Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

When aerobic granular sludge faces emerging contaminants: A review

Tao Guo , Kuan Pan , Yunxin Chen , Yajun Tian , Jing Deng , Jun Li *
Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou,
China

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• The interaction of ECs and AGS is sys­

tematically reviewed.
• POPs, EDCs, antibiotics and micro­
plastics were selected as four typical ECs
• The dense structure and higher EPS
content of AGS provide a lot of help
when facing ECs.
• Biosorption and biodegradation are the
main mechanisms for ECs removal by
AGS.
• A single AGS technology cannot handle
all ECs.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Qilin Wang The evolution of emerging contaminants (ECs) has caused greater requirements and challenges to the current
biological wastewater treatment technology. As one of the most promising biological treatment technologies, the
Keywords: aerobic granular sludge (AGS) process also faces the challenge of ECs. This study summarizes the recent progress
Interaction and characteristics of several representative ECs (persistent organic pollutants, endocrine disrupting chemicals,
Biodegradation
antibiotics, and microplastics) in AGS systems that have garnered widespread attention. Additionally, the
Adsorption
biodegradation and adsorption mechanisms of ECs were discussed, and the interactions between various ECs and
Extracellular polymeric substances
AGS was elucidated. The importance of extracellular polymeric substances for the stabilization of AGS and the
removal of ECs is also discussed. Knowledge gaps and future research directions that may enable the practical
application of AGS are highlighted. Overall, AGS processes show great application potential and this review

Abbreviations: 4CP, 4-monochlorophenol; ACE, acenaphthene; ACY, acenaphthylene; AGS, aerobic granular sludge; AOB, ammonia oxidizing bacteria; AQDS,
anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate; ARGs, antibiotic resistance genes; COD, chemical oxygen demand; DNB, denitrifying bacteria; E1, estrone; E2, 17β-estradiol; ECs,
emerging contaminants; EDC, endocrine disrupting chemical; EE2, 17α-ethinylestradiol; EPS, extracellular polymeric substances; FQs, fluoroquinolones; GAO,
glycogen accumulation organisms; HGT, horizontal gene transfer; LB-EPS, loose bond extracellular polymeric substances; MGEs, mobile genetic elements; MPs,
microplastics; NAP, naphthalene; NOB, nitrite oxidizing bacteria; OTC, oxytetracycline; PA, polyamide; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PAOs, phosphorus
accumulation organisms; PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls; PE, polyethylene; PES, polyethersulfone; PET, polyester; PFASs, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances;
PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid; PN, protein; POPs, persistent organic pollutants; PS, polysaccharides; PSE, polystyrene; PVC,
polyvinyl chloride; SBR, sequencing batch reactor; S-EPS, soluble extracellular polymeric substances; SMX, sulfamethoxazole; SOP, soluble phosphorus; TB-EPS, tight
bond extracellular polymeric substances; TMP, trimethoprim; TN, total nitrogen; TOC, total organic carbon; TP, total phosphorus; WHO, world health organization;
WWTPs, wastewater treatment plants.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tanweilijun@zjut.edu.cn (J. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167792
Received 30 July 2023; Received in revised form 4 October 2023; Accepted 11 October 2023
Available online 12 October 2023
0048-9697/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T. Guo et al.
provides guidance for the future implementation of AGS technology as well as elucidating the mechanism of its
interaction with ECs.
1. Introduction
Since the first report on emerging contaminants (ECs) by Dr.
Richardson of the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(Richardson, 2001), ECs have garnered widespread attention owing to
their harmful health and environmental impacts (Lenka et al., 2021; Yu
et al., 2022). ECs can be broadly defined as any synthetic or naturally
occurring chemicals that are not commonly monitored in the environ­
ment (and largely unregulated) but have the potential to cause known or
suspected adverse ecological and (or) human health effects (Gogoi et al.,
2018). Generally, ECs also have characteristics such as biotoxicity,
environmental persistence, and bioaccumulation. For example, plasti­
cizers, musk scents, etc., have been detected in blood, breast milk and
adipose tissue, which can accumulate in the human body through
ingestion (food and contaminated liquid) as well as interaction with day-
to-day products (detergents, musk compounds in fragrances, etc.) (Khan
et al., 2022; Wilkinson et al., 2016). Notably, ECs are not new chemicals.
They have existed in the human environment for a long time (Wang and
Yu, 2022). They are the main components of various products that are
extensively used in daily life (Sauve and Desrosiers, 2014). Pharma­
ceutical industry, antibiotics, pesticides, surfactants, flame retardants,
fertilizer industry, artificial sweeteners, hormones, per fluorinated
compounds, illegal drugs, clothing adhesives, solvents for cleaning,
Fig. 1. The structure of AGS. (a) The multiple layer structure of AGS. (b) The cell structure (Lin et al., 2014). (c) The EPS structure (Lin et al., 2014).
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Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792
antibacterial, ointments, foam for cushions, cosmetics, beauty care, sun
protection, personal care products, and drinks and packaged food are
the main sources of emerging pollutants. The ubiquity of ECs, even at
trace concentrations, may pose potential risks to aquatic ecosystems and
human health (Lapworth et al., 2012; Petrie et al., 2015; Rathi et al.,
2021). Thus, the monitoring of ECs has become an important issue in the
whole environment.
ECs are ubiquitous throughout the ecosystem and are most often
detected in wastewaters. Notably, numerous ECs escape into ecosys­
tems, especially aquatic ecosystems, through wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs) (Tran et al., 2018). Therefore, many recent studies have
focused on the fate and transport of ECs in wastewater and its impact on
wastewater treatment processes, especially biological treatment pro­
cesses (Rodriguez-Narvaez et al., 2017).
Aerobic granular sludge (AGS) is known as one of the most promising
wastewater biological treatment technologies in the 21st century
(Winkler and van Loosdrecht, 2022). Compared with the conventional
activated sludge, AGS possesses many advantages, such as compact
microbial structure, high settleability, high biological tolerance to high
organic loads and toxicity, and ability to simultaneously degrade
organic carbon and nutrients (Adav et al., 2008; de Kreuk et al., 2007;
Nancharaiah and Reddy, 2018). Recently, some researchers have begun
to focus on the interaction between ECs in wastewater and AGS,
T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Table 1
Persistent organic pollutants in AGS system.
Persistent organic Emerging Removal Removal System EPS Main functional Adverse effects and Reference
pollutants contaminants rate mechanism performance secretion microorganisms recovery
concentration

