A study of using E10 and E85 under

direct dual fuel stratification (DDFS)

strategy: Exploring the effects of the
reactivity-stratification and
diffusion-limited injection on emissions
and performance in an E10/diesel DDFS
engine Saeid Shirvani
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 Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Full Length Article

A study of using E10 and E85 under direct dual fuel stratification (DDFS) T
strategy: Exploring the effects of the reactivity-stratification and diffusion-
limited injection on emissions and performance in an E10/diesel DDFS
engine
Saeid Shirvania, , Sasan Shirvania, Amir H. Shamekhia, Rolf D. Reitzb
⁎

a
Mechanical Engineering Department, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, No. 7, Pardis St., Molla Sadra Ave., Vanak Sq., Tehran, P.O. Box 19395-1999, Iran
b
Engine Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, WI, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: One promising pathway to directly control combustion is Direct Dual Fuel Stratification (DDFS). DDFS has
DDFS comparable thermal efficiency to RCCI, acceptable levels of emissions, and lower cyclic variation. The primary
E10/diesel DDFS drawback of DDFS is soot production owing to the diffusion-limited nature of the near-TDC injection. In this
E85/diesel DDFS, LTC paper, E10 (10% ethanol in gasoline by volume) and E85 were studied as alternative fuels to gasoline to tackle
CFD simulation
soot formation. In the first step, E10 and E85 were compared, and the best alternative to gasoline was chosen
based on emissions and performance. E10 reduced soot by 40%, and E85 eradicated soot completely. However,
E85 had 25 times higher NOX than gasoline. Next, diesel energy fraction and its start of injection (SOI2) were
swept to explore the domain of the reactivity controlled regime. It was found that for SOI2s before −80° ATDC,
the regime was premixed, and for SOI2s after −40° ATDC, the regime was diffusion-limited. Diesel energy
fractions, more than 11%, yielded unintended combustion. Then, the energy fraction and injection timing of the
near-TDC injection (SOI3) was swept and studied. The best domain for both injectors was discovered based on
the EURO6 emission mandate. Spray angles of both injectors were swept from 50 to 80°, and 55° for diesel
injector and 65° for the E10 injector showed the best results regarding emissions, performance, and fuel con-
sumption. Finally, the effects of the injection pressure of SOI3 on emissions and performance were studied. The
suitable domain for injection pressure was chosen based on EURO6.

1. Introduction these aftertreatments and being a function of exhaust temperature were

The demand for ICEs arose, and humankind approached two crises,
first environmental pollution, and second, the growth in fuel cost and
extensive energy consumption. The instability of crude oil price and
regulations mandate automotive industries to develop engine tech-
nology in order to decrease fuel consumption and engine emissions.
From the study performed by PF Flynn et al. [1], it was found that
Conventional Diesel Combustion (CDC) supplies a very rich mixture
and with a diffusion-limited flame. This diffusion flame causes the
formation of the Particulate Matter (PM) in rich zones, and high local
temperature regions contribute to nitrogen oxides (NOX) formation. The
levels of PM and NOX in CDC is very high, but by utilizing after-
treatments, there is a possibility to reach the high standards of emission
mandates. Aftertreatments need to reach a standard temperature to
have desirable conversion efficiency. The cost of implementation of
motivations to reach more efficient and cleaner combustion.
Low Temperature Combustion (LTC) is a pathway to reach more
efficient and cleaner combustion than CDC. Many strategies, such as
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), Premixed Charge
Compression Ignition (PCCI), and Reactivity Controlled Compression
Ignition (RCCI) are utilized to achieve LTC. LTC strategies result in
ultra-low NOX and soot, but a high amount of Unburned Hydrocarbon
(UHC) and CO compared to CDC. LTC strategies are controlled by
chemical kinetics; thus, there is less authority over the rate and timing
of heat release. That being said, they are very sensitive to small changes
in boundary conditions [2–4].
Onishi et al. [5] designed a new two-stroke engine using HCCI
strategy. The challenging point was high load operation in HCCI com-
bustions. As a matter of fact, controlling HCCI engines was difficult, and
it was found that Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) can be a promising

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: saeidshirvani@email.kntu.ac.ir (S. Shirvani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117870
Received 20 December 2019; Received in revised form 9 April 2020; Accepted 13 April 2020
0016-2361/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Nomenclature HCCI Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition

ICE Internal Combustion Engine
AHRR Apparent Heat Release Rate IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
AMR Adaptive Mesh Refinement ISFC Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption
ATDC After Top Dead Center IVC Intake Valve Closing
BTDC Before Top Dead Center IVO Intake Valve Opening
CAD Crank Angle Degree KH-RT Kelvin Helmholtz-Raleigh Taylor
CDC Conventional Diesel Combustion LHV Lower Heating Value
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics LTC Low Temperature Combustion
CRI Common Rail Injector NOX Nitrogen Oxides
DDFS Direct Dual Fuel Stratification NTC No Time Counter
DDM Discrete Droplet Model PCCI Premixed Charge Compression Ignition
Dur Duration PM Particulate Matter
E10/D E10/Diesel DDFS PPC Partially Premixed Combustion
E85/D E85/Diesel DDFS PPRR Peak Pressure Rise Rate
ED Diesel energy fraction RCCI Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition
EE10 E10 energy fraction for near-TDC injection RNG k-ε Re-Normalization Group k-ε
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation RON Research Octane Number
EPA Environmental Protection Agency SOI1 Start Of Injection for first gasoline injection
EVC Exhaust Valve Closing SOI2 Start Of Injection for diesel fuel
EVO Exhaust Valve Opening SOI3 Start Of Injection for near-TDC injection
FE Fixed Embedding TDC Top Dead Center
G/D Gasoline/Diesel DDFS UHC Unburned Hydro Carbon

way. Several years later, Najt and Foster [6] applied HCCI strategy in a
four-stroke engine, and they found that by means of controlling intake
temperature and EGR rate, it is possible to control HCCI combustion.
Short combustion duration related to HCCI strategy is a noticeable
problem at high load operations, and some noise metrics such as Peak
Pressure Rise Rate (PPRR) and Ringing Intensity (RI) are significantly
high at high load operations. HCCI also has its own drawbacks. In the
HCCI combustion, when the charge is perfectly homogenous, all regions
undergo heat release at the same time. From the Otto perspective, this
kind of heat addition is ideal, but extreme pressure oscillation in HCCI
cause engine damage and noise. There is also a trade-off between
thermal efficiency and noise, which limits the operation of HCCI at
different loads. HCCI is kinetically controlled, and its sensitivity to
boundary conditions is a challenge as well [7,8].
Scholars have focused on some methods to control the heterogeneity
of the combustion chamber to control ignition timing and combustion
phasing of HCCI. This led to the emergence of some partially premixed
strategies like PCCI. In 1996, the first PCCI engine was manufactured
with a port fuel injector that could achieve better authority over com-
bustion control, better efficiency, and a significant reduction in NOX
and soot emissions compared to CDC. Many scholars performed ex-
haustive researches on PCCI, and they found that with one fuel and
changing intake temperature, charge stratification, EGR and fuel
blending, the PCCI strategy is more controllable than HCCI [2,3,9–11].
In 2006, Kalghatgi et al. [12] performed an investigation to over-
come HCCI limitations. They found that the use of fuel with higher
resistance to auto-ignition compared to diesel could extend combustion
duration without the need for EGR. It was reported that too early in-
jection timings provide a well-mixed charge for combustion, and this
method, named Partially Premixed Combustion (PPC), led to lower
levels of NOX and soot. Gasoline PPC was found as a new method to
control the heat release rate better than diesel HCCI. However, this
concept had challenges for a PPC engine fueled by gasoline with an
octane number greater than 90 at low loads. In order to achieve better
control, spark assistance was provided, and a double injection strategy
was used to reach better performance, but NOX and soot were at un-
acceptable levels [13–17].
From the studies that carried out by Yao et al. [18], it was found
that in an HCCI engine, by utilizing two fuels with different Research
Octane Numbers (RON) such as iso-octane (RON 100) and n-heptane
(RON 0), it is possible to control combustion process, engine perfor-
mance and emissions at different loads. In 2006, Inagaki et al. [19]
introduced a new strategy for controlling PCCI by using two different
fuels (different reactivity), and today, it is known as Reactivity Con-
trolled Compression Ignition (RCCI). In fact, in the RCCI, by means of
reactivity stratification, combustion starts from regions with high re-
activity and it continues to other regions with lower reactivity. By this
method, scholars managed to extend combustion duration, and oper-
ating range. In addition, more control over combustion phasing was
achieved.
The emissions of RCCI are significantly low, and at many loads,
RCCI can meet EURO6 emission regulations. Moreover, it was found
that RCCI can reach to 60% gross thermal efficiency under optimized
conditions. RCCI is a more promising method compared to HCCI and
PPC because it has a smoother heat release rate, lower PPRR, and noise
levels. Using different rates of EGR, different fractions of gasoline, and
injection timing led to more authority over combustion control. RCCI
combustion offers better control over combustion duration and com-
bustion phasing at moderate loads, but there are significant limitations
at higher loads. In order to maintain the combustion phasing at higher
loads, the mass fraction of the low reactivity fuel needs to be increased,
and this trend proceeds until the high reactivity fuel will diminish.
Hence, RCCI is limited by the resistance of the low reactivity fuel
against auto-ignition. As a result, controlling the timing and rate of heat
release for different LTC strategies such as PPC, PCCI, and RCCI is
difficult because they are kinetically controlled and offer low authority
on the combustion. In addition, these strategies have other drawbacks
such as high UHC and CO emissions compared to conventional diesel
combustion, and they have a narrow operating range and impractical
boundary conditions [20–25].
Shim et al. [26] performed an experimental study on the compar-
ison between advanced combustion technologies such as HCCI, PCCI,
RCCI, and CDC. It was reported that all strategies could decrease NOX
and PM simultaneously with the use of aftertreatment. HCCI and PCCI
had some challenges to maintain the combustion phasing, so the EGR
rate was increased up to 40% to serve the purpose. UHC and CO
emissions increased by about 38 times in advanced strategies compared
to CDC. In the dual-fuel PCCI, indicated thermal efficiency was peaked
at 45.3%, and by using natural gas, CO2 emission reduced by 14.3%.
To have more control over combustion and decrease UHC and CO,

