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Preface
I’ve been fortunate to receive help from many colleagues while working on
this book. Geraldine Joncich Clifford, professor emeritus at the University of
California, Berkeley, has been my mentor since 1969. Frederick Rudolph,
professor emeritus at Williams College, has shared materials from his own
projects dealing with the history of American colleges and universities.
Professor Jack Schuster, Claremont Graduate University, started talking with
me about this topic when we both were graduate students at Berkeley—a
conversation that has been going for three decades. Scholars who frequently
gave me insights on higher education include James Axtell of the College of
William and Mary; Thomas Dyer, Jr., of the University of Georgia; John T.
Casteen III, of the University of Virginia; Bruce Leslie of the State
University of New York, Brockport; Kathryn Spoehr of Brown University;
Lawrence Wiseman of the College of William and Mary; James W. Thelin of
the University of Tennessee; Peter C. Thelin of West Valley Community
College; and Alan W. Blazar of the Marquandia Society for Studies in
History and Literature. The late Howard Bowen of Claremont Graduate
School encouraged me to write about the history of colleges and universities.
Donald Warren, my trusted dean at Indiana University and fellow historian of
education, has long supported my work. Edward Kifer of the University of
Kentucky patiently read chapter drafts, with concern for my understanding of
statistical analysis and public policy as part of the historical record.
My writing has benefited from longtime membership in two groups: the
History of Education Society and the Association for the Study of Higher
Education (ASHE). I owe special thanks to fellow members who have
compared research notes over many years. These include Linda Eisenmann of
the University of Massachusetts, Boston; Maresi Nerad of Berkeley and the
University of Washington; George Keller; Katherine C. Reynolds of the
University of South Carolina; Jan Lawrence of the University of Michigan;
Ann Austin of Michigan State University; Jana Nidiffer of the University of
Michigan; Edward McClellan of Indiana University; and Hugh Hawkins of
Amherst College.
Graduate students with whom I have worked demonstrate the adage that
ultimately the teacher becomes the taught. At the College of William and
Mary, Marsha Van Dyke Krotseng co-authored numerous articles with me
and contributed original scholarship on governors and higher education.
Barbara K. Townsend, Louise Robertson, Jane Minto Bailey, Robert Seal,
Bill Wilson, Deborah DiCroce, Elizabeth Crowther, and Todd Cockrell were
research assistants on various aspects of higher education’s history. When I
was teaching at Indiana University, David Campaigne briefed me on all
aspects of academe, literally ranging from A to Z (athletics to zoology).
Gerald St. Amand kept me posted on contemporary higher-education issues.
Gayle Williams educated me on religion in American colleges and
universities. Doctoral students at the University of Kentucky—Amy E.
Wells, Eric Moyen, Robin Geiger, Chris Beckham, Dexter Alexander,
Richard Trollinger, and Jason Edwards—have been research assistants and
co-authors on a variety of publications. The original contributions that all
these have made in their own scholarly works provide a good sign of vitality
for teaching and research about higher education.
One reason I was able to complete writing this book was the generous
support provided by the University of Kentucky in the 2000 – 2001 academic
year when I was named University Research Professor. I am grateful to
Professor Alan DeYoung for having nominated me for this honor, and to
Vice President James Boling and Kathy Stanwix-Hay of the University of
Kentucky Research Foundation, who were advocates for my book project. I
owe special thanks to Vice President Wendy Baldwin and to Dean James
Cibulka, Associate Dean Robert Shapiro, and to Professor Jeffery Bieber of
the University of Kentucky’s College of Education for providing funding for
editing and indexing expenses.