Acid orange 7 (AO7) 5 mg/L 71.9 ± Biosorption and COD: >95 % EPS (↑) Acinetobacter (azo dyes, ↑) Adapt successfully (Fan et al.,
1.3 % biodegradation TN: >77 % PN (↑) Flavobacterium (EPS, ↑) 2022)
TP: 67.0 %
(–)
Acid red 7 (AR14) 20 mg/L >92 % Biosorption and COD: 80–90 NA Accumulibacter (PAOs, ↓) Adapt successfully (Franca
biodegradation % (–) Tetrasphaera (PAOs, ↓) et al.,
Competibacter (GAOs, ↑) 2015)
Acid Red 14 Increased step- 90 % Biosorption and NA NA NA Adapt successfully (Liu et al.,
wise from 5 to biodegradation 2021)
85 mg/L
Brilliant Green Increased step- 100 % Biosorption and NA NA NA Adapt successfully (Liu et al.,
wise from 5 to biodegradation 2021)
85 mg/L
Reactive Blue 19 Increased step- >75 % Biosorption and NA NA NA Disintegration of (Liu et al.,
wise from 5 to biodegradation granules 2021)
85 mg/L
Reactive yellow 15 Increased step- 100 % Biosorption and TOC: >95 % NA Rhodococcus (dyes, ↑) Adapt successfully (Sarvajith
wise from 5 to biodegradation TN: 95.9 ± Bacillus (dyes, ↑) et al.,
50 mg/L 2.31 % Stenotrophomonas (dyes, ↑) 2018)
TP: (↓) Nitrospirae (AOB, NOB, ↑)
Acidic orange II 5 mg/L NA Biosorption and COD: 91.3 ± NA Thauera (↑) Adapt successfully (Zhu et al.,
Methyl orange 5 mg/L biodegradation 3.4 % Ottowia (↑) 2020)
Congo red 5 mg/L TN: 67.6 %– Petrimonas (↑)
amino black 5 mg/L 89.4 %
TP: 84.4 %–
94.4 %
Perfluorooctanoic 0.1 mg/L 32.0 ± Biosorption COD (↓) S-EPS (↑) Nitrosomonadaceae (AOB, ↓) Removal of N and P (Yang
acid (PFAO) 1.1 % TN (↓) LB-EPS Nitrospira (NOB, ↓) inhibited; not et al.,
SOP (↓) (↑) Ca_Accumulibacter (PAOs, ↓) adapted to recovery 2020)
TB-EPS Thauera (EPS, DNB, ↓)
(↑)
Perfluorooctanoic 0.5 mg/L 35.8 ± Biosorption COD (↓) S-EPS (↑) Nitrosomonadaceae (AOB, ↓) Removal of N and P (Yang
acid (PFAO) 1.8 % TN (↓) LB-EPS Nitrospira (NOB, ↓) inhibited; not et al.,
SOP (↓) (↑) Ca_Accumulibacter (PAOs, ↓) adapted to recovery 2020)
TB-EPS Thauera (EPS, DNB, ↓)
(↑)
Perfluorooctanoic 1.0 mg/L 36.4 ± Biosorption COD (↓) S-EPS: Nitrosomonadaceae (AOB, ↓) Removal of N and P (Yang
acid (PFAO) 1.2 % TN: 80.1 ± (↑) Nitrospira (NOB, ↓) inhibited; not et al.,
2.5 % (↓) LB-EPS: Ca_Accumulibacter (PAOs, ↓) adapted to recovery 2020)
SOP: 55.1 ± (↑) Thauera (EPS, DNB, ↓)
1.7 %(↓) TB-EPS:
(↑)
Perfluorooctane 0.1 mg/L 89.2 ± Biosorption COD (–) EPS (↑) Candidatus_Competibacter Deteriorated sludge (Xu et al.,
sulfonic acid 0.9 % TN (↑) (AGS stability, ↓) flocculation; not 2023)
(PFOS) SOP (–) Dechloromonas (DNB, ↑) adapted to recovery
Perfluorooctane 0.5 mg/L 71.9 ± Biosorption COD (–) EPS (↑) Candidatus_Competibacter Deteriorated sludge (Xu et al.,
sulfonic acid 1.4 % TN (↑) (AGS stability, ↓) flocculation; not 2023)
(PFOS) SOP (–) Dechloromonas (DNB, ↑) adapted to recovery
Perfluorooctane 5.0 mg/L 48.1 ± Biosorption COD (–) EPS (↑) Candidatus_Competibacter Deteriorated sludge (Xu et al.,
sulfonic acid 1.9 % TN (↑) (AGS stability, ↓) flocculation; not 2023)
(PFOS) SOP (–) Dechloromonas (DNB, ↑) adapted to recovery

NA: not available; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TOC: total organic carbon; TN: total nitrogen; SOP: soluble phosphorus; TP: total phosphorus; EPS: extracellular
polymeric substances; S-EPS: soluble extracellular polymeric substances; LB-EPS: loose bond extracellular polymeric substances; TB-EPS: tight bond extracellular
polymeric substances; PN: protein; PS: polysaccharides; AOB: ammonia oxidizing bacteria; NOB: nitrite oxidizing bacteria; PAOs: phosphorus accumulation organisms;
GAOs: glycogen accumulation organisms; DNB: denitrifying bacteria; ↑: increase; –: no significant changes; ↓: decrease.

including the performance of AGS, characteristics of AGS, fate of ECs,
among others (Cai et al., 2021; Fan et al., 2022; Huang et al., 2022; Yang
et al., 2020). However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has sys­
tematically illustrated the interaction between ECs in wastewater and
AGS. In this review, >60 research articles on the interaction between
AGS and ECs were collected and classified into four major categories,
including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), endocrine disrupting
chemical (EDC), antibiotics and microplastics (MPs). POPs mainly focus
on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and azo dyes, with the
number of articles being 5 and 8, respectively. And there are 7, 31 and 9
research papers about EDCs, antibiotics and MPs, respectively. Overall,
this study aims to provide a systematic review of the latest knowledge on
the occurrence, fate, and removal of ECs in an AGS system, summarize
the interaction mechanism between AGS and ECs, provides guidance for
the future implementation of AGS technology.
2. Scrutinizing AGS structure
In terms of the definition, AGS is a type of microbial aggregates
formed by self-aggregation, and its most distinctive feature is its supe­
rior settling performance and high biomass concentrations. Winkler and
van Loosdrecht (2022) called AGS as the most potential wastewater
biological treatment technology in the 21st century. Currently, this
technology has several pilot- and full-scale applications in municipal
and industrial wastewater treatment (Giesen et al., 2013; Guo et al.,
2020; Li et al., 2014; Pronk et al., 2015); these studies have