2
S. Shirvani, et al.
in 2013 and 2014, Lim and Reitz [27,28] implemented a direct gasoline
injector in the combustion chamber of an RCCI engine. Gasoline was
injected in the combustion chamber with a narrow spray angle, and
then diesel was injected with a wide spray angle. As a result, UHC and
CO emissions were decreased by about 7% and 27%. In addition,
combustion efficiency improved by this method. They adopted this
method and managed to extend the RCCI operating range to 21 bar
gross IMEP.
In 2015 Wissink implemented two direct injectors in the combustion
chamber to have more authority over the combustion phasing and the
rate of heat release to overcome RCCI limitations. He introduced a new
strategy called Direct Dual Fuel Stratification (DDFS). In this strategy,
gasoline is injected directly in the combustion chamber at 340 °BTDC to
make a partially homogenous charge, and like RCCI strategy, diesel fuel
is injected directly in the combustion chamber 40–60 °BTDC to prepare
a reactivity gradient to achieve precise control over the Low
Temperature Heat Release (LTHR). After LTHR, a near-TDC injection
makes more control over the rate of heat release. DDFS has comparable
efficiency to RCCI, and emissions were at acceptable levels. In addition,
pressure rise rate, noise level, EGR, and cyclic variation were improved
in DDFS compared to RCCI. Wissink also compared DDFS with PPC and
found that DDFS has higher efficiency by about 15%. One big concern
of the DDFS is high PM production due to the nature of diffusion-lim-
ited flame of the near-TDC injection. Wissink adopted many methods to
reduce PM, especially for high load operations. PM reduction methods
that he used included post injection, increasing injection pressure, de-
creasing injection duration or using gasoline instead of diesel for the
near-TDC injection. Post injection decreased PM, but it increased NOX.
The same behavior was observed for the increasing injection pressure
[29–32].
In 2017, Loung et al. [33] performed a numerical investigation on
the effects of injection timing on the ignition of iso-octane using DDFS
strategy and compared with RCCI. They used a 2D direct numerical
simulation (2D DNS) with reduced chemistry of primary reference fuel
oxidization. They found that the RCCI combustion exhibited shorter
combustion duration with highly peaked heat release rate, while the
DDFS combustion had a lower peak of heat release and longer com-
bustion duration, which was attributed to the sequential injection of iso-
octane. They reported that the DDFS strategy can allow precise control
over the rate of heat release and combustion phasing when compared
with RCCI, and by adjusting the near-TDC injection and proper energy
fraction, this purpose can be served.
In 2020, Shirvani et al. [34] performed an investigation on the ef-
fects of piston-profile on emissions and performance under DDFS
strategy. They found that two geometrical parameters, including the
ratios of squish volume to clearance volume, and piston area to
chamber area have significant impacts on emission formation. They
investigated three conventional piston profiles, and then combined the
benefits of them and proposed a new piston profile, which has small
squish volume and omega type spray-guide shape on the piston. This
piston is suitable for the combustion chamber with two direct injectors
using the DDFS strategy. They managed to reduce NOX, soot, and CO by
about 17, 2, and 27%, respectively, with the proposed piston.
Due to global energy demands, energy consumption has been in-
creased, which is combined with greenhouse gas and global warming
concerns. Biomass is renewable and can be considered as an alternative
to fossil fuels, which is suitable for satisfying a part of energy demands.
Biomass is utilized for direct combustion in power production, but it
has some drawbacks. Instead of using biomass for direct combustion,
some gasification techniques have shown significant heed by alleviating
the severe changes in climate and energy crisis. Biomass gasification
can reduce hazardous gases significantly and can satisfy energy de-
mands. Syngas contains hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide
(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen (N2) and water vapor.
Some eminent scholars performed experimental and numerical in-
vestigations on biomass and syngas production to finalize syngas
3
Fuel 275 (2020) 117870
production for various applications. H2 can be used as a clean source of
energy, and CH4 from biomass gasification can be used easily in the
transportation industry under LTC strategies like RCCI [35–37].
Another renewable source of energy that is very attractive for the
transportation industry is alcohol fuels like methanol and ethanol.
Alcohol fuels can reduce the tradeoff between NOX and soot in con-
ventional diesel combustion. Ethanol is used widely in many countries
on a large scale as a renewable fuel and a suitable alternative to fossil
fuels. There are two common ways of ethanol production: ethylene
hydration and fermentation. In the first way, ethanol is widely pro-
duced for industrial applications. Ethylene is reacted with steam and by
using some chemicals such as phosphoric and sulfuric acids, and as a
result, ethanol is produced. In the fermentation method, bioethanol is
produced from food crops such as corn grain and sugarcane, but it may
be limited because it may lead to a tradeoff between bioethanol pro-
duction and food provisions. Alcohol fuels have some advantages:
higher octane number, renewability, evaporative cooling effects, which
leads to higher volumetric efficiency and lower combustion tempera-
ture, low sulfur content compared to gasoline, and containing oxygen
facilitates fuel oxidization [38,39].
Ethanol can be used with pure gasoline in Spark Ignition (SI) en-
gines for different compression ratios. It was reported that the appli-
cation of alcohol in SI engines under optimized conditions can enhance
engine brake thermal efficiency and emissions when compared with
baseline [40]. Diesel engines generally have higher efficiency compared
to gasoline engines, but this efficiency is a trade-off between soot and
NOX. In fact, a simultaneous reduction in NOX and soot is difficult in
conventional diesel combustion. Many scholars have studied the effects
of using ethanol in diesel engines not only as a substitution for diesel
but also for reducing NOX and soot simultaneously [41–44]. From the
studies performed by scholars on the effects of ethanol/diesel blend
properties, it was found that 30% ethanol by volume in diesel not only
has little effects on fuel atomization but also increases ignition delay
and improves combustion efficiency. In addition, NOX and soot levels
can be improved under certain conditions [45–48]. Other researches
were performed on the effects of different alcohol fuels such as me-
thanol and butanol in diesel fuel. It was found that the application of
alcohol fuels increases fuel oxidization, NOX, and thermal efficiency
while it significantly reduces soot [49–51].
Li et al. [52] conducted a multi-objective optimization of methanol/
diesel in a dual fuel engine to find the baselines of optimized RCCI and
DDFS at low load operating conditions. The model was validated
against experimental data of a light-duty RCCI engine, and the strategy
was changed numerically from RCCI to DDFS. It was found that DDFS
has higher thermal efficiency, lower UHC and CO, and lower sensitivity
to initial conditions at low loads. Moreover, in RCCI, a large spray in-
cluded angle is preferred, while in DDFS, a small spray-included angle
is more desirable for fuel oxidization. Long et al. [53] performed an
experimental investigation on the effects of dual-direct injection in a
light-duty engine. It was reported that diesel fuel jet-injection could
control the combustion phasing and ignition timing robustly for four
operating conditions. Advancing the near-TDC injection timing resulted
in high gross thermal efficiency and high NOX emissions. For prolonged
near-TDC injection, there is a trade-off between NOX and soot like CDC.
As previously mentioned, the DDFS strategy is a practical pathway
in internal combustion engines to achieve ultra-low emissions and high
thermal efficiency. Unlike RCCI and HCCI, which are kinetically con-
trolled, DDFS has great authority over the rate of heat release and
combustion. The advantages of the DDFS outweighed the disadvantages
except high PM production. One practical way to address this problem
is using fuels with low C/H ratio, or oxygenated fuels such as ethanol.
In this paper, E85 and E10 were chosen as alternatives to gasoline in the
gasoline/diesel DDFS combustion. A numerical 3D-CFD model was
developed and validated against experimental data. To the best of our
knowledge, there is little information about using ethanol under the
DDFS strategy to tackle PM. A comparative study was performed
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

