DCC 3132 - STATISTICS

CHAPTER 2
SAMPLING & DATA COLLECTION METHODS

2.1 SAMPLING
- Sampling is the process of selecting a sample from a population. Since the information
obtained from the sample is used to generalise or to make a conclusion about the population,
the sample must be selected in such a way so that it will accurately represent its population.
- Sampling techniques are scientific methods of selecting samples from population. As far as
possible, the samples selected must be random and representative of the population from
which the samples are selected.
- This includes factors such as homogeneity (or heterogeneity) of the population, the availability
of the sampling frame, (list individuals or items from which the sample can be obtained), the
research budget and the importance of the research. Some common sampling frames include
the telephone directory, car ownership list, credit card customer list, voter list and student list.

2.2 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

- Sampling techniques can be classified broadly into two categories: the non-probability
sampling technique and probability sampling technique.

2.2.1 Non-probability Sampling Techniques

- Non-probability sampling techniques are used when generalization concerning the population
is not required or when sampling frames are difficult to obtain. One of the most common non-
probability sampling techniques is convenience sampling.
i) Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is recommended for pre-testing questionnaires, the gathering of
ideas and insights or the forming of hypotheses. In this method the selection of elements
or sampling units is left primarily to the interviewers.
ii) Judgemental Sampling
The population elements are selected based on the judgement of the researcher. The
researcher selects a respondent whom feels possesses certain characteristics that
represent the population of interest based on his experience.

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iii) Snowball Sampling

An initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. After an initial group of
respondent is being interviewed, these respondents are asked to indentify others who
belong to the target of population of interest. This procedure is applied until the
researcher obtains the required number of respondents.
iv) Quota Sampling
Researcher observes the specific characteristics of potential respondents before making
the selections.

2.2.2. Probability Sampling Techniques

- Probability sampling techniques is used when a researcher plans to make inferences about
the populations. The sample is selected based on known probabilities.
i) Simple random sampling
A simple random sample is selected from the population in such a way that each item
has the same chance of being selected as a sample. The sample is drawn randomly
from a sampling frame. This method is similar to a lottery system in which the winners
are selected from pool of contestants without bias.

ii) Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides
the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata.

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iii) Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an
ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic sampling is an equal-
probability method. In this approach, progression through the list is treated circularly,
with a return to the top once the end of the list is passed. The sampling starts by selecting
an element from the list at random and then every kth element in the frame is selected,
where k, the sampling interval (sometimes known as the skip): this is calculated as:

where n is the sample size, and N is the population size.

iv) Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire population is divided into
groups, or cluster, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All observations
in the selected clusters are included in the sample. Cluster sampling is typically used
when the researcher cannot get a complete list of the members of a population they wish
to study but can get a complete list of groups or 'clusters' of the population.

v) Multi-stage sampling
This method is designed to reduce time and cost when with samples from very large
populations. Suppose we need a random sample 2000 residents from the Malaysian
population. Since Malaysia consists of 14 states, with many districts within each state
and many villages within each districts, we could apply the multi-stage sampling
technique.

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2.2.3 Strengths and Weakness of Basic Sampling Techniques

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Techniques Strengths Weakness

Simple Random Easily applied. Results can be projected Difficult to obtain sampling frame,
Sampling on population expensive, sometimes no
assurance of representativeness

Systematic Sampling Easier to implement than simple random Can decrease representativeness
sampling if certain patterns exist in sampling
frame

Stratified Sampling Includes all important subpopulations, Difficult to select relevant

precision is improved stratification variables, not feasible
to stratify on many variables,
expensive

Cluster Sampling Easy to implement, cost effective and Imprecise, difficult to compute and
work is reduced to interpret results

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Techniques Strengths Weakness

Convenience Less expensive, less time consuming, Selection bias, sample not
Sampling most convenient representative, not recommended
for descriptive or causal research

Judgemental Less expensive, less time consuming, Does not allow generalization,
Sampling most convenient subjective

Quota Sampling Sample can be controlled for certain Selection bias, no assurance of
characteristics representativeness