3
T. Guo et al.
Fig. 2. Degradation of azo dyes. (a) Synergistic degradation of azo dyes in AGS (Zhu et al., 2020). (b) Degradation pathway of Acid Orange 7 in AGS (Fan
et al., 2022).
demonstrated the advantages of AGS in terms of the processing effi­
ciency, land preservation, and energy consumption.
The AGS system has a radial multi-layer structure and many channels
are distributed inside (Fig. 1a). The multi-layer structure hinders the
diffusion of dissolved oxygen, which results in different microenviron­
ments (surface aerobic-internal anoxic-core anaerobic) from the outside
to the inside (Awang and Shaaban, 2018; Chiu et al., 2007). This implies
that AGS, with in a single reactor, can provide the optimal degradation
environment required for different pollutants or pollutants at different
degradation stages, and the most characteristic representative is its
simultaneous nitrification and denitrification process (Chen et al., 2020;
Di Capua et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2016). Additionally, the internal dis­
tribution of multiple channels facilitates the transfer of materials within
the particles and the metabolic cooperation between microorganisms
(Kirkland et al., 2020).
As a special form of activated sludge, the granulation process of AGS
follows four steps: a) random movement and collision of sludge, b)
reversible attraction and initial aggregation, c) irreversible aggregation
and growth through EPS bridging, and d) compact-structure formation
by shear force (Ali et al., 2021). Each phase performed different mech­
anism as they are affected by different factors. In granulation, out of four
stages, step b) and c) play the major role in determining a successful
development of aerobic granules, which calls initial stage. The initial
stages of granulation are influenced by different primary factors such as
surface hydrophobicity, EPS, charge neutralization and hydrodynamic
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shear force (Kent et al., 2018). Above factors play a crucial role in the
initiation of sludge aggregation by strengthening the interaction be­
tween microbial cells.
EPS are a complex mixture of high molecular weight biopolymers,
including polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and humic
substances (Felz et al., 2016). During the granulation, it can not only
provide irreversible aggregation force as a binder, it also effectively
promotes the stability of AGS and the removal of contaminants. As the
protective shell of AGS, the gel-forming behavior of EPS significantly
contributed to the strong structural stability of AGS (Lin et al., 2010).
Change of surrounding conditions such as pH, temperature and influent
composition can trigger the compositional changes of the EPS matrix,
and EPS can protect cells from dehydration, external heavy metals, and
toxic compounds (Cai et al., 2021). Moreover, EPS contains a variety of
organic functional groups including carboxyl, hydroxyl, amine, etc., an
affinity of target pollutants to AGS surface may be presented (Gao et al.,
2011; Vijayaraghavan and Yun, 2008). Therefore, refractory organics
tend to be adsorbed to the AGS surface and subsequently exposed to
their degraders. Especially, for those low solubility pollutants, this
biosorption can even promote the bioavailability of them via creating
more contact between them and the functional microorganisms, which
may eventually promote the removal of these pollutants (Cai et al.,
2021).
T. Guo et al.
3. When AGS facing ECs
3.1. Persistent organic pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) refer to organic pollutants that
can migrate long distances through various environmental media and
exist in the ecological environment for a long time. They have long-term
persistence, bioaccumulation, semi-volatility and high toxicity, and pose
serious hazards to human health and the environment (Han and Currell,
2017). Several studies have revealed that organisms exposed to POPs
might lead to congenital malformations and reproductive disorders (Lee
et al., 2014; Nadal et al., 2015; Tartu et al., 2015). Several POPs have
been identified to be carcinogenic and potential endocrine-disrupting
substances (Fång et al., 2015; Ong et al., 2018). The first batch of
POPs incorporated into the Stockholm Convention includes various
types of pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aro­
matic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and dioxins. In recent years, scholars
believe that pollutants that also have the characteristics of POPs include
dyes, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), and other organic
substances. The representative POPs in AGS are listed in Table 1 and
discussed in detail below.
3.1.1. Azo dyes
Azo dyes (a class of organic compounds with aryl groups attached to
both ends of the azo group) are the most widely used synthetic dyes for
textiles and garments in the printing and dyeing process (Singh et al.,
2015). They are used in the dyeing and printing of a variety of natural
and synthetic fibers, paint colors, plastics, and rubber. Under special
conditions, it can decompose and produce >20 kinds of carcinogenic
aromatic amines, which have the potential to alter the DNA structure of
the human body, leading to the formation of lesions and ultimately
inducing cancer (Pinheiro et al., 2004). In the process of production and
application, approximately 10–15 % of dyes are released into the envi­
ronment without treatment and can seriously affect the health of or­
ganisms (Rawat et al., 2016). Therefore, it is imperative to ensure
thorough treatment of wastewater containing azo dyes before discharge.
Many methods are applied to treat such wastewater, among which mi­
crobial decolorization is considered to be the most effective and envi­
ronmentally friendly method (Franca et al., 2020).
Generally, there are specific steps in the degradation of azo dye
molecules during biological treatment. The first is microbial-mediated
decolorization (reductive cleavage of azo bonds) under anaerobic con­
ditions (Li et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2018a,b,c); namely, it is a step that
relies mainly on azo reductases that utilize microbial reducing equiva­
lents generated from co-metabolized organic substrates to catalyze the
cleavage of azo bonds (Imran et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018a,b,c). The
second is the aerobic degradation of azo dye intermediates (mainly ar­
omatic amines) that are readily biodegradable under aerobic conditions
(Saxe et al., 2006). The study conducted by Tomei et al. (2016) also
confirmed this perspective; they believed that the combined anaerobic-
aerobic process was a better mode of textile wastewater treatment than a
single anaerobic or aerobic process.
Notably, the special layered structure of AGS enables the production
of different oxygen concentration distributions inside and outside the
particles. This enables AGS to achieve simultaneous nitrification and
denitrification in conventional sewage treatment, and is also an
important reason for its superior denitrification capability. Similarly,
the oxygen concentration gradient of AGS favors the degradation of azo
dyes (Fig. 2a). In addition, thanks to the longer retention time of AGS in
system, the slower-growing decolorizing bacteria can be enriched,
thereby promoting the removal of azo dyes (Franca et al., 2015).
Zhu et al. (2020) used anaerobic granules (for anaerobic decolor­
ization) as the core, and successfully cultivated AGS that can achieve
complete mineralization of azo dyes in a sequencing batch reactor
(SBR). Microbial community analysis demonstrated successful immo­
bilization of genera responsible for anaerobic decolorization and aerobic
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degradation in AGS. Franca et al. (2019) investigated the biodegrada­
tion pathway of an azo dye (acid red 14) in AGS-SBR. Their results
showed that acid red 14 is first converted into the intermediate aromatic
amine 4-aminonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid through a reduction process
of the anaerobic azo bond (biological decolorization); it is then miner­
alized by the deamination and hydroxylation of the aromatic ring under
the action of aerobic organisms. Fan et al. (2022) discussed the
biodegradation pathway of another azo dye (acid orange 7) within the
AGS system, stating that acid orange 7 is first degraded to aromatic
amines, followed by gradual mineralization by desulfonation, deami­
nation, decarboxylation, hydroxylation, and hydrolysis (Fig. 2b). Man­
avi et al. (2017) believed that in the AGS system, the azo dyes first
reached the anaerobic core area through the channel in the granule, and
then the anaerobic bacteria will use the reducing equivalent produced
by the oxidation of some organic compounds to reduce the azo dye.
Eventually, the produced aromatic amines and other products will
migrate from the anaerobic core area to the aerobic outer layer through
the channel, and the final mineralization will be completed by the aer­
obic bacterial population.
In general, during the treatment of azo dyes, AGS utilizes its general
advantages over activated sludge, such as the outstanding settling
characteristics and their resistance to high organic loads and toxic
compounds, and its radial oxygen concentration difference and longer
sludge age are conductive to complete mineralization of azo dyes.
Although some studies have reported the disintegration of particles in
the treatment of anthraquinone dyes, this does not prevent AGS from
being a promising technology for the treatment of wastewater contain­
ing azo dyes (Liu et al., 2021). Chaudhari et al. (2017) were able to
successfully implement anthraquinone dye using AGS grown from
strains from dye-contaminated areas. At present, further research
focused on the removal mechanism and metabolic pathway of azo dyes
in the AGS system is needed. Simultaneously, studies should focus on
investigating the treatment of wastewater containing real textile print­
ing dyes to facilitate the application of AGS technology in practical
engineering.
3.1.2. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
PFASs are a class of diverse man-made chemicals, which widely exist
in numerous consumer products, such as cookware, personal-care
products, and food packaging (Lenka et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2017).
PFASs have increasingly garnered attention from the public, scientific,
and regulatory sectors owing to their carcinogenic, reproductive, and
endocrine disrupting effects (Gagliano et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2017).
Previous researches have illustrated that WWTPs are notable emission
routes of PFASs to the environment, indicating both liquid and solid
discharge routes (Gagliano et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2017).
In biological wastewater treatment, adsorption and biodegradation
are the two main ways to remove pollutants. However, due to the strong
binding of the C–F bond (513 ± 10 kJ/mol) in PFAS, it is extremely
difficult to be biodegraded, so it is mainly removed by sludge adsorption
in WWTPs (Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2021; Kibambe et al., 2020). Ji et al.
(2021) established a perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)-loaded SBR sys­
tem, wherein the adsorption of activated sludge ensures the removal of
almost all PFOSs, and PFOSs adsorbed on the surface of the activated
sludge will hinder the contact of the microbial community with waste­
water, thereby reducing the removal of COD and ammonia nitrogen by
the activated sludge system. Additionally, the presence of PFOSs also
affects the surface integrity and structure of activated sludge flocs,
stimulates the secretion of microbial EPSs, reducing the richness and
diversity of microorganisms, and leads to sludge bulking and decreases
settling. Similarly, Cao et al. (2022) also confirmed that the removal of
PFOSs in the activated sludge system basically depends on adsorption;
moreover, they indicated the use of biological treatment alone to deal
with PFAS-containing wastewater is inadequate, and other treatment
methods need to be employed. Furthermore, Ding et al. (2021) used
photocatalyst Bi12O17Cl2 to coat polyurethane filler and then
T. Guo et al.
immobilized microorganisms on the surface of the filler to collabora­
tively remove low-concentration perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). The
microorganisms increased the total removal percentage by 30.7 % to a
final percentage of 79.7 ± 9.4 % in comparison with the photocatalytic
method alone. In this system, the photocatalytic reaction can transform
recalcitrant pollutants to biodegradable intermediates. Afterwards, the
biodegradable intermediates can be immediately consumed by micro­
organisms, while the active groups produced via photocatalysis can
directly decompose PFOA more effectively rather than degrading
biodegradable intermediates. In addition, the photo-generated electron-
hole pairs, which act as extracellular electron donors or acceptors, can
influence the efficiency of extracellular electron transfer; and thus
altering microbial metabolism. Currently, the development of some
special strains also provides the possibility for the biological treatment
of PFASs, while these methods are time-consuming and technically
demanding (Hamid et al., 2020).
Although AGS is recognized as an emerging and efficient wastewater
biological treatment technology, it has yet to demonstrate significant
advantages in treating PFASs. Yang et al. (2020) showed that when the
PFOA concentration ranged from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L, the AGS system
removed approximately 32.0 to 36.4 % of PFOA in wastewater after
stable operation by adsorption. However, the adsorbed PFOA signifi­
cantly stimulated the secretion of EPS and deteriorated the settleability
of AGS, while the abundance of functional microorganisms (such as
Rhodospirillaceae, Thauera, and Azoarcus) associated with nutrient
removal decreased, leading to the reduction of biological removal of
nitrogen and phosphorus. Moreover, PFOA delayed the formation of
AGS, and affected the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and
total nitrogen (TN) during the granule maturation period (Xie et al.,
2023). Yan et al. (2021) systematically studied the interaction between
protein components in EPSs and PFOA, indicating that proteins have a
vital function in the attachment of PFOA to EPS/sludge. Specifically, the
structure of proteins can attract the C–F chains and carboxylic head of
PFOA through hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic attraction due
to the presence of aromatic and amide groups. This also implies that AGS
with higher EPS content can easily adsorb excess PFASs, and their
accumulation in AGS will not only affect microorganisms, but also block
the channels of AGS, resulting in its disintegration. The adsorption of
PFOS clearly decreased the stability and deteriorated the sludge floc­
culation in AGS. Notably, the presence of PFOS resulted in a decrease in
the abundance of Nitrospira (nitrite-oxidizing bacteria) and an increase
in the abundance of Dechloromonas (denitrifying bacteria). This phe­
nomenon indirectly improves the removal efficiency of TN in the system
by realizing the short-cut nitrification-denitrification process (Xu et al.,
2023).
Regarding the aforementioned issue, Zheng et al. (2023) successfully
adapted the AGS system to the long-term low-dose load (0.05 mg/L) and
short-term high-dose shock (2.00 mg/L) of PFOA by changing the
operation strategy (reducing aeration time and increasing anaerobic and
anoxic times); however, the effects of long-term load of 0.5 mg/L of
PFOA on AGS could not be alleviated easily. The potential explanation
for this was that short-term shock and long-term load of PFOA mainly
affected loosely bound and tightly bound EPSs, respectively. Adjusting
the operation strategy decreased the EPS content and re-established the
nutrient and oxygen transport channels of AGS, which contributed to the
recovery of AGS.
To date, there is no practical technique to fully mineralize PFASs on
an industrial scale. Hence, the destruction of PFAS (different types) and
other trace contaminants needs to be explored in depth in future studies.
3.1.3. Other POPs
Pesticides were among the earliest POPs to be extensively studied,
and some harmful POPs have been banned in many countries (McGinley
et al., 2023). Currently, the most widely distributed POPs in the envi­
ronment are carbendazim, simazine, and diuron (Postigo et al., 2021).
Muñoz-Palazon et al. (2023) applied AGS for the remediation of
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groundwater contaminated by the aforementioned pesticides, and suc­
cessfully removed carbendazim and simazine from water; however,
significant biosorption and desorption processes occurred during the
removal of diuron. Insecticides also showed significant inhibition of
fungi but not archaea in AGS, and the Comamonadaceae family and
Hassallia genus played a role in the removal of pesticides. Chlorinated
phenolic compounds are components of many pesticides and biocides. 4-
monochlorophenol (4CP), an important intermediate product of this
class of substances, frequently occurs in aquatic environments. How­
ever, the inhibitory and toxic effects of 4CP were mitigated using AGS,
whether trained or not (Carucci et al., 2009).
PAHs are a class of organic compounds comprising only carbon and
hydrogen atoms, and their degradability is inversely proportional to the
number of their aromatic rings (Dat and Chang, 2017). PAHs are ubiq­
uitous in wastewater from the petrochemical industry, and are
frequently detected in urban wastewater (Mojiri et al., 2019). The
conventional activated sludge method cannot effectively resolve the
inhibition and toxicity of PAHs, and their accumulation in sludge can
further deteriorate treatment performance (Oberoi and Philip, 2017). A
study by Ofman et al. (2020) on the treatment of wastewater containing
naphthalene (NAP), acenaphthylene (ACY), and acenaphthene (ACE)
using AGS showed that it can resist up to 710.00, 160.00, and 440.00 μg/
L of NAP, ACY, and ACE, respectively, and can achieve their partial
removal. Among them, NAP and ACY were mainly removed during the
aerobic stage, whereas ACE was mainly removed during the anaerobic
stage. Furthermore, Ofman et al. (2021) state that mass balance bio­
sorption is main process of PAH removal from sewage, and that as the
amount of adsorbed PAHs increased, the condition of AGS deteriorated.
Although the removal of PAHs mainly depends on the adsorption of
EPSs, it is important to note that the adsorbed PAHs are not static.
Notably, although EPSs help microorganisms to form a stable biofilm
structure, EPSs can also increase their bioavailability and promote
biodegradation by adsorbing PAHs (Zhang et al., 2015).
3.2. Endocrine disrupting chemicals
As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), the term
endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) refers to “an exogenous substance
or mixture that can alter normal hormonal functions in humans and
animals, and consequently affects the endocrine system of living or­
ganisms” (Gao et al., 2020). By imitating or inhibiting normal hormones
from binding to receptors, EDCs prevent hormonal signaling from
occurring. Thus, human health problems such as reproductive issues,
cardiovascular problems, neurological harm, and diabetes are caused by
activating receptors without their consent. Therefore, the widespread
existence of EDCs in the water environment has garnered extensive
attention from scholars, and WWTPs are particularly important in col­
lecting and providing clean water for human production and living.
During the biological treatment of WWTPs, several EDCs are
deconjugated by the β-glucuronidases and the arylsulfatase enzymes
(Azizi et al., 2022). Activated sludge is an effective method for removing
estrogens (E1), estradiols (E2), and 17-ethinylestradiols (EE) during
WWTP treatment. The elimination mechanisms of EDCs commonly
associated with sludge adsorption and biodegradation (Esperanza et al.,
2004; Layton et al., 2000). Among them, E1 and E2 are more easily
biodegraded, EE2 is relatively durable, and E2, which is more hydro­
philic and degradable, may be converted into E1 before removal (Ternes
et al., 1999).
Balest et al. (2008) compared the removal of several selected EDCs in
laboratory- and pilot-scale AGS reactors and full-scale activated sludge
systems, and found that AGS reactors not only ensured their efficient
operation, also showed better EDC removal efficiency compared with
activated sludge systems. Castellanos et al. (2021a) stated that in an AGS
system, apart from achieving high COD removal, the nitrogen and
phosphorus removal performance was effective in the biodegradation of
E2 and EE2. The removal percentages of E2 and EE2 reached 99.0 and
T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Table 2
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in AGS system.
Endocrine-disrupting Emerging Removal Removal System EPS Main functional Adverse effects Reference
chemicals contaminants rate mechanism performance secretion microorganisms and recovery
concentration

