Deut. 33:2. That angels are sometimes called saints or
holy ones, see Dan. 8:13-16. That angels were present with God
at Sinai, see Ps. 68:17.
[115] Deut. 10:4, 5; Ex. 25:10-22.
[116] 1 John 3:4, 5.
[117] Ex. 32; Josh. 24:2, 14, 23; Eze. 20:7, 8, 16, 18, 24.
[118] Amos 5:25-27; Acts 7:41-43; Josh. 5:2-8.
[119] Num. 14; Ps. 95; Eze. 20:13.
[120] Eze. 20:13-24.
[121] Ex. 32.
[122] Num. 14.
[123] Deut. 9:24.
[124] Num. 14; Heb. 3:16.
[125] Ex. 16; Josh. 5:12.
[126] Num. 11; 21.
[127] A comparison of Ex. 19; 20:18-21; 24:3-8, with chapter
32, will show the astonishing transitions of the Hebrews from faith
and obedience to rebellion and idolatry. See a general history of
these acts in Ps. 78; 106.
[128] For a notice of this penalty see chapter 5.
[129] Ex. 35:1-3.
[130] Lev. 24:5-9; Num. 28:9, 10.
[131] The Bible abounds with facts which establish this
proposition. Thus the psalmist, in an address to Jerusalem, uses
the following language: “He giveth snow like wool; he scattereth
the hoar-frost like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like morsels;
who can stand before his cold? He sendeth out his word, and
melteth them; he causeth his wind to blow, and the waters flow.
He showeth his word unto Jacob, his statutes and his judgments
unto Israel.” Ps. 147:16-19. Dr. Clarke has the following note on
this text: “At particular times the cold in the East is so very intense
as to kill man and beast. Jacobus de Vitriaco, one of the writers in
the Gesta Dei per Francos, says that in an expedition in which he
was engaged against Mount Tabor, on the 24th of December, the
cold was so intense that many of the poor people, and the beasts
of burthen died by it. And Albertus Aquensis, another of these
writers, speaking of the cold in Judea, says that thirty of the
people who attended Baldwin I., in the mountainous districts near
the Dead Sea, were killed by it; and that in that expedition they
had to contend with horrible hail and ice; with unheard of snow
and rain. From this we find that the winters are often very severe
in Judea; and that in such cases as the above we may well call
out, Who can stand against his cold!” See his commentary on Ps.
147. See also Jer. 36:22; John 18:18; Matt. 24:20; Mark 13:18. 1
Maccabees 13:22, mentions a very great snow storm in Palestine,
so that horsemen could not march.
[132] The testimony of the Bible on this point is very explicit.
Thus we read: “Six days thou shalt do thy work, and on the
seventh day thou shalt rest: that thine ox and thine ass may rest,
and the son of thy handmaid, and the stranger, may be
refreshed.” Ex. 23:12. To be without fire in the severity of winter
would cause the Sabbath to be a curse and not a refreshment. It
would ruin the health of those who should thus expose
themselves, and render the Sabbath anything but a source of
refreshment. The prophet uses the following language: “If thou
turn away thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure on
my holy day: and call the Sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord,
honorable,” etc. The Sabbath then was designed by God to be a
source of delight to his people, and not a cause of suffering. The
merciful and beneficent character of the Sabbath is seen in the
following texts: Matt. 12:10-13; Mark 2:27, 28; Luke 14:3-6. From
them we learn that God regards the sufferings of the brute
creation, and would have them alleviated upon the Sabbath; how
much more the distress and the needs of his people, for whose
refreshment and delight the Sabbath was made.
[133] Ex. 29:9; 31:16; Lev. 3:17; 24:9; Num. 19:21; Deut. 5:31;
6:1; 7. The number and variety of these allusions will surprise the
inquirer.
[134] Ex. 16:23.
[135] Ex. 12; Deut. 16.
[136] The law of the passover certainly contemplated the arrival
of the Hebrews in the promised land before its regular
observance. Ex. 12:25. Indeed, it was only once observed in the
wilderness; namely, in the year following their departure from
Egypt; and after that, was omitted until they entered the land of
Canaan. Num. 9; Josh. 5. This is proved, not merely from the fact
that no other instances are recorded, but because that
circumcision was omitted during the whole period of their sojourn
in the wilderness; and without this ordinance the children would