I wish to thank the following individuals and institutions for their kind
permission to reproduce original sources as illustrations: Martha Mitchell of
Brown University’s Archives and Special Collections; Craig Kridel of the
University of South Carolina’s Museum of Education and its Hawley Higher
Education Postcard Collection; Susan Snyder of the University of California,
Berkeley’s Bancroft Library; Mary Cory of Illini Media Company
Publications and The Illio yearbook of the University of Illinois; Stacy
Gould, university archivist of the College of William and Mary’s Department
of Special Collections; Daria D’Arienzo, head of Special Collections and
Archives at Amherst College; and Hilary Johnson of Time Pix and the Time
and Life Picture Corporation for the covers of Life magazine; and MCA
Home Video, Inc., for the 1932 Marx Brothers movie poster. Terry
Birdwhistell and Tom Rosko of the University of Kentucky Libraries have
helped me with numerous questions about campus archives, oral histories,
and special collections.
For the first edition, Sharon Thelin-Blackburn read chapter manuscripts,
with attention to improving my transitions. Dan Vantreese, director of
graphics for the College of Education at the University of Kentucky, excelled
at taking care of technical arrangements for the book illustrations. Mary V.
Yates skillfully copyedited the manuscript. Alexa Selph drafted the index.
Jacqueline Wehmueller, executive editor at the Johns Hopkins University
Press, combined expertise and support at all stages of the project.
I am especially grateful to Ashleigh Elliott McKown of Johns Hopkins
University Press for her encouragement and expertise in making the second
edition come to fruition as a timely part of American higher education in the
twenty-first century.
Starting in 1988, I have had the honor of being a Johns Hopkins
University Press author. With this project involving a new, third edition,
Editorial Director Greg Britton has given me advice and encouragement. I
especially appreciate the patient support from him and his JHUP colleagues
and staff. Assistant Editor Catherine Goldstead has been thoughtful in
working with me on all phases of the manuscript. Jacqueline Wehmueller,
with whom I have worked on JHUP books and projects for thirty years, once
again provided commentary and insights. Juliana McCarthy, managing editor,
and Robert M. Brown, assistant production editor, were responsible for
copyediting and production. Hilary Jacqmin, Kathryn Marguy, and Morgan
Shahan worked on various aspects of marketing and promotion. I am grateful
to the JHUP team for their oversight and excellence in bringing the third
edition to life.
In drafting the new final chapter for the third edition, I continued to rely
on colleagues I have cited earlier for their insights that shaped the first and
second editions. I am grateful for the fresh commentary associated with the
third edition provided by Michael A. Olivas of the University of Houston,
William Tierney of the University of Southern California, Katherine
Chaddock of the University of South Carolina, Bruce Kimball of The Ohio
State University, Stanley Katz of Princeton University, Bruce Leslie of
SUNY-Brockport, James Axtell of the College of William and Mary, Richard
Trollinger of Centre College, Charles Clotfelter of Duke University, Luther
Spoehr of Brown University, Marybeth Gasman of the University of
Pennsylvania, Linda Eisenmann of Wheaton College, Margaret Clements of
Indiana University, Terry Birdwhistell of the University of Kentucky,
Dorothy Finnegan of the College of William and Mary, Christian Anderson
of the University of South Carolina, Ralph Crystal of the University of
Kentucky, Bennett Boggs of the National Conference of State Legislatures,
and Gerald St. Amand. Jonathan Imber of Wellesley College, who is editor of
the scholarly journal Society, provided a forum for my articles about higher
education’s recent trends. I owe special thanks to Kim Nehls, executive
director of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, for having
supported my work at ASHE conferences over several years.
History is, of course, about change and mortality. I accept that and note
with great sadness the deaths of dear colleagues who assisted me in my
scholarship over many years: Thomas Dyer, Jr., of the University of Georgia;
James Medoff of Harvard University, who also was my college classmate and
friend at Brown University; Frederick Rudolph of Williams College; Hugh
Hawkins of Amherst College; Clifford Adelman of the U.S. Department of
Education and the Institute of Higher Education Policy; J. Douglas Toma of
the University of Georgia; Grady Bogue of the University of Tennessee; Jack
Quinlan of Pomona College; Cameron Fincher of the University of Georgia;
Barbara K. Townsend of the University of Missouri, who was my first
doctoral advisee at the College of William and Mary; David Underdown,
who was Sterling Professor of History at Yale and for whom I served as
research assistant as an undergraduate when we both were at Brown
University; and George Keller. I also mourn the loss of several of my
mentors from the University of California, Berkeley: Harold L. Hodgkinson,
Martin Trow, Clark Kerr, Henry F. May, Sanford Elberg, Lawrence Levine,
Carlo Cipolla, and Earl F. Cheit.