17β-Estradiol (E2)/17α- 20/20 μg/L 99 %/93 Biosorption and COD: 94 % NA NA Adapt (Castellanos
ethinylestradiol (EE2) % biodegradation TN: 71 % successfully et al., 2021a)
TP: 91 %
17β-Estradiol (E2)/17α- 20/20 μg/L NA NA COD: 93 % PS (↑) NA N, P and AGS (Castellanos
ethinylestradiol (EE2) TN: 71 % PN (↑) were impacted; et al., 2021b)
TP: 87 % quick recovery
v17β-Estradiol (E2)/17α- 2/2/2 mg/L 100/77/ Biosorption and COD (–) EPS (↑) Chryseobacterium Adapt (Ely et al.,
ethinylestradiol (EE2)/ 95 % biodegradation TN (–) PN/PS (↑) successfully 2022)
bisphenol A (BPA) TP (↓) (↑) Flavobacterium (↑)
17β-Estradiol (E2)/17α- 10/10 μg/L 93.5/ Biosorption and COD: 92.5 ± EPS (↑) Zoogloea (EPS, ↑) The removal of (Zheng et al.,
ethinylestradiol (EE2) 84.8 % biodegradation 2.7 % PN/PS Sphingomonas (E2 to COD, N and P 2021)
TN: 75.0 ± (↓) E1, ↑) recovered rapidly
1.2 % Pseudomonas (E2 to
TP: 82.0 ± E1, ↑)
2.3 % Brevundinomas (↑)