have been excluded from the passover. Ex. 12; Josh. 5.
[137] Dr. Gill, who considered the seventh-day Sabbath as a
Jewish institution, beginning with Moses, and ending with Christ,
and one with which Gentiles have no concern, has given his
judgment concerning this question of fire on the Sabbath. He
certainly had no motive in this case to answer this popular
objection only that of stating the truth. He says:—
“This law seems to be a temporary one, and not to be
continued, nor is it said to be throughout their generations, as
elsewhere, where the law of the Sabbath is given or repeated; it is
to be restrained to the building of the tabernacle, and while that
was about to which it is prefaced; and it is designed to prevent all
public or private working on the Sabbath day in any thing
belonging to that;” etc.—Commentary on Ex. 35:3.
Dr. Bound gives us St. Augustine’s idea of this precept: “He
doth not admonish them of it without cause; for that he speaketh
in making the tabernacle, and all things belonging to it, and
showeth that, notwithstanding that, they must rest upon the
Sabbath day, and not under the color of that (as it is said in the
text) so much as kindle a fire.”—True Doctrine of the Sabbath, p.
140.
[138] Lev. 19:1-3, 30.
[139] Lev. 23:3. It has been asserted from verse 2, that the
Sabbath was one of the feasts of the Lord. But a comparison of
verses 2, 4, shows that there is a break in the narrative, for the
purpose of introducing the Sabbath as a holy convocation; and
that verse 4 begins the theme anew in the very language of verse
2; and it is to be observed that the remainder of the chapter sets
forth the actual Jewish feasts; viz., that of unleavened bread, the
Pentecost, and the feast of tabernacles. What further clears this
point of all obscurity is the fact that verses 37, 38, carefully
discriminate between the feasts of the Lord and the Sabbaths of
the Lord. But Ex. 23:14, settles the point beyond controversy:
“Three times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in the year.” And
then verses 15-17 enumerate these feasts as in Lev. 23:4-44. See
also 2 Chron. 8:13.
[140] Lev. 26:1, 2.
[141] Eze. 20:15, 16.
[142] Num. 13:14.
[143] Num. 15:32-36.
[144] Eze. 20:15, 16 comp. with Num. 14:35.
[145] Num. 15:30.
[146] Eze. 20.
[147] Hengstenberg, a distinguished German Anti-Sabbatarian,
thus candidly treats this text: “A man who had gathered wood on
the Sabbath is brought forth at the command of the Lord, and
stoned by the whole congregation before the camp. Calvin says
rightly, ‘The guilty man did not fall through error, but through gross
contempt of the law, so that he treated it as a light matter to
overthrow and destroy all that is holy.’ It is evident from the
manner of its introduction that the account is not given with any
reference to its chronological position; it reads, ‘And while the
children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that
gathered sticks upon the Sabbath day.’ It stands simply as an
example of the presumptuous breach of the law, of which the
preceding verses speak. He was one who despised the word of
the Lord and broke his commandments [verse 31]; one who with
a high hand sinned and reproached the Lord. Verse 30.”—The
Lord’s Day, pp. 31, 32.
[148] Deut. 5:1-3.
[149] See the pledges of this people in Ex. 19; 24.
[150] See the second chapter of this work.
[151] See chapter third.
[152] Deut. 5:12-15.
[153] Compare Ex. 19; 20; Deut. 1.
[154] Ex. 20:8-11.
[155] Ex. 12; 13.
[156] Deut. 24:17, 18.
[157] Deut. 4:12, 13.
[158] Ex. 34:1; Deut. 10:2.
[159] Ex. 34:28; Deut. 10:4.
[160] Deut. 9:10.
[161] Deut. 5:22.
[162] Deut. 5:12-15, compared with Ex. 20:8-11.
[163] Deut. 5, compared with Ex. 20.
[164] Ex. 12; 1 Cor. 5:7, 8.
[165] Lev. 23:10-21; Num. 28:26-31; Deut. 16:9-12; Acts 2:1-18.
[166] Lev. 23:34-43; Deut. 16:13-15; Neh. 8; Rev. 7:9-14.
[167] Num. 10:10; 28:11-15; 1 Sam. 20:5, 24, 27; Ps. 81:3.
[168] Ex. 12:15, 16; Lev. 23:7, 8; Num. 28:17, 18, 25.
[169] Lev. 23:21; Num. 28:26.
[170] Lev. 23:24, 25; Num. 29:1-6.
[171] Lev. 23:27-32; 16:29-31; Num. 29:7.
[172] Lev. 23:39.
[173] Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:2-7.
[174] Lev. 25:8-54.
[175] Lev. 26:34, 35, 43; 2 Chron. 36:21.
[176] Ex. 12:25.
[177] On this point Mr. Miller uses the following language: “Only