between E10 and E85 as alternatives to gasoline regarding emissions
and performance criteria. The paper is a comprehensive study on the
effects of diesel energy fraction and its timing on emissions and per-
formance. In addition, the energy fraction of the near-TDC injection and
its timing was swept, and the best region based on the EURO6 emissions
mandate was chosen. The DDFS combustion can meet EURO6 without
aftertreatment. The combustion chamber has two direct injectors, and
their spray angles were swept, and the best regions for the spray angles
were also chosen. Finally, the effects of injection pressure of the near-
TDC injection were studied, and the suitable range of injection pressure
for DDFS combustion was chosen based on the EURO6 emissions reg-
ulation.
2. Computational approach
In this study, a 3D-CFD model was developed and used to simulate
DDFS combustion of the Caterpillar single cylinder engine. Mesh study
was performed for three mesh sizes: coarse mesh (2 mm), medium mesh
(1.4 mm), and fine mesh (1 mm). The best mesh size was chosen based
on mesh accuracy and computational time. Experimental tests were
performed by Wissink and Reitz at the University of Wisconsin Madison
Lab [29,30]. The engine specification and operating conditions of the
experiments are outlined in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
2.1. Computational model
cylinder, and crevice volume, which is a source of UHC. As Senecal
et al. recommended in [65], the optimum grid size for spray simulation
was about 0.25 mm; in this study, appropriate mesh resolution was
performed for spray to reach this size. In this computational model, the
minimum number of the grid for the compression stroke at TDC was
about 252,000, and for the expansion stroke, it was about 960,000 cells.
To ensure that the CFD model is reliable for the gasoline/diesel and
E85/diesel combustion, the model was used for other loads in
Appendix. The numerical results showed a reliable model and enough
accuracy. The combustion chamber has two direct injectors, so the
whole combustion chamber was modeled, and Fig. 1 shows the profile
of the combustion chamber for the DDFS engine with crevice volume at
TDC as well as the injectors’ positions.
2.2. Mesh study
The CFD computational model of DDFS combustion was validated
against experimental data given in [29]. In order to examine its accu-
racy, mesh independency of the numerical model was studied. Fig. 2
illustrates a comparison between the numerical results and experi-
mental data for three mesh sizes. Table 3 shows the results of mesh
independency study for emissions. According to Fig. 2 and Table 3, the
appropriate mesh size based on the accuracy and computational time
was considered 1.4 mm.

2.3. Model validation

In this paper, the CFD model was employed to simulate the DDFS
combustion at 9.41 bar gross IMEP and 1300 rpm. This simulation
The numerical 3D-CFD model was validated against experimental
considers closed-cycle for combustion simulation from IVC (143 °BTDC)
data and Fig. 3 shows a comparison of the cylinder pressure and AHRR
to EVO (130 °ATDC). The gasoline charge was considered completely
between numerical results and experimental data. Fig. 4 depicts the
homogeneous at IVC for the simulation.
emissions results of the numerical model and experimental tests.
A Lagrangian approach was employed to simulate spray dynamics
from injection until vaporization. A drop drag sub-model, which the
drop drag coefficient can be changed dynamically with flow conditions, 3. Results and discussion
was used in the CFD model [54]. Standard Discrete Droplet Model
(DDM) was applied, which uses a technique for simulating the behavior As previously mentioned, the DDFS strategy has supremacy over
of atomized evaporating liquid parcels in the gaseous environment RCCI except its PM production owing to the near-TDC injection. In
[55]. The Kelvin-Helmholtz and Rayleigh-Taylor (KH-RT) hybrid model order to decrease the soot formation, and reduce the trade-off between
were used to simulate spray atomization for the primary and secondary NOX and soot in diffusion-limited combustion, it is proposed to use E10
break-ups. This model is capable of being used for both diesel and ga-
soline spray, especially for the DDFS strategy [56]. Both KH and RT Table 1
instabilities were used to predict the secondary breakup of each droplet. Engine geometry and direct injector specifications for the experimental setup
(experimental data taken from [29]).
O’Rourke submodel was applied for spray wall interaction and wall film
[57]. The No Time Counter (NTC) method, which is faster than the Engine Specifications
O’Rourke model, was employed to calculate droplet collisions in La-
Engine Type Caterpillar 3401E Single Cylinder Oil Test
grangian spray simulation [58]. Engine (SCOTE)
The Re-Normalization Group (RNG) k-ε model was used to simulate Piston type Modified-piston (wide shallow)
turbulence transport. This model is used for internal combustion en- Displacement (L) 2.44
gines, especially for diesel engines, which have compressing-expanding Bore (mm) 137.2
Stroke (mm) 165.1
flows and spray combustion [59]. Detailed chemical kinetics using
Connecting rod length (mm) 261.6
multi-zone modeling was used in this paper. This model accelerates Squish height (mm) 1.57
combustion process, and it is appropriate for gasoline and diesel fuels Number of valves per cylinder 4
and also for multi-component fuels [60]. The multi-zone chemistry IVO (°ATDC) 335
solver was used to speed up combustion calculations for grouped cells IVC (°ATDC) −143
EVO (°ATDC) 130
with similar properties. To simulate engine combustion, a reduced
EVC (°ATDC) −355
chemistry mechanism for gasoline/diesel, which simulate diesel as n- Swirl ratio 0.7
heptane and gasoline as iso-octane with 108 species and 435 reactions Compression ratio 14.88:1
[30,61]. In order to predict the soot concentration, Hiroyasu soot model Common rail injectors name (CRI1)
Body style Bosch CRI2 series
was used, and the extended Zeldovich procedure was applied to predict
Nozzle angle (°) 148
NOX emissions [62,63]. Hole diameter (μm) 141
Fixed wall boundary conditions were used for the head cylinder and Number of holes 7
cylinder wall with a smooth wall assumption. The Law of the Wall Common rail injectors name (CRI2)
boundary for temperature and velocity was applied for all wall Body style Bosch CRI2 series
Nozzle angle (°) 143
boundaries [64]. The base grid size for global mesh was chosen 1.4 mm
Hole diameter (μm) 117
based on grid independency study. Some local refinements were done Number of holes 10
for some critical regions such as nozzles’ regions, cylinder wall, head

4
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Table 2
Experimental operating conditions used for the DDFS ex-
periments (experimental data taken from [29]).
Operating Conditions