NA: not available; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorus; EPS: extracellular polymeric substances; PN: protein; PS: polysaccharides.

93.0 % under concentrations of 20 μg/L in the influent, respectively.
Zheng et al. (2021) also investigated the removal behaviors of E2 and
EE2 by AGS; their results showed that 93.5 and 84.8 % of E2 and EE2
were removed at initial concentrations of 10 μg/L during operation for
120 days, respectively, with no effect on the treatment efficiency of the
system. At the same time, the stimulation of EDC in water made the
Zoogloea, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, and Brevundinomas highly
enriched in the reactor, and then EPS secretion and EDC degradation
helped the stability of the AGS reactor. Additionally, Castellanos et al.
(2021b) observed a transient deterioration of the handling properties of
the AGS system and a slight disintegration of the granules under EDC
loading conditions; however, their long-term exposure to these com­
pounds is accompanied by a gradual adaptation and recovery of their
activity, and a stable nutrient removal efficiency re-established.
Overall, AGS can adapt well to the pressure induced by EDCs and
maintain its superior performance, and representative examples are
listed in Table 2. Compared with the conventional activated sludge
process, AGS also shows a more superior treatment efficiency. However,
its application in actual conditions remains limited at present, and the
unstable phenomenon at the initial stage of load also requires further
research.
3.3. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are a class of substances with anti-pathogen or other
activities, and existing antibiotics include natural and synthetic antibi­
otics. Natural antibiotics are produced by microorganisms, and synthetic
antibiotics are some synthetic products obtained by the structural
modification of natural antibiotics (Kovalakova et al., 2020). Since the
clinical application of penicillin, antibiotics have widely been used in
medicine, animal husbandry, and aquaculture, and the species has
grown rapidly in recent years (Van Boeckel et al., 2015). Normally, only
approximately 30 % of antibiotics can be metabolized by humans or
organisms, resulting in the discharge of a large amount of antibiotics
into the environment as metabolites or even in their original state,
causing pollution. Antibiotics are referred to as “pseudo-persistent”
contaminants, even trace amounts of these substances can pose signifi­
cant risks to the ecological environment. For example, the long-term
discharge of antibiotics in low doses into the environment will lead to
the enhancement of drug resistance of susceptible bacteria (Larsson and
Flach, 2022; Vandenbroucke-Grauls and Kluytmans, 2022). The envi­
ronmental presence of drug resistance genes does not only pose a threat
to the ecological environment, but also to human health. As well as
causing bacterial resistance, antibiotics can also harm other organisms.
The strong resistance of AGS enables great potential in the treatment
of wastewater containing antibiotics, and representative examples are
listed in Table 3 and discussed in detail below. Wang et al. (2018a),
Wang et al. (2018b), and Wang et al. (2018c) investigated the removal of
tetracycline by AGS in an SBR. Although the addition of tetracycline
(300 ± 10 μg/L in influent) negatively affected the granular quality,
after microbial adaptation, >90 % of tetracycline was removed, while
conventional pollutants were effectively removed as well. Adsorption
kinetics experiments confirmed that the removal of tetracycline mainly
relies on biodegradation, and functional bacterial groups related to
tetracycline degradation (Chryseobacterium, Actinotignum, Lactococcus,
Shinella and Clavibacter) gradually dominate AGS. Nivedhita et al.
(2022) clearly state that granulation and biological nutrient removal are
not severely impacted by the elevated concentrations of oxytetracycline.
On the contrary, formation of well-settling AGS in the SBR fed with 100
μg/L oxytetracycline was relatively faster than the SBR fed without
oxytetracycline. However, nitrogen and phosphorus removals were
lower in the oxytetracycline fed SBR, which showed a gradual
improvement after establishment of oxytetracycline-tolerant commu­
nity (Micrococcus luteus). Wang et al. (2019a) used raw piggery waste­
water for AGS cultivation, which include five antibiotics (kanamycin,
tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, and erythromycin), with con­
centrations up to the range of 29.4–44.1 μg/L. The results showed no
negative impact on the granulation process, while the richer population
structure of AGS is conducive to the degradation of antibiotics, and the
relatively high protein content in TB-EPS was emphasized for sludge
granulation and biomass stabilization. Furthermore, oxytetracycline
(300 μg/L) was also added to wastewater to test its effect on AGS. Wang
et al. (2019b) stated that AGS can effectively remove COD, NH+ 4 -N, total
phosphorus (TP), and oxytetracycline simultaneously. Moreover, the
results of this study confirmed that both adsorption and degradation
played a role in the removal of oxytetracycline, and its biodegradation
clearly increased after the AGS adapted to oxytetracycline. The analysis
of metagenome sequencing revealed that the enzymes, such as glycosyl
transferases, polysaccharide lyases and auxiliary activities, may play an
important role in the removal of oxytetracycline. Amorim et al. (2014)
selected the synthetic wastewater containing fluoroquinolones (FQs),
which intermittently fed with FQs to AGS-SBR, at concentrations of 9
and 32 μM. The presence of ofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ciprofloxacin
was not significant associated with the COD removal, and the toxic ef­
fects of FQs did not affect the population structure of microorganisms.
During the FQs feeding, nitrate and phosphate accumulation was
observed at the effluent, suggesting that the efficiencies of denitrifica­
tion and dephosphorization was inhibited. However, the capacity of the
system to return to its initial conditions after withdrawal of the FQ
compounds in the inlet stream. This is clearly related to the compact
multi-layer structure of AGS, and the EPSs on the granule surface also
prevents the penetration of toxic substances, which could resist the