one kind of Sabbath was given to Adam, and one only remains for
us. See Hosea 2:11. ‘I will also cause all her mirth to cease, her
feast days, her new moons, and her sabbaths, and all her solemn
feasts.’ All the Jewish sabbaths did cease when Christ nailed
them to his cross. Col. 2:14-17. These were properly called
Jewish sabbaths. Hosea says, ‘her sabbaths.’ But the Sabbath of
which we are speaking, God calls ‘my Sabbath.’ Here is a clear
distinction between the creation Sabbath and the ceremonial. The
one is perpetual; the others were merely shadows of good things
to come.”—Life and Views, pp. 161, 162.
[178] Ex. 12:16.
[179] Ex. 20:10; 31:13; Isa. 58:13; compared with Lev. 23:24,
32, 39; Lam. 1:7; Hosea 2:11.
[180] Lev. 23:37, 38.
[181] Isa. 1:13, 14.
[182] Isa. 56:1-7; 58:13, 14.
[183] Hosea 2:11.
[184] Lam. 1:7; 2:5-7.
[185] Deut. 16:16; 2 Chron. 7:12; Ps. 122.
[186] Jer. 17:19-27; Neh. 13:15-18.
[187] Isa. 56. See the eighth chapter of this work.
[188] See chapter x.
[189] 2 Kings 4:23.
[190] 1 Chron. 9:32. It is true that this text relates to the order of
things after the return from Babylon; yet we learn from verse 22,
that this order was originally ordained by David and Samuel. See
verses 1-32.
[191] Compare these two cases: Ex. 16:23; 1 Chron. 9:32.
[192] See chapters ii. and iii.
[193] Josh. 6.
[194] See Dr. A. Clarke’s commentary on Josh. 6:15.
[195] Josh. 10:12-14.
[196] 1 Sam. 21:1-6; Matt. 12:3, 4; Mark 2:25, 26; Luke 6:3, 4.
[197] Lev. 24:5-9; 1 Chron. 9:32.
[198] 1 Sam. 21:5, 6; Matt. 12:4.
[199] See the tenth chapter of this work.
[200] 1 Chron. 23:31; 2 Chron. 2:4; 8:13; 31:3; Neh. 10:31, 33;
Eze. 45:17.
[201] See chapter vii. of this work.
[202] 1 Chron. 9:32.
[203] Cotton Mather says: “There is a psalm in the Bible
whereof the title is, ‘A Psalm or Song for the Sabbath day.’ Now
’tis a clause in that psalm, ‘O Lord, how great are thy works! thy
thoughts are very deep.’ Ps. 92:5. That clause intimates what we
should make the subject of our meditations on the Sabbath day.
Our thoughts are to be on God’s works.”—Discourse on the
Lord’s Day, p. 30, a. d. 1703. And Hengstenberg says: “This
psalm is according to the heading, ‘A Song for the Sabbath day.’
The proper positive employment of the Sabbath appears here to
be a thankful contemplation of the works of God, a devotional
absorption in them which could only exist when ordinary
occupations are laid aside.”—The Lord’s Day, pp. 36, 37.
[204] 2 Kings 4:23.
[205] Isa. 66:23; Eze. 46:1; Amos 8:5.
[206] Ex. 16:29.
[207] 2 Kings 11:5-9; 2 Chron. 23:4-8.
[208] Amos 8:4-6.
[209] 2 Kings 16:18.
[210] Isa. 56:1-8.
[211] For the coming of this salvation see Heb. 9:28; 1 Pet. 1:9.
[212] Ex. 12:48, 49; Isa. 14:1; Eph. 2:12.
[213] See chapter vii.
[214] Deut. 28:64; Luke 21:24.
[215] Isa. 58:13, 14.
[216] Matt. 8:11; Heb. 11:8-16; Rev. 21.
[217] On this text Dr. A. Clarke comments thus: “From this and
the following verses we find the ruin of the Jews attributed to the
breach of the Sabbath: as this led to a neglect of sacrifice, the
ordinances of religion, and all public worship; so it necessarily
brought with it all immorality. The breach of the Sabbath was that
which let in upon them all the waters of God’s wrath.”
[218] For an inspired commentary on this language, see Neh.
13:15-18.
[219] This language strongly implies that the violation of the
Sabbath had ever been general with the Hebrews. See Jer. 7:23-
28.
[220] Jer. 17:20-27.
[221] Eze. 22:7, 8, 26; 23:38, 39.
[222] Eze. 20:23, 24; Deut. 32:16-35.
[223] Eze. 23:38, 39.
[224] 2 Chron. 36:16-20.
[225] Eze., chapters 40-48.
[226] Eze. 43:7-11.
[227] Eze. 44:24; 45:17; 46:1, 3, 4, 12.
[228] Eze. 46:1.
[229] Neh. 9:13, 14.
[230] Neh. 9:38; 10:1-31.
[231] Neh. 10:31.
[232] A few words relative to the time of beginning the Sabbath
are here demanded. 1. The reckoning of the first week of time
necessarily determines that of all succeeding weeks. The first
division of the first day was night; and each day of the first week
began with evening; the evening and the morning, an expression
equivalent to the night and the day, constituted the day of twenty-
four hours. Gen. 1. Hence, the first Sabbath began and ended
with evening. 2. That the night is in the Scriptures reckoned a part
of the day of twenty-four hours, is proved by many texts. Ex.