EGR (%) 39.5

TEGR (°C) 90.3
Tin (°C) 49.3
Pin (kPa) (supercharged) 186.2
Equivalence ratio 0.57
Gross IMEP (bar) 9.41
Qfuel (kJ/cyc) 4.71
Fuel1 Diesel
Injector name CRI1
Injection pressure (bar) 500
SOI2 (°BTDC) 60
Dur2 (ms) 0.6
Total energy ratio (%) 7.0
Fuel2 Gasoline
Injector name CRI2
Injection pressure (bar) 1000
Fig. 2. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for different mesh sizes
SOI1 (°BTDC) 340
Dur1 (ms) 1.4
using DDFS strategy.
SOI3 (°BTDC) 4
Dur3 (ms) 0.8
oxygen, and oxygen molecules lead to faster fuel oxidization and more
rates of heat release in a shorter duration. Thus, the peak of AHRR
increased. In the E85/D case, AHRR increased dramatically, and it re-
(10% ethanol in gasoline by volume) and E85 (85% ethanol in gasoline
sulted in a dramatic increase in the cylinder pressure. The PPRR of the
by volume) as two conventional alcohol fuels. In the first step, gasoline
E85/D case is 21.6 bar/deg and much higher than normal levels, given
was substituted by E10 and E85, and a comparative study was per-
in Table 5.
formed to investigate their effects on emissions and performance. In the
Emissions, gross IMEP, and Gross Thermal Efficiency (GTE) are
second step, one of them was chosen, and a numerical study on the
presented in Table 5. In the E10/D case, NOX slightly increased by
injection timing and sweeps of energy fraction for SOI2 and SOI3 will
about 1.7% compared to the G/D case. However, soot significantly
be studied in the following sections. Fig. 5 shows the problem for-
reduced by about 40%. This reduction can be attributed to the fact that
mulation in this study.
oxygen molecules in E10 accelerate fuel oxidization and prevent the
formation of soot and carbon clusters. UHC and CO in the E10/D case
reduced by about 23.5%, 38.6%, respectively.
3.1. Substitution of gasoline with E10 and E85
Numerous studies were performed on the effects of E85 under the
RCCI strategy; E85 is absolutely helpful for the RCCI strategy owing to
In this section, the effects of using E10 and E85 as the low reactivity
its higher octane number than gasoline and making a higher reactivity
fuels are investigated. In-cylinder energy for Gasoline/Diesel (G/D),
gradient. However, in the direct injection near-TDC, this fuel results in
E10/Diesel (E10/D), and E85/Diesel (E85/D) using the DDFS strategy
a sudden and very quick increase in the rate of heat release and NOX
was considered constant. CA50 for the G/D case was about 3.9° ATDC.
emissions. In the E85/D DDFS case, NOX dramatically increased by
To make a fair comparison, energy fractions for the E10/D and E85/D
approximately 25 orders of magnitude compared to the G/D case.
were considered constant similar to the G/D case, and by changing the
As a result, E10 is more suitable than E85 for DDFS combustion.
near-TDC Start Of Injection (SOI3), CA50 was kept constant for all
Soot significantly reduced in the E85/D case, and CO reduced by about
cases.
83.9% owing to this fact that E85 has fewer carbons in its structure
Simulation parameters for the G/D, E10/D, and E85/D cases are
compared to E10 and gasoline. UHC emission in the E85/D case was
provided in Table 4. The EGR rate for the E85/D case was considered
slightly higher than E10/D case because of the cooling effects of E85 on
zero owing to the fact that E85 has a higher octane number and it has
the combustion chamber, shown in Fig. 7. For constant in-cylinder
cooling effects on the combustion chamber. In general, for 9.41 bar
energy in each case, the gross IMEP increased for the alcohol cases and
IMEP, using EGR in E85/D is unnecessary according to the experi-
resulted in higher GTE.
mental tests provided in [4,66,67]. Diesel injection strategy, including
Fig. 8 depicts temperature cut-planes at similar combustion phasing
SOI2, diesel energy fraction, and injection pressure and duration were
(CA50 = 3.9° ATDC) for all cases. As it is evident, the E85/D DDFS case
considered constant in this section. The cooling effects of ethanol va-
has the highest local temperature zones which associate with thermal
porization in the first injection (SOI1 = -340° ATDC) on the cylinder
NOX formation. The E85 has much more oxygen molecules that resulted
temperature were calculated in Appendix, and TIVC for closed-cycle
in higher and faster AHRR. Consequently, these high temperature zones
simulation for each case is provided in Table 4.
justify the high amount of NOX and better oxidization for soot in the
Fig. 6 illustrates the comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for
E85/D case compared to the E10/D and G/D cases. Fig. 9 shows iso-
all cases. Despite the same EGR rate for the E10/D case compared to the
thermal surfaces (2000 and 2200 K) for all cases. The effects of E85 and
G/D case, the peak of AHRR of this case slightly increased. E10 contains

Fig. 1. Piston geometry profile with the crevice

volume for the combustion chamber at TDC.

5
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Table 3
Numerical results of emissions for different mesh sizes using DDFS strategy (system configuration is Intel Corei7 6700 k with 32 GB RAM).
Case base grid size (dx,dy,dz) NOX(gr/kW-hr) Soot (gr/kW-hr) UHC (gr/kW-hr) CO (gr/kW-hr) Computational time Max. cell
Min. cell

Coarse mesh 2 mm 0.291 0.003 1.55 4.79 ~13 h ~690,000~126,000

Medium mesh 1.4 mm 0.280 0.005 1.66 4.90 ~20 h ~960,000~252,000
Fine mesh 1 mm 0.280 0.005 1.66 4.90 ~41 h ~2,580,000~462,000

Generally, LTC strategies have a lower exhaust gas temperature com-

pared to conventional diesel combustion, so the application of after-
treatment and turbocharger is challenging. In short, DDFS has greater
potential for downstream recovery compared to RCCI owing to the
near-TDC injection. Using E10 has negligible effects on the heat re-
covery parameter, but E85 significantly decreases the exhaust mean
temperature, which is not suitable for the heat recovery parameter.

3.2. Diesel energy fraction and SOI2 sweeps for E10/diesel DDFS

In this section, the diesel energy fraction and its start of injection
(SOI2) were swept. As it is visualized in Fig. 10, diesel fuel supplies 7%
of the total cylinder energy at −60° ATDC. Diesel energy fraction was
swept from 0 to 11% of total energy by subtracting the energy from the
first injection at −340° ATDC. Then, the diesel start of injection was
swept from −100° ATDC to −30° ATDC to investigate its effects on the
charge stratification.
Fig. 11 shows the cylinder pressure and AHRR for the cases of 0%,
Fig. 3. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR between numerical results
and experimental data. 4%, 7%, and 11% diesel energy fractions. AHRR and peak of cylinder
pressure advanced as the fraction of diesel increased. As it is evident,
for the 11% diesel energy fraction, the peak of AHRR occurred before
E10 on the flame shape are obviously shown in this figure.
TDC, and it resulted in negative work. Moreover, the peak of low
As previously mentioned, improved heat release rate, less cyclic
temperature heat release, in this case, was rather high, which means
variation, comparable gross thermal efficiency to RCCI, lower engine
there was diffusion-limited combustion at 20 CAD before TDC. The
noise levels in high load operations, and higher great potential heat
diesel energy fraction of 11% and magnitudes above 11% is not suitable
recovery from downstream is achievable in the DDFS strategy. The
for E10/D DDFS combustion at this engine load. As the amount of diesel
primary drawback of the DDFS is high soot production compared to
fuel decreases, the peak of cylinder pressure and AHRR retard, and in
RCCI strategy. Table 6 presents a qualitative comparison of emissions
the 0% case, the strategy changes from DDFS to PPC.
and other performance parameters between E10/D and E85/D com-
Fig. 12 illustrates the cylinder pressure and AHRR traces for E10/D
pared to the G/D as the base case under DDFS strategy. In this table,
DDFS with 7% diesel energy fraction and with a sweep of diesel start of
zero is negligible variation, plus conveys an improvement, and minus
injection (SOI2). By advancing SOI2, the cylinder pressures and AHRRs
shows an aggravation for each case compared to G/D DDFS case.
retarded. In addition, the peak of AHRR increased as the SOI2 ad-
The table shows that E10 is a better alternative to gasoline for DDFS
vanced. SOI2 had significant effects on the in-cylinder stratification and
strategy because not only soot, UHC + CO, and GTE improved, but also
reactivity gradient. Three regimes occurred before the low temperature
NOX, ISFC, and PPRR had negligible changes. As a result, by using E10,
heat release by changing SOI2. These regimes are premixed (PPC-like
soot as the primary drawback of the DDFS can be reduced significantly
combustion), reactivity controlled, and diffusion-limited. As it is shown,
up to 40% at this load.
the case with SOI2 = -40° ATDC, had a sudden increase in AHRR and it
The E85 also reduced soot production, but at the expense of 25
can be concluded for SOI2 = -40° ATDC, and after that, the regime was
times higher NOX. PPRR and fuel consumption are much higher than
diffusion-limited.
E10. The heat recovery parameter in this table presents an important
For the cases with advanced SOI2, homogeneity increased, and the
concept in internal combustion engines. In order to reach higher loads,
regime changed into a premixed regime (PPC-like regime). The char-
it is necessary to have high boost pressure for the intake manifold.
acteristic of this regime is a high peak of heat release rate and

Exp. data Num. results Exp. data Num. results

0.6 6 5.06
0.5 0.47 0.5 5
4.9

0.4 4
0.291 0.28
0.3 3 2.15
0.2 2 1.66
0.1 1
0 0
NOx (gr/kW-hr) soot×100 (gr/kW-hr) UHC (gr/kW-hr) CO (gr/kW-hr)

Fig. 4. Comparison of the emissions between numerical results and experimental data.