Editors Scott Jaschik, Douglas Lederman, and Sarah Bray of Inside
Higher Ed have been critical analysts and encouraging editors for my op-ed
essays on higher-education topics related to the third edition. Editor Kalpana
Jain of The Conversation invited me to write a lengthy essay about the
legacies of California higher education since 1960. The resultant piece,
published in November 2017, allowed me to research themes that were
central to the third edition’s chapter 10.
Some authors complain that writing is difficult. Not me. Thanks to these
many thoughtful colleagues, I have enjoyed writing this book. I hope they
enjoy reading it.
Introduction
Historians and Higher Education
These selected vignettes at the start of the book are intended to convey the
diversity and change in American higher education by suggesting “reasonable
doubt” about the permanence of many present-day policies and practices. The
best way for people who analyze higher education—whether as presidents,
deans, board members, professors, or concerned parents—to acquire this
sense of discovery and fascination with the complexities of their institutional
past is to “get dirty with data,” to work with unwieldy sources and disparate
materials in archives and files.
The stakes of this charge become higher when college and university
presidents invoke historical cases to dramatize a contemporary problem.
Presidents of state universities lament that their annual appropriations from
the state legislature are now inadequate. The typical historical evidence is that
state support had been 75 percent of the university’s operating budget in 1910
but had fallen to about 20 percent in 2000.9 On close inspection, the logic of
this presidential argument is dubious, and sometimes disingenuous. A
legitimate comparison of past and present campus budgets calls for additional
work. First, a cardinal rule among statisticians is that comparing percentages
over time without including the actual dollar amounts is incomplete and
potentially misleading. Second, the dollars in one era must be indexed for
inflation if comparisons with dollars in another era are to be meaningful.
And, in the case of the state university budget’s changes between 1910 and
2000, it’s important to add some historical context. The contemporary
president is probably hinting that the state government has become stingy. In
some states that might be true. In most states, however, the actual dollar
amounts appropriated for the state university have increased each year. A
state university in 1910 probably received such a high percentage of state
support simply because the numerous other sources of funding we rely on
today were either minuscule or nonexistent. Federal research and
development grants, federal student financial aid transfers, alumni fund
contributions, interest from large endowments, and major private donations
have all been added to the university operating budget in recent decades.
Furthermore, most accounts of the financing of higher education in 1910
indicate that state university presidents considered their governors and
legislators to be both frugal and unpredictable.10 Teaching loads were
relatively heavy, and few state universities provided much in the way of
sophisticated laboratories, libraries, or resources for doctoral programs. The
residual point is that in American higher education, nostalgia for the past
needs to be tempered with some careful analyses. What started out as an
“obvious” comparison of higher education’s past and present finances has
turned out to be a thorny, complex issue that resists simplistic judgment.
In 1968, sociologists Christopher Jencks and David Riesman noted in their
introduction to their remarkable book, The Academic Revolution, that serious
writing and systematic research about higher education had surged since
about 1960. They recalled, “When we began studying higher education more
than a decade ago, the number of scholars in the field was small enough so
that we could know almost all of them personally and keep up a
correspondence with them. Today this is no longer possible. Even keeping up
with published reports is a full-time occupation, especially if one defines ‘the
problem’ to include not only higher education, but its relationship to
American society.”11 This proliferation of scholarship about colleges and
universities has continued over the past three decades. Given this remarkable
energy, one aim of my book is to bring together the fresh research by
historians who since about 1970 have made interesting contributions to our
understanding of higher education. Heretofore these works may have not
always been acknowledged as part of the broad interpretation of American
higher education.