12:41, 42; 1 Sam. 26:7, 8; Luke 2:8-11; Mark 14:30; Luke 22:34,
and many other testimonies. 3. The 2300 days, symbolizing 2300
years, are each constituted like the days of the first week of time.
Dan. 8:14. The margin, which gives the literal Hebrew, calls each
of these days an “evening morning.” 4. The statute defining the
great day of atonement is absolutely decisive that the day begins
with evening, and that the night is a part of the day. Lev. 23:32. “It
shall be unto you a Sabbath of rest, and ye shall afflict your souls:
in the ninth day of the month at even, from even unto even shall
ye celebrate your Sabbath.” 5. That evening is at sunset is
abundantly proved by the following scriptures: Deut. 16:6; Lev.
22:6, 7; Deut. 23:2; 24:13, 15; Josh. 8:29; 10:26, 27; Judges
14:18; 2 Sam. 3:35; 2 Chron. 18:34; Matt. 8:16; Mark 1:32; Luke
4:40. But does not Neh. 13:19, conflict with this testimony, and
indicate that the Sabbath did not begin until after dark? I think not.
The text does not say, “When it began to be dark at Jerusalem
before the Sabbath,” but it says, “When the gates of Jerusalem
began to be dark.” If it be remembered that the gates of
Jerusalem were placed under wide and high walls, it will not be
found difficult to harmonize this text with the many here adduced,
which prove that the day begins with sunset.
Calmet, in his Bible Dictionary, article, Sabbath, thus states the
ancient Jewish method of beginning the Sabbath: “About half an
hour before the sunset all work is quitted and the Sabbath is
supposed to be begun.” He speaks thus of the close of the
Sabbath: “When night comes, and they can discern in the heaven
three stars of moderate magnitude, then the Sabbath is ended,
and they may return to their ordinary employments.”
[233] Neh. 13:15-22.
[234] Speaking of the Babylonish captivity, in his note on Eze.
23:48, Dr. Clarke says: “From that time to the present day the
Jews never relapsed into idolatry.”
[235] 1 Mac. 1:41-43.
[236] 1 Mac. 2:29-38; Josephus’ Antiquities, b. xii. chap. vi.
[237] 2 Mac. 5:25,26.
[238] 1 Mac. 2:41.
[239] 2 Mac. 6:11.
[240] 2 Mac. 8:23-28.
[241] 1 Mac. 9:43-49; Josephus’ Antiquities, b. xiii. chap. i.; 2
Mac. 15.
[242] Antiquities of the Jews, b. xiv. chap. iv. Here we call
attention to one of those historical frauds by which Sunday is
shown to be the Sabbath. Dr. Justin Edwards states this case
thus: “Pompey, the Roman general, knowing this, when besieging
Jerusalem, would not attack them on the Sabbath; but spent the
day in constructing his works, and preparing to attack them on
Monday, and in a manner that they could not withstand, and so he
took the city.”—Sabbath Manual, p. 216. That is to say, the next
day after the Sabbath was Monday, and of course Sunday was
the Sabbath! Yet Dr. E. well knew that in Pompey’s time, 63 years
before Christ, Saturday was the only weekly Sabbath, and that
Sunday and not Monday was the day of attack.
[243] Sabbath Manual of the American Tract Society, pp. 214,
215.
[244] Gal. 4:4, 5; John 1:1-10; 17:5, 24; Heb. 1.
[245] Dan. 9:25; Mark 1:14, 15.
[246] Luke 4:14-16.
[247] Luke 4:30-39; Mark 1:21-31; Matt. 8:5-15.
[248] See, on this point, the conclusion of chapter viii.
[249] Mark 1:32-34; Luke 4:40.
[250] Matt. 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5.
[251] Mark 2:27, 28.
[252] Comp. John 1:1-3; Gen. 1:1, 26; 2:1-3.
[253] See chap. viii.
[254] Num. 28:9, 10.
[255] Lev. 24:5-9; 1 Chron. 9:32.
[256] Hosea 6:6.
[257] Thus the Greek Testament: Καὶ ἔλεγεν αὐτοῖς· Tὸ
σάββατον διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἐγένετο, ουχ ὁ ἄνθρωπος διὰ τό
σάββατον.
[258] 1 Cor. 11:9.
[259] Gen. 2:1-3, 7, 21-23.
[260] Matt. 19:3-9.
[261] Ex. 16:23; 23:12; Isa. 58:13, 14.
[262] See conclusion of chap. ix.
[263] Matt. 5:17-19; Isa. 42:21.
[264] Matt. 12:9-14; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 6:6-11.
[265] Mark 6:1-6.
[266] John 5:1-18.
[267] Dr. Bloomfield’s Greek Testament on this text; family
Testament of the American Tract Society on the same; Nevins’
Biblical Antiquities, pp. 62, 63.
[268] Compare Jer. 17:21-27 with Nehemiah 13:15-20.
[269] Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 20:8-11; Isa. 56; 58:13, 14; Eze. 20.
[270] Gal. 4:4; Matt. 5:17-19; 7:12; 19:17; Luke 16:17.
[271] John 5:19.
[272] John 7:21-23.