6
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Fig. 5. Problem formulation in this study.

Table 4
Simulation parameters for the G/D, E10/D, and E85/D cases using DDFS
strategy.
G/D DDFS E10/D DDFS E85/D DDFS

EGR (%) 39.5 39.5 0

TIVC (°C) 380 379.2 370.2
ISFC (gr/kW-hr) 158.4 162.4 225.9
Qfuel (kJ/cyc) 4.71 4.71 4.71
Fuel1 Diesel Diesel Diesel
Injector name CRI1 CRI1 CRI1
Injection pressure (bar) 500 500 500
SOI2 (°BTDC) 60 60 60
Dur2 (ms) 0.6 0.6 0.6
Total energy ratio (%) 7.0 7.0 7.0
Fuel2 Gasoline E10 E85
Injector name CRI2 CRI2 CRI2
Injection pressure (bar) 1000 1000 1000
SOI3 (°BTDC) 4.0 4.5 7.0
Dur3 (ms) 0.8 0.85 1.1
Fig. 6. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for G/D, E10/D, and E85/D
using DDFS strategy.
combustion becomes retarded and resembles PPC combustion. As can
be seen from the shape of AHHR (start, end, and peak) in Fig. 12, re-
considered 11% of the total cylinder energy because, as it is shown in
activity stratification, which is adjusted by SOI2, affects the rate of heat
Fig. 12, for the magnitudes of Ed higher than 11%, combustion became
release, its start, end, and also emission formation. Adjusting reactivity
advanced, and AHRR peaked before TDC, which was not suitable and
stratification, which is a benefit of RCCI, makes it possible to manage
resulted in negative work. As previously mentioned, three regimes oc-
and control the combustion. Having this benefit from RCCI is a great
curred by sweeps of SOI2 and Ed. Diffusion-limited and PPC-like re-
characteristic of DDFS. The second phase of combustion control is the
gimes are demonstrated in Fig. 13. The characteristic of the diffusion-
near-TDC injection.
limited regime is high amounts of NOX and soot emissions, and the PPC-
Fig. 13 shows emission contours for the E10/D case with sweeps of
like regime has high amounts of UHC and CO. For SOI2s between −80
SOI2 and diesel energy fraction (Ed). The upper limit of the Ed was

7
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Table 5
Emissions and performance for the G/D, E10/D, and E85/D using DDFS strategy.
IMEP (bar) GTE (%) NOX (gr/kW-h) Soot (gr/kW-h) UHC (gr/kW-h) CO (gr/kW-h) CA50 (°ATDC) PPRR (bar/deg)

G/D 10.15 51.3 0.280 0.005 1.66 4.90 3.9 8.0

E10/D 10.25 52.4 0.285 0.003 1.27 3.01 3.9 9.1
E85/D 10.52 55.9 7.037 0.00001 1.44 0.79 3.9 21.6

between −80 to −40° ATDC) and the diffusion-limited regime (-40 to

−30° ATDC) had the lowest amounts of PPRR. The reactivity-controlled
regime had the highest. In this region, ISFC was at its the lowest level.
To summarize this section, reactivity-controlled regime (SOI2 be-
tween −80 to −40° ATDC), shows the best results of emissions, GTE,
PPRR and fuel consumption for the E10/D DDFS combustion. This re-
gion benefits from the RCCI concepts and its characteristics for better
results of emissions and performance and more authority over com-
bustion.

3.3. Energy fraction and SOI sweeps for near-TDC injection

In this section, the energy fraction and SOI3 of E10 for the near-TDC
injection were swept. Energy fraction sweeps were 20 to 40% of the
total cylinder energy by subtracting from the first E10 injection. Fig. 15
shows cylinder pressure and AHRR traces for energy faction sweeps at
fixed SOI3 = -4.5° ATDC. AHRR was extended by increasing the near-
Fig. 7. Comparison of mean temperature diagrams between G/D, E10/D, and
TDC energy fraction. The peak of AHRR and cylinder pressure drops,
E85/D using DDFS strategy. and it resulted in retarded combustion phasing. The opposite trend is
evident by reducing the energy fraction.
Fig. 16 illustrates the sweeps of SOI3 for a fixed energy fraction of
to −40° ATDC, the regime is reactivity-controlled, which is the best
34%. SOI3 was swept from −8° ATDC to −2° ATDC. As SOI3 advanced,
regime for DDFS that can be obtained by adjusting SOI2 and diesel
the peak of cylinder pressure and AHRR increased, this was combined
energy fraction. As the EURO6 emission standard is 0.4 g/kW-h and
with advanced CA50.
0.01 g/kW-h for NOX and soot,respectively, this engine can meet
The effects of E10 energy fraction and SOI3 sweeps on emissions
EURO6 emission mandate without using aftertreatments by adopting
and performance are depicted in Figs. 17 and 18. As previously men-
E10 as the low-reactivity fuel using DDFS strategy. However, for the Ed
tioned, advancing SOI3 resulted in higher cylinder pressure and AHRR.
above 8% and SOI2s after −40° ATDC (diffusion-limited regime), the
Thus, thermal NOX increased, shown in Fig. 17. On the other hand, soot,
engine cannot meet EURO6 for NOX.
UHC, and CO decreased by advancing SOI3 owing to higher cylinder
As it is illustrated in Fig. 13, UHC and CO amounts are rather high in
pressure and temperature and better oxidization. By retarding SOI3,
PPC-like regime owing to higher homogeneity of the charge that can
soot, UHC and CO increased owing to incomplete combustion. From the
result in incomplete combustion compared to the reactivity-controlled
emissions’ perspective and EURO6 emission mandate (NOX = 0.4 g/
regime. From all emissions perspective, the suitable regions for
kW-h and soot = 0.01 g/kW-h), suitable SOI3 and E10 energy fraction
choosing Ed and SOI2 are 4 to 8% of and −80 to −40° ATDC (re-
are −4 to −2° ATDC and 20 to 30% energy fraction, respectively, to
activity-controlled regime).
meet this standard without aftertreatment in the E10/D DDFS com-
Fig. 14 depicts the effects of SOI2, and Ed sweeps on GTE, PPRR, and
bustion.
indicated specific fuel consumption. The PPC-like regime had higher
Fig. 18 shows the effects of energy fraction and SOI3 of the near-
PPRR compared to other regimes, which indicates higher noise levels.
TDC injection’s sweeps on operating emissions and performance. As
When the amount of diesel fuel decreased with early diesel injection
previously mentioned, advanced SOI3 yielded higher cylinder pressure,
(SOI2 = -100° ATDC), owing to higher homoginity of the charge, PPRR
and higher GTE, owing to higher output work. GTE increased by ad-
increased. On the other hand, the reactivity-controlled regime (SOI2
vancing SOI3, but at the expense of higher engine noise and PPRR.

G/D DDFS E10/D DDFS E85/D DDFS

Temperature (K)

Fig. 8. Temperature cut-planes for G/D, E10/D, and E85/D at similar CA50 (3.9° ATDC) using DDFS strategy.

8
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

G/D DDFS E10/D DDFS E85/D DDFS

Fig. 9. Iso-thermal surfaces (2000 and 2200 K) for G/D, E10/D, and E85/D at 8° ATDC using DDFS strategy.