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T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Table 3
Antibiotics in aerobic granular sludge system.
Antibiotics Emerging Removal Removal System EPS Main functional Adverse effects Reference
contaminants rate mechanism performance secretion microorganisms and recovery
concentration

Trimethoprim (TMP) 200 μg/L 30 % Biodegradation COD: >90 % EPS (↓) Nitrosomonas (AOB, ↑) Adapt (Barros
sulfamethoxazole 200 μg/L 60 % Biosorption (–) Nitrotoga (NOB, ↑) successfully, but et al., 2021)
(SMX) TN: 60–80 % structural integrity
(–) was impaired
TP: 60–70 %
(–)
Chloroxylenol 5 mg/L 90.5–99.6 Biodegradation COD: 49.5 EPS (↑) Nitrobacter (AOB, ↑) Removal of N was (Guo et al.,
(PCMX) % and biosorption %–68.8 % Nitrospira (AOB, ↑) inhibited, recover 2022)
NH+ 4 -N: >70 after adaptation
%
Sulfamethoxazole 2 μg/L 84 ± 8 % Biodegradation COD: 93 % NA Zoogloea (EPS, DNB, ↑) Adapt successfully (Kang et al.,
(SMX) and biosorption (–) Dechloromonas (DNB, ↑) 2018)
N: (–)
P: (–)
Enrofloxacin (ENR) 6 mg/L NA NA COD: (–) EPS (↓) Flavobacterium (↑) Removal of N and (Li et al.,
NH+ 4 -N: (–) P were inhibited, 2020)
TN: (↓) recover after
TP: (↓) adaptation
Sulfadiazine (SDZ) 6 mg/L NA NA COD: (–) EPS (↑) Candidatus_Competibacter Removal of P was (Li et al.,
NH+ 4 -N: (–) (↑) inhibited, recover 2020)
TN: (–) after adaptation
TP: (↓)
Triclosan (TCS) 6 mg/L NA NA COD: (–) EPS (↑) Defluviicoccus (↑) Removal of N and (Li et al.,
NH+ 4 -N: (–) P were inhibited 2020)
TN: (↓)
TP: (↓)
Oxytetracycine (OTC) 100 μg/L 99 % Biodegradation COD: >97 % ALE (↑) Brevundimonas sp. (↑) Removal of N was (Nivedhita
and biosorption (–) inhibited, recover et al., 2022)
TN: >98 % after adaptation
(–)
TP: 70 % (↓)
Sulfadiazine (SDZ) 10 μg/L 90.6 ± 0.1 Biodegradation COD: 90.2 ± EPS (↑) Thauera Adapt successfully (Wan et al.,
% and biosorption 1.2 % 2018)
NH+ 4 -N: 98.7
± 0.9 %
Sulfadiazine (SDZ) 100 μg/L 96.2 ± 0.4 Biodegradation COD: 89.6 ± EPS (↑) Thauera Adapt successfully (Wan et al.,
% and biosorption 0.6 % 2018)
NH+ 4 -N: 98.5
± 1.0 %
Sulfadiazine (SDZ) 1000 μg/L 99.1 ± 0.1 Biodegradation COD: 89.4 ± EPS (↑) Azoarcus Adapt successfully (Wan et al.,
% and biosorption 0.8 % 2018)
NH+ 4 -N: 98.7
± 0.6 %
Tetracycline 300 ± 10 μg/L 90 % Biodegradation COD: 98 % NA Chryseobacterium Adapt successfully (Wang
and biosorption NH+ 4 -N: 88 % Actinotignum et al.,
TP: 98 % (↑) Lactococcus 2018a,b,c)
Shinella
Clavibacter
Oxytetracycline 300 μg/L 89.0 % Biodegradation COD: 98.0 % NA Comamonas Adapt successfully (Wang
(OTC) and biosorption NH+ 4 -N: 90.0 Lactococcus et al.,
% Fluviicola 2019a,b)
TP: 97.9 %
Sulfamethoxazole 0.5 mg/L 100 % Biodegradation COD: 90.0 % EPS (↑) Candidatus_competibacter Adapt successfully (Zhang
(SMX) and biosorption TN: 76.8 % PN/PS et al., 2023)
TP: 65.0 % (↑)
Sulfamethoxazole 1.0 mg/L 100 % Biodegradation COD: 90.0 % EPS (↓) NA Removal of N was (Zhang
(SMX) and biosorption TN: 68.2 % PN/PS inhibited et al., 2023)
(↓) (↓)
TP: 65.0 %
Sulfamethoxazole 5.0 mg/L 100 % Biodegradation COD: 90.0 % EPS (↓) Thiothrix Removal of N was (Zhang
(SMX) and biosorption TN: <70.0 % PN/PS inhibited et al., 2023)
(↓) (↓)
TP: 65.0 %

NA: not available; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorus; NH+ 4 -N: ammonia nitrogen; ALE: alginate-like exopolysaccharides; EPS:
extracellular polymeric substances; PN: protein; PS: polysaccharides; ↑: increase; –: no significant changes; ↓: decrease.

antibiotics by trapping, thereby protecting the stability of the microbial
community inside the AGS (Li et al., 2021a,b). Cheng et al. (2023)
summarized the formation process of AGS under antibiotic pressure into
three stages: i) adaptation to the stress environment; ii) formation of
early aggregates; and iii) maturation of polyphosphate accumulating
organisms (PAOs) enriched in microbial granules.
The weakening of the treatment performance by the long-term
accumulation of antibiotics has always been a serious problem in the
biological treatment of antibiotic-containing wastewater. Notably, the
long-term accumulation of antibiotics will also damage the function and

8
T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Fig. 3. The interaction of AGS and antibiotics. (a) Biotransformation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) by AGS (Zhang et al., 2023). (b) Removal and transport of anti­
biotics in piggery wastewater treatment by AGS (Wang et al., 2019a). (c) Oxygen concentration gradient and antibiotic distribution in AGS (Wang et al., 2019a,b). (d)
Loose structure of EPS by over-loaded tetracycline (Li et al., 2021a,b).