[273] Grotius well says: “If he healed any on the Sabbath he
made it appear, not only from the law, but also from their received
opinions, that such works were not forbidden on the Sabbath.”—
The Truth of the Christian Religion, b. v. sect. 7.
[274] John 9:1-16.
[275] Luke 13:10-17.
[276] 1 Pet. 3:6.
[277] Luke 14:1-6.
[278] Matt. 23:23.
[279] Matt. 24:15-21.
[280] Dan. 9:26, 27.
[281] Luke 21:20.
[282] Jewish Wars, b. ii. chap. xix.
[283] Id. b. ii. chap. xx.
[284] Eccl. Hist. b. iii. chap. v.
[286] Deut. 16:16.
[287] Thus remarks Mr. Crozier in the Advent Harbinger for
Dec. 6, 1851: “The reference to the Sabbath in Matt. 24:20, only
shows that the Jews who rejected Christ would be keeping the
Sabbath at the destruction of Jerusalem, and would, in
consequence, add to the dangers of the disciples’ flight by
punishing them perhaps with death for fleeing on that day.”
And Mr. Marsh, forgetting that Christ forbade his disciples to
take anything with them in their flight, uses the following
language: “If the disciples should attempt to flee from Jerusalem
on that day and carry their things, the Jews would embarrass their
flight and perhaps put them to death. The Jews would be keeping
the Sabbath, because they rejected Christ and his gospel.”—
Advent Harbinger, Jan. 24, 1852. These quotations betray the
bitterness of their authors. In honorable distinction from these
anti-Sabbatarians, the following is quoted from Mr. William Miller,
himself an observer of the first day of the week:—
“‘Neither on the Sabbath day.’ Because it was to be kept as a
day of rest, and no servile work was to be done on that day, nor
would it be right for them to travel on that day. Christ has in this
place sanctioned the Sabbath, and clearly shows us our duty to
let no trivial circumstance cause us to break the law of the
Sabbath. Yet how many who profess to believe in Christ, at this
present day, make it a point to visit, travel, and feast, on this day?
What a false-hearted profession must that person make who can
thus treat with contempt the moral law of God, and despise the
precepts of the Lord Jesus! We may here learn our obligation to
remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.”—Exposition of Matt.
24, p. 18.
[289] Id. b. ii. chap. xix.
[290] See chap. xvi.
[291] President Edwards says: “A further argument for the
perpetuity of the Sabbath we have in Matt. 24:20: ‘Pray ye that
your flight be not in the winter, neither on the Sabbath day.’ Christ
is here speaking of the flight of the apostles and other Christians
out of Jerusalem and Judea, just before their final destruction, as
is manifest by the whole context, and especially by the 16th
verse: ‘Then let them which be in Judea flee into the mountains.’
But this final destruction of Jerusalem was after the dissolution of
the Jewish constitution, and after the Christian dispensation was
fully set up. Yet it is plainly implied in these words of our Lord, that
even then Christians were bound to a strict observation of the
Sabbath.”—Works of President Edwards, vol. iv. pp. 621, 622,
New York, 1849.
[292] Matt. 27; Isa. 53.
[293] Dan. 9:24-27.
[294] Col. 2:14-17.
[295] For an extended view of these Jewish festivals see
chapter vii.
[296] Deut. 10:4, 5, compared with 31:24-26. Thus Morer
contrasts the phrase “in the ark,” which is used with reference to
the two tables, with the expression “in the side of the ark,” as
used respecting the book of the law, and says of the latter: “In the
side of the ark, or more critically, in the outside of the ark; or in a
chest by itself on the right side of the ark, saith the Targum of
Jonathan.”—Morer’s Dialogues on the Lord’s Day, p. 211,
London, 1701.
[297] See chap. vii.
[298] See chap. ii.
[299] Mark 2:27.
[300] Lev. 23:37, 38.
[301] Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 20; Matt. 5:17, 19.
[302] Isa. 66:22, 23. See also the close of chap. xxvii of this
work.
[303] Luke 23:54-56.
[304] James 2:8-12; Matt. 5:17-19; Rom. 3:19, 31.
[305] Heb. 9; 10; Luke 23:46-53; John 19:38-42.
[306] Luke 23:54-56.
[307] Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1, 2, 9; Luke 23:56; 24:1; John 20:1,
19.
[308] Eze. 46:1.
[309] See the origin of the ancient Sabbath in Gen. 2:1-3.
[310] Mark 16:14. That this interview was certainly the same
with that in John 20:19, will be seen from a careful examination of