Table 6
Qualitative comparison of emissions, gross thermal efficiency, ISFC, PPRR, and
the heat recovery for E85/D and E10/D under DDFS strategy.
Case NOX Soot UHC + CO GTE ISFC PPRR Heat recovery

E10/D DDFS 0 + + + 0 0 0
E85/D DDFS – + + + – – –

E10 Diesel

80
59
60
40 34

20 7
0
-340 -200 -100 -60 -4.5 0

Diesel energy fraction sweeps (%): 0 to 11 SOI2 sweeps (°ATDC): -100 to -30 Fig. 12. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for E10/D DDFS with a
sweep of SOI2 at fixed ED = 7%.
Fig. 10. Visualization of energy fraction and start of injection for E10/D DDFS
(base case), and sweeps range.

Fig. 11. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for E10/D DDFS with a
sweep of diesel energy fraction at fixed SOI2 = −60° ATDC.
Retarded SOI3 and high EE10 resulted in high fuel consumption. From
the emission, GTE and fuel consumption perspectives, the suitable do-
main for choosing SOI3 and EE10, is −4 to −2° ATDC, and 20 to 30%
E10 energy fraction for the E10/D DDFS combustion.
3.4. Effects of diesel and E10 spray angles
As it is shown in Fig. 1, the combustion chamber has two direct
injectors with two spray angles that can affect emission formation. In
this section, the effects of the diesel spray angle (θd) and E10 spray
Fig. 13. Emission contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of diesel injection
(SOI2) and diesel energy fraction (Ed) with fixed SOI3 = −4.5° ATDC and
EE10 = 34%.
angle (θg) on emissions and performance are investigated. In the first
step, θd was swept between 50 and 80° with fixed diesel energy fraction
and variable SOI2. Other fixed assumptions are SOI3 = -4.5° ATDC and
EE10 = 34% for the near-TDC injection.
Fig. 19 shows emission contours for the sweeps of θd and SOI2. As
previously mentioned, the reactivity-controlled regime occurred be-
tween SOI2 = -80 to −40° ATDC. Thus, in this section, the sweeps of

9
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Fig. 16. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for E10/D DDFS with a
sweep of the near-TDC injection (SOI3), at fixed energy fraction of 34%.

Fig. 14. Performance contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of diesel injection
(SOI2) and diesel energy fraction (Ed) with fixed SOI3 = -4.5° ATDC and
EE10 = 34%.

Fig. 17. Emission contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of near-TDC injection
(SOI3) and E10 energy fraction (EE10) with fixed SOI2 = −60° ATDC and
Fig. 15. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR for E10/D DDFS with a
Ed = 7%.
sweep energy fraction of the injection near TDC (SOI3 = −4.5° ATDC).

Figs. 21 and 22 illustrate the emission and performance contours with

SOI2 was considered for −80 to −40° ATDC. The highest amount of
sweeps of θg and SOI3 for the E10/D DDFS combustion with fixed
NOX occurred for θd = 70°, while θd = 55° had the best results for NOX.
Ed = 7%, SOI2 = -60° ATDC, and EE10 = 34%. By advancing SOI3 to
θd = 55° and SOI2 between −65 to −55° ATDC showed the best results
−8° ATDC, NOX significantly increased, and when θg is between 60 and
for UHC, CO and soot emissions. From the emission’s standpoint, the θd
70°, NOX had the highest amount by about two times than the EURO6
between 55 and 60° and SOI2 between −65 to −55° ATDC, are suitable
emission mandate. From all emissions’ perspectives, SOI3 between −4
intervals to achive lower emissions in the E10/D DDFS combustion.
to −2° ATDC and θg between 60 and 70° have the best results for
Fig. 20 shows the performance contours for the sweeps of θd and
emissions. In addition, this region has the best result for GTE and ISFC
SOI2. GTE had the best results for the regions where UHC and CO had
shown in Fig. 22. PPRR for this region is less than 10 bar/deg, which
the lowest amounts, indicating that UHC and CO oxidization resulted in
means acceptable engine noise level.
higher output work and higher GTE. In addition, fuel consumption had
In brief, diesel and E10 spray angles affect emission formations and
the lowest magnitude in this region. As previously mentioned, the
engine performance. The study showed that for medium spray angles
suitable interval for choosing θd and SOI2 are between 55 and 60° and
for both spray angles is more preferable regarding emission and per-
−65 to −55° ATDC. This region satisfies both emissions and engine
formance criteria. In short, for diesel spray angle (θd) between 55 and
performance. PPRR has acceptable levels for this region (less than
60° and diesel start of injection (SOI2) between −65 to −55° ATDC
10 bar/deg) and satisfies the engine noise.
indicated the best results of emissions and performance. For the near-
In the second step, the effects of the spray angle of the near-TDC
TDC injection, E10 spray angle between 60 and 70° and near-TDC
injection of E10 (θg) on emissions and performance are investigated.

10
S. Shirvani, et al.
Fig. 18. Performance contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of near-TDC in-
jection (SOI3) and E10 energy fraction (EE10) with fixed SOI2 = −60° ATDC
and Ed = 7%.
Fig. 19. Emission contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of diesel spray angle
(θd) and SOI2 with fixed Ed = 7%, SOI3 = −4° ATDC, and EE10 = 34%.
injection timing between −4 to −2° ATDC showed the best results of
emissions and performance.
3.5. Effects of injection pressure of SOI3
One of the drawbacks of DDFS strategy is soot production owing to
the diffusion-limited nature of the near-TDC injection. In this section,
the effects of the injection pressure of the third injection (E10 injection
near TDC) are investigated. The injection pressure was varied from
500 bar to 1500 bar. The increase in injection pressure atomizes fuel
properly and leads to a faster rate of heat release and facilitates soot
oxidization. Fig. 23 illustrates cylinder pressure and AHRR traces for
11
Fuel 275 (2020) 117870
Fig. 20. Performance contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of diesel spray
angle (θd) and SOI2 with fixed Ed = 7%, SOI3 = −4° ATDC, and EE10 = 34%.
Fig. 21. Emission contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of E10 spray angle of
the near-TDC injection (θg) and SOI3 with fixed Ed = 7%, SOI2 = −60° ATDC,
and EE10 = 34%.
500, 1000, and 1500 bar injection pressure. The peak of AHRR and
cylinder pressure increased as the injection pressure increased.
Fig. 24 shows emissions and performance for third injection pres-
sure sweeps. As the injection pressure increased, NOX increased dra-
matically by about 50% in the 1500 bar case compared to the 1000 bar
(base case). On the other hand, no significant soot reduction was ob-
served. NOX does not meet EURO6 HD for injection pressures above
1250 bar.
As the injection pressure increased, UHC and CO decreased dra-
matically, owing to the better fuel atomization and oxidization.
According to this figure, gross IMEP increased by boosting injection
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

owing to the diffusion-limited nature of the near-TDC injection. One

practical approach towards this drawback is the use of alcohol fuels
(E10 or E85) as alternatives to gasoline. In this paper, a 3D-CFD model
was developed and validated against experimental data in order to si-
mulate the combustion process of a heavy-duty engine using DDFS
strategy at 9.41 bar gross IMEP and 1300 rpm. The main results are as
follows:

