MOUNTAIN (STANDING/LEE) WAVES

 These are turbulent waves of air which can form above and downwind of a mountain range to an
average distance on 50 to 100 Nm at all height up to, and even above, the tropopause

 Vertical currents may be quite strong: up to 2000 fpm registered in Europe and in western USA
currents of 5000 fpm have been recorded

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050 METEOROLOGY 050 02 Wind 050 02 05 Mountain waves
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FORMATION OF STANDING WAVES

1. Wind speed at mountain height must be at least 15 Kt increasing with height

2. The wind must blow within 30 degrees of the perpendicular to the range of mountains

3. There must be a region of marked stability such as an inversion or isothermal layer at mountain top
height with less stable air above and below

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 TURBULENCE EFFECTS OF STANDING, LEE OR MOUNTAIN WAVES

 The most severe turbulence occurs in the Rotor Zone lying beneath the crests of lee waves and is
often marked by Roll Clouds. The most powerful rotor lies beneath the first wave crest

 Flight in waves can be smooth, but severe turbulence may occur. Occasionally violent turbulence will
occur, due to wave breaking
 Normal turbulence associated with flight across jet streams is frequently greatly increased when the
jet passes over mountainous areas, particularly when mountain waves are present

 An aircraft flying close to its ceiling on these occasions might find itself in serious difficulty

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VISUAL RECOGNITION FEATURE OF STANDING WAVES
 Providing there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere, distinctive clouds are formed with mountain
waves and these provide useful warning of the presence of such waves. If the air is dry, clouds may
not form at all, even though standing waves are present

• Lenticular clouds: They appear a few thousand feet above the mountain tops and at any level
up to the tropopause, and sometimes above. Ragged edges indicate turbulence

• Rotor or roll clouds: Occur under the crests of strong waves down wind of the ridge. As we
stated before, the strongest rotor is normally formed in the first wave downwind

• Cap clouds: They form on the ridge and strong winds may sweep the cloud down the lee
slopes

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ACTIONS TO AVOID THE WORST EFFECTS OF MOUNTAIN WAVES

 Read the weather forecasts

 Arrange to cross mountain ranges at 90 degrees

 Fly at the recommended turbulence speed

 Do not fly parallel at and just downwind of the range

 Avoid flight through or near the rotor zone

 Allow a height clearance above highest terrain

 Avoid low altitude flight towards the mountain range from the Lee side

 Avoid high altitude flight on the lee side of the mountain, because buffet margin at high level may be
small

 Be prepared for icing in cloud

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 TURBULENCE
 Turbulence is the disturbed or rough air. There are different ways in which this turbulence is caused
and also different parts of the atmosphere where it occurs

 Turbulence is caused by up and down currents which interfere with the normal horizontal flow of air.
There are two types of turbulence:

• Thermal
• Frictional or mechanical

 GUST: Is a rapid increase in wind strength, of short duration (less than 1 minute)

 SQUALL: Is a sudden increase of wind speed of at least 16 Kt rising to 22 Kt or more and lasting at
least 1 minute. A squall may be accompanied by a marked drop in temperature, cloud and
precipitation

 Turbulence occurs:

• In the Friction Layer

• In clouds
• In Clear Air

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TURBULENCE IN THE FRICTION LAYER

 The friction layer is a layer of air on the earth’s surface 2000 to 3000 ft (1 Km) thick where the
horizontal flow of air is disturbed by both thermal and mechanical turbulence

 Thermal Turbulence is caused by convection current resulting from insolation. Thermal turbulence is
greatest around 15:00 hrs on clear sunny days. There is no thermal turbulence over the sea

 Mechanical Turbulence is caused by physical obstructions to the normal flow of air such as hills,
mountains, trees, buildings, etc.

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TURBULENCE IN CLEAR AIR

 Turbulence can occur in clear air, particularly near the Tropopause

 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is associated with Jet Streams, Standing Waves, air surrounding Cumulo
Nimbus (CB) clouds

 It is caused by horizontal or vertical windshear and can lead to Stalling, Loss of Control and Airframe
Damage

 Clear air turbulence, occurs around the boundaries of jet streams because of the large horizontal and
vertical windshears. It is strongest near to, or just below, the jet axis on the cold air side (we will
discuss this later on)

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TURBULENCE WITHIN CLOUDS

 Turbulence is also found in an around significant clouds developments, especially in cumuliform

cloud, which are convective clouds created by rising air currents

 The vertical extent of a cumulus cloud is a very good indication of the intensity of the vertical air flow
beneath and within the cloud and the intensity of the turbulence in and around the cloud

 Pilots must treat large cumuliform clouds with caution, because cumulus clouds generate the most
violent turbulence

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