Luke 24.
[311] Matt. 19:26; Titus 1:2.
[312] Isa. 65:16; Ps. 119:142, 151.
[313] Rom. 1:25.
[314] It is just as easy to change the crucifixion-day from that
day of the week on which Christ was crucified, to one of the six
days on which he was not, as to change the rest-day of the
Creator from that day of the week on which he rested, to one of
the six days on which he wrought in the work of creation.
[315] John 20:26.
[316] John 21.
[317] Acts 1:3. Forty days from the day of the resurrection
would expire on Thursday.
[318] When the resurrection day was “far spent,” the Saviour
and two of the disciples drew near to Emmaus, a village seven
and a half miles from Jerusalem. They constrained him to go in
with them to tarry for the night. While they were eating supper
they discovered that it was Jesus, when he vanished from their
sight. Then they arose and returned to Jerusalem; and after their
arrival, the first meeting of Jesus with the eleven took place. It
could not therefore have lacked but little of sunset, which closed
the day, if not actually upon the second day, when Jesus came
into their midst. Luke 24. In the latter case, the expression, “the
same day at evening being the first day of the week,” would find
an exact parallel in meaning, in the expression, “in the ninth day
of the month at even,” which actually signifies the evening with
which the tenth day of the seventh month commences. Lev.
23:32.
[319] Those who were to come before God from Sabbath to
Sabbath to minister in his temple, were said to come “after seven
days.” 1 Chron. 9:25; 2 Kings 11:5.
[320] “After six days,” instead of being the sixth day, was about
eight days after. Matt. 17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28.
[321] That sunset marks the close of the day, see the close of
chapter viii.
[322] Acts 2:1, 2.
[323] Luke 24:49-53; Acts 1.
[324] Horatio B. Hacket, D. D., Professor of Biblical Literature,
in Newton Theological Institution, thus remarks: “It is generally
supposed that this Pentecost, signalized by the outpouring of the
Spirit, fell on the Jewish Sabbath, our Saturday.”—Commentary
on the Original Text of the Acts, pp. 50, 51.
[325] In 1633, William Prynne, a prisoner in the tower of
London, composed a work in defense of first-day observance,
entitled, “Dissertation on the Lord’s Day Sabbath.” He thus
acknowledges the futility of the argument under consideration:
“No scripture ... prefers or advanceth the work of redemption ...
before the work of creation; both these works being very great
and glorious in themselves; wherefore I cannot believe the work
of redemption, or Christ’s resurrection alone, to be more excellent
and glorious than the work of creation, without sufficient texts and
Scripture grounds to prove it; but may deny it as a presumptuous
fancy or unsound assertion, till satisfactorily proved, as well as
peremptorily averred without proof.”—Page 59. This is the
judgment of a candid advocate of the first day as a Christian
festival. On Acts 20:7, he will be allowed to testify again.
[326] Luke 21:28; Rom. 8:23; Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:30.
[327] Eph. 1:7; Gal. 3:13; Rev. 5:9.
[328] 1 Cor. 11:23-26.
[329] Rom. 6:3-5; Col. 2:12.
[330] Ps. 118:22-24.
[331] Eph. 1:20-23; 2:20, 21; 1 Pet. 2:4-7.
[332] 1 Thess. 5:16.
[333] John 8:56.
[334] See chap. iii.
[335] Matt. 5:17-19.
[336] Eph. 2:13-16; Col. 2:14-17.
[337] Matt. 28:19, 20; Mark 16:15.
[338] Dan. 9:24-27; Acts 9; 10; 11; 26:12-17; Rom. 11:13.
[339] 1 Cor. 11:25; Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:8-12; Dan. 9:27; Eph.
2:11-22.
[340] Matt. 5:17-19; 1 John 3:4, 5; Rom. 4:15.
[341] Heb. 9:1-7; Ex. 25:1-21; Deut. 10:4, 5; 1 Kings 8:9.
[342] Heb., chaps. 7-10; Lev. 16.
[343] Heb. 8:1-5; 9:23, 24.
[344] Rev. 11:19.
[345] Ex. 25:21, 22.
[346] Rom. 3:19-31; 5:8-21; 8:3, 4; 13:8-10; Gal. 3:13, 14; Eph.
6:2, 3; James 2:8-12; 1 John 3:4, 5.
[347] Ex. 19; 20; 24:12; 31:18; Deut. 10.
[348] Lev. 16.
[349] Rom. 3:19-31; 1 John 3:4, 5.
[350] Ps. 40:6-8; Heb. 10.
[351] Heb. 9; 10.
[352] Jer. 31:33; Rom. 8:3, 4; 2 Cor. 3:3.
[353] Ps. 19:7; James 1:25; Ps. 40.
[354] Rom. 5.
[355] Rom. 3:19.
[356] Rom. 3:31.
[357] Rom. 3:20; 1 John 3:4, 5; 2:1, 2.
[358] Jer. 11:16; Rom. 11:17-24.
[359] Rom. 4:16-18; Gal. 3:7-9.