• At the first step, E10 and E85, as two conventional candidates as

• In order to investigate the role of diesel energy fraction and its start
Fig. 22. Performance contours for E10/D DDFS with sweeps of E10 spray angle
of the near-TDC injection (θg) and SOI3 with fixed Ed = 7%, SOI2 = −60°
ATDC, and EE10 = 34%.
• By sweeping SOI2 and diesel energy fraction (Ed), three regimes
• The effects of SOI and energy fractions of the near-TDC injection of
Fig. 23. Comparison of cylinder pressure and AHRR with a sweep of injection
•
pressure for the near-TDC injection.
pressure, but a negligible change in GTE (about 0.3%) was observed.
Higher injection pressure advanced CA50 and led to higher PPRR by
about 2% in the 1500 bar case compared to the base case (1000 bar).
Fig. 25 depicts the iso-thermal surfaces for 500, 1000, and 1500 bar
injection pressures. Higher injection pressure resulted in better flame
penetration and more numbers of high-temperature zones. This figure
also shows the differences in the flame shapes as a result of increasing
• Another promising way to decrease soot is an increase in near-TDC
injection pressure.
4. Conclusions
The Direct Dual Fuel Stratification (DDFS) strategy is a new
pathway that benefits both RCCI and PPC combustion simultaneously.
DDFS has improved control and more authority over the rate of heat
release, comparable thermal efficiency to RCCI, less cyclic variation,
better potential for downstream recovery when compared to RCCI and
etc. One of the primary drawbacks of DDFS is high soot production
alternatives to gasoline, were studied. In the E85/D DDFS case, NOX
increased dramatically by a factor of 25 times. PPRR also increased
dramatically by about 2.7 times compared to the G/D DDFS case.
Owing to these main drawbacks, E85 was not a good candidate as an
alternative to gasoline in DDFS combustion. On the other hand, in
the E10/D DDFS case, soot (the primary drawback of DDFS) de-
creased by about 40%, while NOX increased only less than 2%. In
general, E10 was a suitable alternative to gasoline for the DDFS
strategy because it not only improved soot, UHC, CO, and GTE, but
also a negligible change in fuel consumption, NOX, and PPRR was
observed.
of injection on fuel stratification, diesel energy fraction was swept
from 0% to 11%, and also SOI2 was swept from −100° ATDC to
−30° ATDC. It was found that 11% diesel energy fraction and above
this magnitude was not suitable at this engine load because not only
the peak of low temperature heat release was rather high which was
a sign of diffusion-limited regime, but also the peak of AHRR oc-
curred before TDC, which resulted in negative work. The 0% diesel
energy fraction was not suitable as well because the strategy is no
longer DDFS and changes into PPC.
were discovered: PPC-like (partially premixed), reactivity-con-
trolled, and diffusion-limited regimes. The PPC-like regime was not
suitable owing to high UHC, CO, and soot emissions. The diffusion-
limited regime was not acceptable as well due to the high levels of
NOX. The reactivity-controlled regime (SOI2s between −80 to −40°
ATDC) was the best regime regarding the best results of emissions,
thermal efficiency, and fuel consumption. In this region, if Ed was
between 4 and 6%, the E10/D DDFS combustion can meet the
EURO6 emission mandate without aftertreatments.
the E10/D DDFS combustion were investigated. SOI3 was swept
from −8 to 4° ATDC, and EE10 was swept from 20 to 40% of the total
cylinder energy. It was found that the best region from emission,
performance, and fuel consumption perspectives was SOI3 between
−4 to −2° ATDC and EE10 between 20 and 30%. In this region, the
combustion can meet EURO6 without aftertreatments.
As the spray angles have significant effects on emission formation,
the spray angles of both injectors were swept from 50 to 80°. It was
found that a medium spray angle about θd = 55° for the diesel in-
jector had the best results for emissions. This magnitude also yielded
the best results for gross thermal efficiency and fuel consumption.
For the E10 injector (near-TDC injection), θg between 60 and 70°
showed the best results regarding emission and performance.
injection pressure. The peak of AHRR and cylinder pressure in-
creased by boosting the injection pressure. In addition, CA50 and
the peak of AHRR advanced. An increase in the injection pressure
resulted in high NOX for the E10/D DDFS case (with ED = 7%).
Above 1250 bar injection pressures, NOX does not meet the EURO6
standard. However, soot and CO emissions decreased slightly for the
injection pressures above 1000 bar. From the emissions perspective,
from 750 bar to 1250, bar injection pressure has acceptable results.
Gross thermal efficiency and gross IMEP reduced significantly, for
low injection pressures (near 500 bar).

12
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Fig. 24. Emissions and performance of E10/D DDFS with a sweep of injection pressure for the near-TDC injection.

500 bar 1000 bar (base case) 1500 bar

Fig. 25. Iso-thermal surfaces (2000 and 2200 K) for E10/D DDFS with a sweep of injection pressure for the near-TDC injection.

For future works, it is proposed that E10/D DDFS can be optimized
for this load and other loads. In addition, the effects of other alcohol
fuels can be investigated as well. DDFS is a novel strategy with lots of
supremacies over RCCI, and due to its near-TDC injection, new piston
profile like those conventional ones can be proposed for DDFS and in-
vestigated.
DDFS has a robust control over the rate of heat release than other
LTC strategies, and also it is less sensitive to boundary conditions; thus,
it is a suitable strategy to be used in automotive industries, especially
for hybrid cars, which demand high thermal efficiency and low fuel
consumption.
Investigation, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft. Sasan
Shirvani: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Investigation,
Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft. Amir H. Shamekhi:
Supervision, Resources. Rolf D. Reitz: Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Saeid Shirvani: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,

Appendix

In order to show that the developed 3D-CFD model is reliable with 1.4 mm mesh size, the CFD model was used for other different loads using
gasoline/diesel 6.5 and 9.25 bar (50% EGR) under the RCCI strategy, shown in Fig. A.1.
As Fig. A.2 shows, E85/diesel numerical model was used for different loads, including 9.6 and 11.6. According the results in this figure, the model
is reliable for E85/D combustion.

13
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

Exp. NOx Num. NOx

Exp. soot Num. soot
Exp. UHC+CO Num. UHC+CO
0.05 20
0.04 15
0.03
10
0.02
0.01 5

0 0
6.5 bar 9.0 bar

G/D RCCI 6.5 bar and 9.25 bar gross IMEP (50% Comparison of emissions in gr/kW-hr for
EGR) at 1300 rpm (Exp. data was taken from [29, experimental data and numerical results (Exp. data
68]). was taken from and [29, 68])

Fig. A1. Comparison of cylinder pressure, AHRR, and emissions between the numerical results and experimental data for gasoline/diesel RCCI combustion.

Exp. NOx Num. NOx

Exp. soot×10 Num. soot ×10
Exp. UHC+CO Num. UHC+CO
0.15 15

0.1 10

0.05 5

0 0
9.6 bar 11.6 bar

Comparison of emissions in gr/kW-hr for

E85/D RCCI 9.6 bar and 11.6 bar, 1300 rpm and
experimental data and numerical results (Exp. data
no EGR (Exp. data was taken from [4]).
was taken from [4]).

Fig. A2. Comparison of cylinder pressure, AHRR, and emissions between the numerical results and experimental data for E85/diesel RCCI combustion.

All operating parameters to calculate engine performance are as follows. Gross indicated work and gross indicated power per cycle are calculated
based on Eqs. (A.1) and (A.2), respectively.
180
Work gross = pdV (A.1)
180

Work gross × nR
Pgross =
Vd N (A.2)
where; p is pressure and V is volume, P is power, Vd is displacement volume and nR for the four-stroke engine equals 2, and N is engine speed. Gross
indicated mean effective Pressure (IMEPgross ) is obtained from Eq. (A.3) [63]:
Pgross nR
IMEPgross =
Vd N (A.3)
Fuel energy is obtained from Eq. (A.4), and gross thermal efficiency (GTE) is as follows:
Efuel = mgasoline × LHVgasoline + methanol × LHVeth + mdiesel LHVdiesel (A.4)

Workgross
gross = GTE =
Efuel (A.5)
where; Efuel is the fuel energy, m is the mass for each species, and LHV is the lower heating value. The adiabatic apparent heat release rate is
calculated based on Eq. (A.6) [30]:
dQad dV 1 dp
= p + V
d 1 d 1 d (A.6)

14
S. Shirvani, et al. Fuel 275 (2020) 117870

where; is the crank angle degree, γ is the ratio of specific heats. PPRR is a noise metric, and it can be defined as follows:
dp
PPRR =
d max (A.7)
In this paper, ethanol is considered fully evaporated and homogenous at IVC. Ethanol has a considerable enthalpy of vaporization and it cools the
combustion chamber. The CFD simulation is performed based on closed-cycle and it is assumed that ethanol is fully evaporated at IVC. The first
injection in this model starts at 340° BTDC and occurs before the start of simulation 143° BTDC (IVC). Since injection pressure is high (about
1000 bar), ethanol has enough time to become fully vaporized, and the combustion chamber is hot enough in the real engine to make ethanol fully
vaporized. Moreover, the injector is a wide spray angle with ten nozzles, which facilitates the vaporization process. Thus, the amount of fuel at first
injection is considered fully homogenous for the start of the simulation. The cooling effects of ethanol can be calculated based on Eqs. (A.8) and
(A.9), and Table A.1 gives the physical properties of ethanol and iso-octane. Table A2 shows the cooling effects of ethanol (E10 and E85) on the
combustion chamber.
Q1 = mEth × cp, Eth × (Tboiling Tinitial ) + mEth × hfg , Eth + mGas × cp, Gas × (Tboiling Tinitial ) + mGas × hfg, Gas (A.8)

Q1 = Q2 = mair × cp, air × T (A.9)

where, m is mass for each species, cp is the specific heat capacity.