Hence the account I present relies greatly on a synthesis of articles, books,
and monographs by dozens of established historians. In particular, I owe a
debt to Frederick Rudolph for his 1962 classic, The American College and
University: A History. My book is, in essence, an attempt to acknowledge
Rudolph’s work—not in the sense of being an imitation but rather in an effort
to try my own hand and to carry out some suggestions made in the
introductory essay I wrote in 1990 as part of a reissue of his influential
book.12
The need for a new book now is twofold. Rudolph’s 1962 classic work has
some limits. First, it stops with coverage around 1960, and we now have
more than four decades of additional events and episodes that call for
incorporation into our historical analysis—not just as “current events.” The
same characterization holds true for the exemplary two-volume anthology of
primary sources and documentary history that Richard Hofstadter and Wilson
Smith edited in 1961.13 Second, and perhaps most difficult to fuse into the
higher-education “memory,” is that since 1960 there has been an interesting,
often underappreciated flow of historical scholarship not just analyzing
events since 1960 but rather dealing with the entire history of higher
education. These works and their authors have not been fully acknowledged
or incorporated into an overarching synthesis. I hope this book redresses that
imbalance.
Frederick Rudolph’s classic work devotes most of its attention to
established colleges and universities. My account extends the domain to
include analysis of the historical significance of other understudied
institutions, such as community colleges, women’s colleges, and the
historically black campuses. I also try to give some discussion to proprietary
schools and freestanding professional colleges. These campuses, whether
familiar or understudied, are all part of what I call “vertical history” because
they are the familiar landmarks that stand upright in our institutional
consciousness. I also try to expand the perspective so as to bring explicit
attention to what I call “horizontal history”: the founding and influence of
institutions and agencies that cut horizontally across the higher-education
landscape. These include private foundations, government agencies, and
regional boards. The horizontal perspective is a lens that is especially crucial
to understanding the interplay between organized philanthropy and higher
education.14 It also provides a good way to integrate a history of public
policies with one of colleges and universities. This important addition
acknowledges the role of external government programs at local, state, and
federal levels that had significance for higher-education institutions.
My approach to writing a history of American higher education
emphasizes the notion of the organizational saga—a term drawn from
sociologist Burton Clark’s influential analysis of distinctive colleges in the
early 1970s.15 By saga I mean the proposition that institutions are heirs to
various historical strands. On one level, there is the “official” chronology as
presented in board meetings and formal documents. At the same time, other
constituencies transmit the embellished history associated with legends, lore,
and heroic events. This history includes the informal yet powerful memories
of students, quite apart from official documents or accounts. For example,
there is no formal record to confirm that in 1819 Daniel Webster tearfully
said to the Supreme Court about Dartmouth, “It is, sir, but a small college—
and yet there are those who love it.” Despite this lack of formal
documentation, the embellished account has had an enduring, powerful
impact on how Americans think about colleges as historic, special places. It
is a strand of institutional memory that warrants inclusion in any substantive
historical account.
Architecture is essential for capturing and conveying the historical motifs
that each campus projects via its monuments and memorials. Forty years ago
historian Allan Nevins described the importance of campus architecture for
institutional saga: “One of the more difficult obligations of these new
institutions has been the creation of an atmosphere, a tradition, a sense of the
past which might play as important a part in the education of sensitive
students as any other influence. This requires time, sustained attention to
cultural values, and the special beauties of landscape and architecture.… This
spiritual grace the state universities cannot acquire quickly, but they have
been gaining it.”16
Understanding the role of architecture sometimes means paying attention
to buildings apart from the conspicuous great campus construction of bell
towers and arches. For example, a university’s historical saga often depends
on certain shrines for enduring inspiration not because they are magnificent
architecture but rather because they are hallowed ground of important events.
So although Stanford University includes the impressive Mediterranean-
revival chapel that the founders had built in honor of their son (and the
institution’s namesake), the complete institutional saga must also celebrate
the modest rented garage near the campus where in the late 1930s two young
Stanford alumni, William Hewlett and David Packard, worked out their
innovations in electrical engineering that ultimately helped to spawn the
computer industry of Northern California’s “Silicon Valley.”