[360] Ex. 19:5, 6; 1 Pet. 2:9, 10.
[361] Gen. 11:1-9; Acts 2:1-11.
[362] Rom. 7:12, 13.
[363] James 2:8-12.
[364] See chapter x.
[365] Acts 13:14.
[366] Verse 27.
[367] Dr. Bloomfield has the following note on this text: “The
words, εἰς τὸ μεταξὺ σαββ., are by many commentators supposed
to mean ‘on some intermediate week-day.’ But that is refuted by
verse 44, and the sense expressed in our common version is, no
doubt, the true one. It is adopted by the best recent
commentators, and confirmed by the ancient versions.” Greek
Testament with English notes, vol. i. p. 521. And Prof. Hacket has
a similar note.—Commentary on Acts, p. 233.
[368] Verses 42-44.
[369] Acts 15.
[370] Acts 15:10, 28, 29; James 2:8-12.
[371] Verses 1, 5.
[372] Verse 29; 21:25.
[373] Ex. 34:15, 16; Num. 25:2; Lev. 17:13, 14; Gen. 9:4; Lev.
3:17; Gen. 34; Lev. 19:29.
[374] Acts 15:19-21.
[375] Acts 16:12-14.
[376] Paul’s manner is exemplified by the following texts, in all
of which it would appear that the meetings in question were upon
the Sabbath. Acts 13:5; 14:1; 17:10, 17; 18:19; 19:8.
[377] Acts 17:1-4.
[378] 1 Thess. 2:14.
[379] 1 Thess. 1:7, 8.
[380] Acts 18:3, 4.
[381] Acts 10:2, 4, 7, 22, 30-35; 13:43; 14:1; 16:13-15; 17:4,
10-12.
[382] 1 Cor. 16:1, 2.
[383] Vindication of the True Sabbath, Battle Creek ed., pp. 51,
52.
[384] Greek Testament with English Notes, vol. ii. p. 173.
[385] Sabbath Manual of the American Tract Society, p. 116.
[386] Family Testament of the American Tract Society, p. 286.
[387] Eze. 46:1.
[388] Prof. Hacket remarks on the length of this voyage: “The
passage on the apostle’s first journey to Europe occupied two
days only; see chapter 16:11. Adverse winds or calms would be
liable, at any season of the year, to occasion this variation.”—
Commentary on Acts, p. 329. This shows how little ground there
is to claim that Paul broke the Sabbath on this voyage. There was
ample time to reach Troas before the Sabbath when he started
from Philippi, had not providential causes hindered.
[389] Acts 20:6-13.
[390] Thus Prof. Whiting renders the phrase: “The disciples
being assembled.” And Sawyer has it: “We being assembled.”
[391] 1 Cor. 11:23-26.
[392] Matt. 26.
[393] Acts 2:42-46.
[394] This fact has been acknowledged by many first-day
commentators. Thus Prof. Hacket comments upon this text: “The
Jews reckoned the day from evening to morning, and on that
principle the evening of the first day of the week would be our
Saturday evening. If Luke reckoned so here, as many
commentators suppose, the apostle then waited for the expiration
of the Jewish Sabbath, and held his last religious service with the
brethren at Troas, at the beginning of the Christian Sabbath, i. e.,
on Saturday evening, and consequently resumed his journey on
Sunday morning.”—Commentary on Acts, pp. 329, 330. But he
endeavors to shield the first-day Sabbath from this fatal
admission by suggesting that Luke probably reckoned time
according to the pagan method, rather than by that which is
ordained in the Scriptures!
Kitto, in noting the fact that this was an evening meeting,
speaks thus: “It has from this last circumstance been inferred that
the assembly commenced after sunset on the Sabbath, at which
hour the first day of the week had commenced, according to the
Jewish reckoning [Jahn’s Bibl. Antiq., sect. 398], which would
hardly agree with the idea of a commemoration of the
resurrection.”—Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature, article, Lord’s
day.
And Prynne, whose testimony relative to redemption as an
argument for the change of the Sabbath has been already
quoted, thus states this point: “Because the text saith there were
many lights in the upper room where they were gathered together,
and that Paul preached from the time of their coming together till
midnight, ... this meeting of the disciples at Troas, and Paul’s
preaching to them, began at evening. The sole doubt will be what
evening this was.... For my own part I conceive clearly that it was
upon Saturday night, as we falsely call it, and not the coming
Sunday night.... Because St. Luke records that it was upon the
first day of the week when this meeting was ... therefore it must
needs be on the Saturday, not on our Sunday evening, since the
Sunday evening in St. Luke’s and the Scripture account was no