morphology of granules, leading to the reduction in treatment effi­
ciency. Zhang et al. (2023) continuously tested a sulfamethoxazole
(SMX)-loaded AGS system for 240 days; their results showed that, when
the concentration of loaded SMX reached 1 and 5 mg/L, it will inhibited
the growth of microorganisms, affected the nitrogen removal capacity of
the system, deteriorated the sludge settling performance, and caused a
large number of filamentous bacteria to multiply (Fig. 3a). He et al.
(2021a) and He et al. (2021b) confirmed that long-term exposure to OTC
resulted in a permanent collapse of the nitrogen and phosphorus
removal capacity of AGS. Duque et al. (2011) inoculated a strain capable
of biodegrading 2-fluorophenol to avoided the accumulation of antibi­
otics, and successfully maintain the structural integrity of AGS. Mendes
Barros et al. (2021) added a redox mediator anthraquinone-2,6-
disulfonate (AQDS) to promote the removal of trimethoprim (TMP)
and SMX, and then recover the AGS structure. Therefore, further
research is needed on the accumulation of antibiotics in AGS to address
its negative impact on long-running AGS systems.
The presence of antibiotics in the water environment poses another
more severe issue, namely, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). ARGs can
spread rapidly in bacterial communities under the influence of hori­
zontal gene transfer (HGT), an evolutionary driving force for gene
movement among various microorganisms (Van Etten and Bhatta­
charya, 2020). This inevitably leads to the accumulation and spread of
ARGs in the AGS system, which becomes the major reservoir of ARG and
related antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Guo et al. (2022) found that the
granular structure of AGS was more conducive to the enrichment of
ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). However, in a study of an­
timicrobials and resistance determinants in full-scale flocculent and
aerobic granular sludge treatment systems, Pallares-Vega et al. (2021)
found that activated sludge and AGS technologies displayed comparable
performances in their ability to remove antimicrobials and resistant
determinants. Furthermore, Li et al. (2021a) and Li et al. (2021b)
studied the fates of intracellular and extracellular ARGs during a pilot-
scale AGS system; their results showed that both intracellular and
extracellular ARGs was enriched, but exhibited different shift patterns,
and the growth rate of extracellular ARGs was higher than that of
intracellular ARGs. Many studies have shown that the propagation of
ARGs in water environment should continue to be monitored, and the
interaction and fate of ARGs in the AGS system are also worthy of further
study.
3.4. Microplastics
Plastic has been widely used in human production and life. However,
it normally poses negative impacts on the environment after utilization
(Wei et al., 2020). Among them, plastic particles smaller than 5 mm are
the most concerning and are called microplastics (MPs). They are
characterized by their long residence times, high stability, high potential
to become fragmented, and ability to adsorb other contaminants (Bhatt
et al., 2021). The accumulation of plastic in aquatic environments has
garnered widespread attention, and WWTPs are a major release source
of MP. The most common MPs found in WWTPs are polyethylene (PE),
polystyrene (PSE), polyester (PET), polyamide (PA), and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) (Lares et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020).
Usually, in WWTPs, primary treatment plays an important role in MPs
removal (Talvitie et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2019), and the removal rate
was <20 % in secondary treatment (Murphy et al., 2016). However,
when MPs are subjected to secondary treatment, the EPSs secreted by

9
T. Guo et al.
Fig. 4. The nitrogen transformation and shape of AGS when facing microplastics. (a) Potential influence mechanism of microplastics on environmental nitrogen
transformation and nitrogen cycling (Shen et al., 2022). (b) Surface morphologies and SEM photos of the AGS affected by four microplastics (Wang et al., 2021).
microorganisms is capable of capturing the MPs, and the sludge could
act as net to capture the MPs in the system when present at high con­
centrations (Gopalakrishnan and Kashian, 2022). AGS, known for its
high sludge concentration and high EPS content, may be more prone to
the enrichment of MPs. Additionally, the enrichment of MPs will un­
doubtedly affect the performance of AGS.
In conventional activated sludge process, MPs significantly affected
the biotransformation of inorganic nitrogen, but showed only weak ef­
fects on biological phosphorus removal (He et al., 2021a,b; Shen et al.,
2022). This could be attributed to the greater sensitivity of bacteria
involved in nitrogen removal compared to phosphorus accumulating
organisms. Four theories have been proposed to explain the potential
influence mechanism of nitrogen transformation by MPs (Fig. 4a): i)
inhibition of functional bacteria; ii) increase in the oxygen content of
media; iii) suppression of coding gene expression; and iv) change in the
activities of functional enzymes. Therefore, MPs usually exhibit more
10
Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792
adverse effects on nitrogen removal than phosphorus removal. Dai et al.
(2022) analyzed the effects of PVC MPs on an AGS system and detected
that PVC MPs promoted the activity of phosphorus accumulation or­
ganisms (PAOs), reduced the transformation of inorganic nitrogen, and
significantly decreased the abundance of denitrifying bacteria. More­
over, PVC MPs also stimulate the production of EPS. Wang et al. (2021)
confirmed that in the presence of PVC MPs in the AGS system, the
nitrification function is rapidly lost, EPS production increased, microbial
diversity reduced, and microbial communities shifted. However, in the
presence of PE and PS MPs, no measurable inhibition was observed on
nitrification. Moreover, Qin et al. (2020) investigated the effects of
polyethersulfone (PES) MPs concentration on the nitrifying process of
the AGS system and the results showed that the addition of PES MPs
posed insignificant effect on the removal of ammonia nitrogen and TN,
but inhibited the activities of nitrite oxidase and nitrite reductase. The
improvement in the TN removal rate may benefit from the adsorption of
T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

Table 4
Microplastics in AGS system.
Microplastics Emerging Removal Removal System EPS Main functional Adverse effects Reference
contaminants rate mechanism performance secretion microorganisms and recovery
concentration

Polyvinyl chloride 0.5 mg/L NA NA COD: 78.3 % NA NA Adapt (Dai et al.,

(PVC) ± 6.4 %(–) successfully 2020)
TIN: 41.9 %
(↓)
TP: 90.0 % (–)
Polyvinyl chloride 5.0 mg/L NA NA COD: 78.3 % PN/PS Candidatus Competibacter Adapt (Dai et al.,
(PVC) ± 6.4 %(–) (↓) (GAOs, ↑) successfully 2020)
TIN:41.6 % ±
12.6 % (↓)
TP: 38.8 % (↓)
Polyvinyl chloride 50.0 mg/L NA NA COD: 78.3 % LB-EPS Thauera (DNB, ↓) Adapt (Dai et al.,
(PVC) ± 6.4 %(–) (↑) Defluviicoccus (GAOs, ↓) successfully 2020)
TIN: 41.6 % ± TB-EPS Tetrasphaera (P removal, ↑)
12.6 % (↓) (↑)
TP: 87.7 % (↓) PN/PS
(↑)
Polyether sulfone 0.1 g/L NA NA NH+ 4 -N: 99.4 PS (↑) Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII Adapt (Qin et al.,
(PES) % (–) PN (↓) (–) successfully 2020)
TN: 57.6 % (↑)
Polyether sulfone 0.2 g/L NA NA NH+ 4 -N: 99.3 PS (↑) Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII Adapt (Qin et al.,
(PES) % (–) PN (↓) (–) successfully 2020)
TN: 58.4 % (↑)
Polyether sulfone 0.5 g/L NA NA NH+ 4 -N: 99.2 PS (↑) Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII Adapt (Qin et al.,
(PES) % (–) PN (↓) (↓) successfully 2020)
TN: 61.9 % (↑)
Polystyrene (PS) 1 mg/L 97.42 % Biosorption COD: 92.1 % EPS (↑) Neomegalonema Adapt (Huang et al.,
(↓) PS (↑) (filamentous bacteria, ↑) successfully 2022)
TN: 98.8 %– PN (↓) Candidatus_Competibacter
99.6 % (–) (COD, EPS, ↓)
TP: 95.7 % (↓)
Polystyrene (PS) 20 mg/L 96.46 % Biosorption COD: 90.6 % EPS (↑) Neomegalonema Rough and (Huang et al.,
(↓) PS (↑) (filamentous bacteria, ↑) irregular 2022)
TN: 98.8 %– PN (↓) Candidatus_Competibacter morphology of
99.6 % (–) (COD, EPS, ↓) the AGS
TP: 92.8 % (↓)
Polyethylene (PE) 1 mg/L NA NA COD: 89.0 % PS (↑) NA Adapt (Jachimowicz
± 5.0 (–) PN (↑) successfully et al., 2022)
TN: 56.7 ± TB-EPS
11.6 % (–) (↑)
TP: 70.1 ±
12.9 % (–)
Polyethylene (PE) 10 mg/L NA NA COD: 87.9 % PS (↑) NA Adapt (Jachimowicz
± 3.7 (–) PN (↑) successfully et al., 2022)
TN: 59.5 ± TB-EPS
10.9 (–) (↑)
TP: 68.1 ±
17.3 % (–)
Polyethylene (PE) 50 mg/L NA NA COD: 88.7 % PS (↑) NA Adapt (Jachimowicz
± 3.4 (–) PN (↑) successfully et al., 2022)
TN: 52.8 ± TB-EPS
13.3 % (–) (↑)
TP: 66.9 ±
17.2 % (–)
Degradable 5/15/40 mg/L NA NA COD>88 % (–) EPS (↑) Defluviicoccus (GAOs, ↑) Adapt (Song et al.,
microplastic TP > 91 % (–) Candidatus_Competibacter successfully 2022)
polylactic acid TIN>86 % (–) (GAOs, ↑)
(DMP-PLA) Thiothrix (DNB, ↑)
Polyamide 66 0.1 g/L NA NA COD: 96.6 % NA Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII Adapt (Zhao et al.,
(PA66) (↑) (↑) successfully 2020)
NH+ 4 -N: 94.6 Rhodobacteraceae (DNB, ↓)
% (–)
TN: 67.2 % (↑)
Polyamide 66 0.2 g/L NA NA COD: 95.5 % NA Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII Adapt (Zhao et al.,
(PA66) (↑) (↓) successfully 2020)
NH+ 4 -N: 95.6 Rhodobacteraceae (DNB, ↑)
% (–)
TN: 70.1 % (↑)
Polyamide 66 0.5 g/L NA NA COD: 95.1 % NA Bacillales_Incertae Sedis XII adapt successfully (Zhao et al.,
(PA66) (↑) (↓) 2020)
NH+ 4 -N: 94.7 Rhodobacteraceae (DNB, ↑)
% (–)
TN: 65.4 % (↑)