My approach is to consider key historical episodes that have enduring
implications for colleges and universities. Emphasis will be on the social,
political, and economic factors that have shaped the structure and life of
higher-education institutions. So along with acquiring background on
institutional histories, the reader will gain experience in making sense out of
a range of historical documents and data. The intent is not to train expert
historians but rather to provide nonhistorians with at least a sampling of the
problems and pleasures associated with attempts to reconcile information
from the past and the present. The text will draw from secondary sources and
scholarly research. It will also rely on primary materials such as institutional
records, biography, fiction, memoirs, legends, lore, photographs, monuments,
journalism, government reports, statistical summaries, and Hollywood
movies to try to reconstruct the issues and debates that comprise higher
education’s interesting and significant past.17
My reliance on fiction and memoirs about college life coexists with an
equally strong interest in the use and abuse of historical statistics about
higher education. In 1984 I wrote an article on “Cliometrics” for a
quantitative research journal, Research in Higher Education.18 I want to
revive and expand a theme I developed in that article—namely, to provide
alternatives to dubious examples of historical analysis stemming from sloppy
statistics. I found, for example, that most institutional annual reports on
enrollments and budgets were flawed, and that such economists as Seymour
Harris often took the data at face value.19 I want to acknowledge the
contributions of such works as Colin Burke’s remarkable 1982 study in
which his reconsideration of fundamental data on college founding dates has
prompted a dramatically new view of the health of institutions in the early
nineteenth century.20 I also wish to bring a new generation of readers to
consider such underappreciated works as Margery Somers Foster’s 1962
economic history of Harvard College in the colonial era.21 My hope is to
encourage contemporary scholars to undertake fresh analysis of historical
statistics, especially in the economics of higher education and in the
enrollment and retention patterns of students at colleges and universities. To
accomplish this I have presented financial data in two ways: first, in the
actual dollar amounts reported in documents at the time; and second, in
figures adjusted to account for inflation.22 Even this procedure requires a
caveat: making sense out of finances from a past era ultimately must be
grounded in an understanding of the circumstances of economic and social
customs of each historical period. A thoughtful economist who compares
college tuition charges of 1800 with those of 2000 might also ask probing
questions about purchasing power, forgone income, and reliance on barter
and exchanges of goods and services other than currency. This is the attention
to detail that makes the history of higher education simultaneously
complicated and interesting.23
No author can succeed at narrating a wholly comprehensive chronology of
American higher education in a single, concise volume. My interpretation is
admittedly selective. Nor do I think trying to present all the facts and dates
about colleges and universities is even a desirable goal for most readers.
Instead of emphasizing mastery of information, my aim is to promote an
interest in and appreciation for working with documents and secondary
sources. I hope this relatively concise work about a long sweep of time will
show how historical analysis of higher education may be transformed from a
passive spectator sport into an active intellectual pursuit. The varieties of
records about institutional heritage, including the numerous versions that are
written and rewritten by new generations and multiple audiences, hold out the
promise of American higher education’s lively, enjoyable past.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
De Herstelde Gemeente, is er nog eene Luthersche Kerk (naamlijk
voor de uitgewekenen, of de Herstelden,) alhier gebouwd, ter plaatse
alwaar het Dolhuis gestaan heeft: ’t is een ruim gebouw, doch zonder
eenigen cieraad.
Het St. Pieters Gasthuis, dat zijnen naam ontleent van één der
Gasthuizen welken weleer hier ter stede waren, komt eerst in
aanmerking: het was in oude tijde de Kloosters der Oude en Nieuwe
Nonnen: alles wat hierin gevonden wordt is ongemeen aan het
oogmerk voldoende; het heeft zijne eigene bakkerij en brouwerij, ook is
er de stads Apotheek in geplaatst: even binnen de groote poort is een
Beiërt, alwaar de bedelaars en arme vreemdelingen drie nachten om
niet kunnen logeeren, ontvangende des avonds en morgens ook spijs
en drank.
Het Burger weeshuis, was weleer het St. Lucie klooster in 1580
daartoe vervaardigd; vóór dien tijd was het fraai herbouwd Logement
de Keizers kroon, het Burger weeshuis: dit huis is groot, aanzienlijk, en
ook zeer rijk.