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Data Science for Genomics 1st Edition

Amit Kumar Tyagi

Data Science and Data Analytics: Opportunities and

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Contributors xi 3. Machine learning in genomics:

5. Artificial intelligence and data 2. Materials and method 109

13. Genomic data science systems 15. Genomic privacy: performance

9. Edge intelligence 268 20. Conclusion and future scope 274

Genomics and neural networks in

Data Science for Genomics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98352-5.00009-4

FIGURE 1.1 Representation of RNN.

Output Output Output

Info from Info from

Input Input Input

FIGURE 1.2 Unrolling of RNN.

FIGURE 1.3 Mathematical representation of RNN.

2.2 Long short-term memory

FIGURE 1.4 LSTM cell.

FIGURE 1.6 Observed PGVCL load PGVCL Load Data

FIGURE 1.7 Comparison of RNN and

TABLE 1.1 Testing of day-ahead prediction.

Models/methods RMSE (MW) MAPE (%)

SARIMA (2,0,1)  (1,0,1,24) 105.83 1.99

FIGURE 1.8 Comparison of RNN and

TABLE 1.2 Testing of week-ahead prediction.

Models/methods RMSE (MW) MAPE (%)

SARIMA (2,0,1)  (1,0,1,24) 280.81 5.53

3.2 Testing methods effectiveness for NYISO data

FIGURE 1.9 Observed NYISO load data set from

FIGURE 1.10 Comparison of RNN,

TABLE 1.3 Testing of week-ahead prediction.

Models/methods RMSE (MW) MAPE (%)

SARIMA (3, 0, 2)  (2, 0, 2, 24) 56.51 4.9

Application of ensemble learningebased

Data Science for Genomics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98352-5.00018-5

2. Ensemble learningebased classifiers for genetic data classification

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SARIMA (2,0,1) (1,0,1,24) 105.83 1.99

SARIMA (2,0,1) (1,0,1,24) 280.81 5.53

SARIMA (3, 0, 2) (2, 0, 2, 24) 56.51 4.9