11
T. Guo et al.
NA: not available; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TIN: total inorganic nitrogen; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorus; NH+
cellular polymeric substances; LB-EPS: loose bond extracellular polymeric substances; TB-EPS: tight bond extracellular polymeric substances; PN: protein; PS: poly­
saccharides; GAOs: glycogen accumulation organisms; DNB: denitrifying bacteria; ↑: increase; –: no significant changes; ↓: decrease.
nitrogenous organic pollutants from the wastewater owing to the special
surface properties of MPs. Therefore, the effects of MPs of different
materials on the AGS system are not the same. Although AGS can remove
a part of pollutants through adsorption, the presence of MPs is not
beneficial to the AGS system. However, Song et al. (2022) successfully
used degradable MPs (polylactic acid) to strengthen the AGS stability
and consequently stabilize the pollutant removal. This approach
enhanced EPS production and maintained abundant hydrogen bonds in
the interior structure of AGS. This also provides a new idea to study the
utilization of MPs in an AGS system (Table 4).
EPSs play a crucial role in the formation and structural stability of
AGS as well as its interactions with microbial cells. Additionally, the
stimulating effect of MPs on EPS production has been mentioned in
many studies. Jachimowicz et al. (2022) claimed that the presence of PE
does not affect the performance of AGS, while also enhancing the pro­
duction of EPSs and alginate in AGS. Hou et al. (2022) proposed that PS
MPs are more likely to be adsorbed on the surface and then embedded in
AGS, resulting in a new stable relationship between microalgae and
bacteria and ensuring the stable performance of wastewater treatment.
Moreover, Huang et al. (2022) confirmed that EPSs could act as adaptive
responses and protect AGS from stress damage. In general, EPSs play an
important role in protecting internal microbes from the adverse effects
of MP and maintain the performance of the AGS system.
Overall, the existence of MPs is more harmful than beneficial to the
AGS system. The impact of MPs on AGS includes, but is not limited to,
the degradation of handling performance and the destruction of granule
stability. The abundant EPSs in AGS can provide a higher removal rate of
MPs than activated sludge, but this also results in a larger number of MPs
in AGS. Simultaneously, the strong adsorption capacity of MPs makes
them more complicated, and also brings a lot of uncertainty to their
influence on the AGS system.
4. Future perspectives
The complexity of ECs exceeds the previous understanding of con­
ventional pollutants, and the disintegration of AGS and the collapse of
the system also often occur. Thus, some challenging issues still need to
be rectified when AGS systems exposed to ECs:
➓ Stability of AGS under long-term operation: ECs in the AGS system
are not completely degraded; in contrast, a large number of ECs are
adsorbed on the surface of AGS by EPSs. Thus, long-term accumu­
lation of ECs is predictable; but its impact on the long-term operation
of AGS is unpredictable.
➓ Fate of the adsorbed ECs: in addition to the ECs removed by
biodegradation, another part of the adsorbed ECs is also concerning.
For example, the transformation of ECs under long-term interaction
with EPS, fate of ECs when they enter excess sludge, and co-processes
with excess sludge need to be studied.
➓ Adding coupling treatment methods to enhance the removal of ECs:
for some ECs that are hard to treat and more harmful, the addition of
pre-/post-treatment methods coupled with the AGS system to co-
treat ECs and reduce their spread in the water environment needs
to be considered. Additionally, the development of some special
bacterial agents can be a feasible way to achieve the above goals.
➓ Identification of novel bacteria and multi-species synergy mecha­
nisms within AGS: purification and metabolic reconstitution of
strains are direct evidence of their function and can act as tools for
the guidance and optimization of AGS. Moreover, the degradation of
some ECs depends on different functional species in different mi­
croenvironments in AGS, and the synergistic mechanism between
them is also worth further investigating.
12
Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792
4 -N: ammonia nitrogen; EPS: extra­
➓ Resource recovery in the AGS system in the presence of ECs: the
recovery of new useful resources, such as EPSs and polysaccharides,
in the AGS system is in its infancy, and the adsorption of ECs and
EPSs will inevitably pose potential risks to the resource recovery
process. Therefore, the quantification and characterization of ECs
still require intensive research.
5. Conclusions
In this study, recent advances and interaction mechanisms of ECs in
the AGS system were critically reviewed. The reviewed ECs covered
POPs (azo dyes and PFASs), EDCs, antibiotics, and MPs of current in­
terest. The system treating capacity, physicochemical biological prop­
erties of AGS, role of EPSs, and fate of ECs were evaluated. The key
conclusions of this review can be summarized as follows:
➓ Compared with ordinary activated sludge, AGS has a layered struc­
ture and higher EPS content, enabling it to cope with the toxicity and
impact of most ECs at the early stage and maintain a relatively stable
ability to remove conventional pollutants.
➓ Adsorption and biodegradation are the main mechanisms for the
removal of ECs. AGS can enhance the biodegradation of some ECs
through its rich ecological microenvironment and longer sludge age,
or through the biosorption of some ECs owing to its higher EPS
content.
➓ Certain ECs may enhance the treating capacity or formation of AGS.
For example, the short-cut nitrification and denitrification process
achieved by inhibiting NOB acts as a crystal nucleus to enhance the
granulation process and as an adsorbent to remove pollutants in
sewage.
➓ Excessive adsorption of ECs is prone to cause the instability of AGS,
and some macromolecules will block the internal channels of AGS,
eventually leading to the disintegration of sludge.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tao Guo: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Kuan Pan: Writing – review & editing.
Yunxin Chen: Writing – review & editing. Yajun Tian: Writing – review
& editing. Jing Deng: Writing – review & editing. Jun Li: Conceptual­
ization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51478433), the Zhejiang Key Research and Development
Program, China (No. 2023C03151 and No. 2021C03171).
T. Guo et al. Science of the Total Environment 907 (2024) 167792

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