Snowball Sampling Can estimate rare characteristics Time consuming

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2.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The common methods of data collection are as follows.
i) Face-to-face interview (personal interview)
- An interviewer asks the question, normally from a questionnaire and records the
responses. It is also known as a personal interview.
- Advantages: Allows an interview to clarify terms that the respondent do not understand
ii) Telephone interview
- An interview ask questions from a prepared questionnaire. These interviews are normally
short in duration. This method has some limitations because respondents are restricted
only to individuals who can be reached by telephone
- Advantages: Less expensive than personal interview
iii) Direct questionnaire (questionnaires are distributed and collected personally)
- The researcher will get greet respondents and explain briefly his intention before giving
the questionnaire to the respondents. The researchers will wait for respondents to
complete the questionnaire
iv) Mail or postal questionnaire (questionnaires are sent and received back through the
post)
- Is sent to each respondent with a stamped addressed envelope attached. The
respondents are requested to answer the questions in the questionnaire and return it to
the researcher within a certain period
- Advantages: Cheaper than personal interview, coverage wider, no interview influence,
respondent has more time to think of proper response
- Disadvantages: normally the rate of response is quite low, it may be biased because only
particular type of people will reply, nobody is on hand to explain the question, resulting in
questions incorrectly answered or not answered at all, only very simple questions can be
asked, questions may not be answered in a particular sequence and the respondent can
see the whole form before filling up.
v) Direct observations (respondents are observed and data recorded)
- Mostly commonly used method of collecting statistical data. Direct observation is used in
works, studies and organizations. It is also used by social scientist to learn about the
customs and habits of people or communities
- Disadvantages: The observer needs to be highly skilled and unbiased.

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vi) Other methods

Nowadays, many new techniques of gathering information are available. For example,
information can be collected through IT, electronic e-mail, internet survey and short
messaging service (SMS)

2.4 DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE

- Questionnaires play a central role in the data collection process.
- A well-designed questionnaire efficiently collects the required data with a minimum number
of errors.
- The questionnaire should be short and simple so that the respondents will not spend too
much time filling the questionnaire.
- It facilitates the coding and capture of data and it leads to an overall reduction in the cost
and time associated with data collection and processing.
- The biggest challenge in developing a questionnaire is to translate the objectives of the
survey into a well-conceptualized and methodologically sound study.
- Before you can design the questionnaire, you must plan the survey as a whole, including the
objectives, data needs and analysis.
- Once the questionnaire is designed, it must be tested before you can proceed with the data
collection.
- There is a lot to consider when developing a questionnaire. The following is a list of some
key points to think about:
 Is the introduction informative? Does it stimulate respondent interest?
 Are the words simple, direct and familiar to all respondents?
 Do the questions read well? Does the overall questionnaire flow well?
 Are the questions clear and as specific as possible?
 Does the questionnaire begin with easy and interesting questions?
 Is there a specific time reference?
 Are any of the questions double-barreled?
 Are any questions leading or loaded?
 Should the questions be open- or close-ended? If the questions are close-ended are
the response categories mutually exclusive and exhaustive?
 Are the questions applicable to all respondent

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2.5 PRIMARY DATA

- Researchers collect primary data from primary sources or from samples.
- For example, a researcher interviews the respondents and records their responses.
- A researcher may go to the supermarket and observe the buying habits of the public during
festive seasons.

Advantages of Primary Data

- Data is more accurate of the research
- Data can consistent with the objectives of the research
- The researcher will be able to explain how the data are collected and the limitations of
their use
- The data needed by decision-makers are not available from secondary sources. In such
cases , primary data must be gathered
Disadvantages of primary data
- Data are that it requires more time
- Manpower and a higher cost to collect
- Most researchers have limited budget and time to complete the project

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2.6 SECONDARY DATA

- Secondary data are normally published data collected by other parties.
- Government agencies such as Bank Negara, the Department of Statistics, Ministry of
International Trade and Industry.
- Other agencies publish their data regularly.
- Provide secondary sources of data to many researchers.
- In addition, bulletins, journals, newspapers and other publications also provide useful
secondary data to researchers.
- Some of the secondary data are not current.
- A researcher needs to choose wisely the secondary data for his research.

Advantages of Secondary Data

- It is relatively inexpensive because there is no fieldwork required.
- It is easily accessible from the internet, journals, annuals reports and newspaper.
- It also requires less time to collect.
- Some data such as import.
- Export data are only available from secondary sources.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

- May lack accuracy because the measurement procedure.
- Method of data collection is not explained by the previous researchers.
- The data may be biased because the original purpose of data collection is not known.
- The data may not meet the specific needs.
- Objectives of the current research.
- May be too many constraints involved.

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TUTORIAL

1. One of the methods of collecting primary data is by postal questionnaires. Explain clearly the
disadvantages and disadvantage of postal questionnaire.
2. A common method of collecting primary data is by direct interview. Explain the advantages and
disadvantages of this method of data collection.
3. State a suitable method of data collection for each of the following
a) To determine the acceptance level of a newly introduced soft drink.
b) To collect current information on investors of Amanah Saham Bumiputra.
c) To obtain the opinions of the public on the yearly renewal of driving licenses.
4. The Public Service Department wants to carry out a survey on students studying overseas under
its sponsorship. The objective of the study is to collect information on the problems faced by
them.
a) State the most suitable data collection method for this study
b) Explain why the method you chose is better than the others.

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