Van het Dol- of Krankzinnig huis hebben wij reeds gesproken: (zie
boven Bladz. 10).
Het St. Joris hof, staande tegen de oude Waals Kerk: was eertijds het
Pauliniaanen klooster; ’t is nu een Proveniers huis, schoon ’t voorheen
ook voor Leprozen gediend hebbe.
Behalven alle de gemelde gebouwen vindt men hier ter stede nog eene
menigte hofjens en Godsdienstige gestichten, door bijzondere
persoonen van verscheidene Gezinten, met Godsdienstige oogmerken,
aangelegd: de voornaamsten zijn:
WERELDLIJKE GEBOUWEN.
Het zoude ons bestek te veel gevergd weezen, wilde men eene
beschrijving van het inwendige des gebouws van ons [17]vorderen, wij
kunnen er slechts iet weinigs van zeggen; de talrijke vertrekken,
welken er in zijn, zijn allen der bezichtiginge overwaardig; eenigen van
dezelven zijn vercierd met overheerelijke schilderstukken, en
beschilderingen van de voornaamste oude meesters; de
vroedschapskamer munt daarin boven alle anderen uit: op de
wapenkamer zijn ook veele bijzonderheden te zien, voornaamlijk van
oude wapenen, harnassen, enz.
Het Willige rasphuis voor vrouwlieden, dat weleer aan den Y-kant
stond, en ter weeringe van bedelaarij diende, niet alleen, maar ook ter
gevangenplaatse van vrouwen, wier gedrag opsluiting verdiende, en
wier naastbestaanden de kosten van een bijzonder Beterhuis niet
konden draagen, almede door den aanleg van het voornoemde
algemeene Werkhuis, ten onbruike geraakt zijnde, werd de grond
daarvan bebouwd, met het allen lof verdienende Kweekschool voor
de Zeevaart; eene instelling die Amsteldam eere aandoet, en ons ’t
ons voorgeschreven bekrompen bestek doet betreuren; want gaarne
weidden wij ten breedsten over het aanleggen van die lofwaardige
schoole uit.
KERKLIJKE REGEERING.
Ingevolge onze gewoonte in het reeds afgewerkt gedeelte van ons
uitgebreid plan, bepaalen wij ons hier ook weder alleenlijk tot de
Gereformeerde, of Heerschende kerk in Amsteldam: deeze gemeente
dan wordt bediend door 29 Predikanten, één van welken in de
Hoogduitsche taale moet prediken: de Gasthuiskerk had weleer haar
afzonderlijken Predikant; doch thans predikt deeze ook op zijn beurt in
de andere kerken, gelijk de overige Predikanten ook de Gasthuiskerk
op hunne beurt moeten waarneemen: de gewoone kerkenraad bestaat
voords uit gemelde Predikanten, een gelijk getal Ouderlingen, waarvan
jaarlijks de helft afgaan, gelijk ook van de Diaconen, die 42 in getal zijn,
en een afzonderlijk Collegie uitmaaken, doch van den grooten
kerkenraad ook leden zijn: den Diaconen zijn 12 Diaconessen
toegevoegd, [25]die voor al het vrouwlijke in dat groote ligchaam zorg
draagen; voorheen zond de Wethouderschap twee Gemagtigden in
den kerkenraad; doch sedert eenige jaaren vindt zulks geen plaats
meer: in gevalle van eene vacature onder de Predikanten, worden
Burgemeesteren om handopening tot het doen van een beroep
verzocht; na bekomen verlof, maakt de gewoone kerkenraad een
nominatie van drie, het zelfde doet het Collegie van Diaconen: deeze
dubbelde nominatie wordt in den grooten kerkenraad tot een drietal
gebragt, en daaruit wordt bij meerderheid van stemmen één verkozen,
op welke verkiezing vervolgends de goedkeuring van Burgemeesteren
verzocht wordt.
WERELDLIJKE REGEERING.