Table A1
Physical properties of iso-octane and ethanol (data taken from [67]).
Iso-octane Ethanol

Lower Heating Value (MJ/kg) 44.3 26.9

Research Octane Number (RON) 100 107
Motored Octane Number (MON) 100 89
Liquid Density @ 25° C (kg/m3) 692 785
Enthalpy of Vaporization (kJ/kg) 272 840
Initial Boiling Point (°C) 99 78
Final Boiling Point 99 78

Table A2
Temperate variation of the ethanol vaporization effect.
Ethanol fraction by volume (%) T (°K) TIVC (°K)

E0 (pure gasoline) 6.5 380

E10 7.3 379.2
E85 16.3 370.2

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“He that receives them is called universally a sojourning proselyte.”
And a little lower down it says plainly
‫ ויש לו חלק‬, ‫כל המקכל שבע מצוות ונזהר לעשותן הרי זה מחסידי אומות העולם‬
‫לעולם הבא ׃‬
“Whosoever receives the seven commandments, and is careful to
observe them, he is one of the pious of the nations of the world, and
has a share in the world to come.” (Hilchoth Melachim, c. viii. 10.)
From these two declarations, then, we learn that “the pious of the
nations of the world” are the same, as “the sojourning proselytes,”
who were allowed to reside in the land of Israel, and that their piety
consisted in receiving and practising the seven commandments.
What these commandments were, we are informed in the next
chapter of the same treatise.
‫ ועל שפיכת‬, ‫ ועל ברכת השם‬, ‫ על ע׳׳ז‬, ‫על ששה דברים נצטוה אדם הראשון‬
‫ אף על פי שכולן הן קבלה בידנו‬, ‫ ועל הדינים‬, ‫ ועל הגזל‬, ‫ ועל גלוי עריות‬, ‫דמים‬
, ‫ מכלל דברי תורה יראה שעל אלה נצטוה‬, ‫ והדעת נוטה להן‬, ‫ממשה רבינו‬
‫ נמצאו שבע‬, ‫הוסיף לנח אבר מן החי שנאמר אך בשר בנפשו דמו לא תאכלו‬
‫ וכן היה הדבר בכל העולם עד אברהם ׃‬, ‫מצוות‬
“The first Adam was commanded concerning six things—idolatry,
blasphemy, shedding of blood, incest, robbery, and administration of
justice. Although we have all these things as a tradition from Moses,
our master, and reason naturally inclines to them, yet, from the
general tenour of the words of the law, it appears that he was
commanded concerning these things. Noah received an additional
command concerning the limb of a living animal, as it is said, ‘But
flesh in the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, ye shall not eat.’
(Gen. ix. 4.) Here are the seven commandments, and thus the
matter was in all the world until Abraham.” (Ibid. ix. 1.)
Now, without stopping to dispute about the command given to Noah,
we cannot help saying that the above tradition is very defective, and
certainly not derived from Moses, for it is opposed to the history
which he himself has given us. In the first place, that command, on
which, the oral law lays such stress, “Be fruitful and multiply,” was
originally given to Adam (Gen. i. 28,), and was renewed to Noah,
after the deluge. If the Rabbies reckon this as a separate command
in the case of the Jews, as may be seen in the Hilchoth Priah
Ureviah, it is only fair to reckon it as a separate command in the
case of the Gentiles, and thus we get an eighth command. In the
second place, God ordained marriage as a holy state. “The Lord God
said, It is not good that man should be alone; I will make him an help
meet for him.” “And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man
made he a woman, and brought her unto the man.” Here is God’s
holy institution, and in the following verses we have the obligations of
marriage distinctly acknowledged. “And Adam said, This is now bone
of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman,
because she was taken out of man. Therefore shall a man leave his
father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife, and they shall
be one flesh.” Here, then, is a ninth commandment. We know,
indeed, that the oral law gives a different account, but its doctrine is
false and pernicious. In the face of the above plain narrative, it
teaches as follows:—
‫קודם מתן תורה היה אדם פוגע אשה בשוק אם רצה הוא והיא לישא אותה‬
‫מכניסה למוך ביתו ובועלה בינו לבין עצמו ומהיה לו לאשה ׃‬
“Before the giving of the law, a man might happen to meet a woman
in the street; if they both agreed on marriage, he took her to his
house, and cohabited with her, and she became his wife.” (Hilchoth
Ishuth, c. i. 1.) Now, not to speak of profane history, there is not in
the law of Moses a single passage to give colour to this statement,
unless it be the following:—“And it came to pass, when men began
to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters were born unto
them, that the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were
fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose.” But,
whatever is meant by “Sons of God,” it is plain that this conduct is
mentioned, not as having the sanction or approval of God, but as a
proof of antediluvian wickedness, for it is immediately added, “And
the Lord said, My Spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he
also is flesh.” But it is not simply an error of judgment, it is most
pernicious as it regards both Gentiles and Jews, for it completely
annuls the sanctity and obligation of the marriage tie. It teaches that
as the marriage of Noahites is contracted without solemn espousals,
so it may be dissolved without the formality of a divorce.
, ‫ומאימתי תהיה אשת חברו כגרושה שלנו ? משיוציאנה מביתו וישלחנה לעצמה‬
‫ ואין הדבר תלוי‬, ‫ שאין להן גירושין בכתב‬, ‫או שתצא היא מתחת רשותו ותלך לה‬
‫ אלא כל זמן שירצה הוא או היא לפרוש זה מזה פורשין ׃‬, ‫בו לבד‬
“When is his (the Noahite’s) neighbour’s wife to be considered in the
same light, as a divorced woman with us?
From the time that he sends her forth from his house, and leaves her
to herself. Or from the time that she goes forth from under his power,
and goes her way; for they have no divorces in writing, neither does
the matter depend upon that alone;[15] but whenever he or she
please to separate one from the other, they separate.” (Hilchoth
Melachim, c. ix. 8.) We Gentiles have great reason to be thankful
that Jesus of Nazareth has taught us a different doctrine, according
with the original institution of marriage. What would have been the
state of the world, if the oral law had attained supreme power, and
the Gentiles had been instructed in the above law as Divine? What
would result from the doctrine that every man may turn out his wife,
and every woman leave her husband, whenever they like? The
peace and well-being of Gentile society would be at an end. The
frightful state of disorder and misery that would ensue, as well as the
words of the original institution, plainly show that this doctrine is not
from God. But the effect upon the believers in the oral law is still
worse. With reference to them, the marriage of Gentiles is no
marriage at all. The oral law says distinctly—
‫ אין אישות לגוים‬.
“There is no matrimony to the Gentiles.” (Hilchoth Melachim, viii. 3.)
And again,
‫אין אישות אלא לישראל או לגוים על הגוים אבל לא לעבדים על עבדים ולא‬
‫לעבדים על ישראל ׃‬
“There is no matrimony except to Israel, or to Gentiles with respect
to Gentiles; but not to slaves with respect to slaves, nor to slaves
with respect to Israel.” (Hilchoth Issure Biah, c. xiv. 19.) Here, then,
the oral law directly makes void the law of God, and pronounces that
a command given to Adam in Paradise, and therefore equally
binding on all his descendants, is in particular cases of no force at
all. The oral law, therefore, is certainly not from God.
We have already made out nine commandments; in sacrifice we find
a tenth. Cain and Abel brought sacrifices, and the only reason that
can be assigned is, that they had received a command to that effect.
Sacrifice was either a Divine command or the dictate of their own
reason. But it was not the dictate of reason, for reason says, that the
Creator of all things has no need of gifts, and, least of all, such gifts
as imply the slaughter of an innocent animal. It must, therefore, have
been of Divine command. The reason why the Rabbies excluded this
command is plain. They did not choose that there should be
acceptable sacrifices offered anywhere but amongst themselves. But
that this doctrine is altogether of a recent date is plain. It was not
known to Job. He says not a word about the seven commandments,
and he was in the habit of offering sacrifices. “And it was so when
the day of their feasting was gone about, that Job sent and sanctified
them, and rose up early in the morning, and offered burnt-offerings
according to the number of them all.” (Job i. 5.) And the Lord himself
expressly commanded Job’s friends to do so likewise. “And it was
so, that after the Lord had spoken these words unto Job, the Lord
said to Eliphaz the Temanite, My wrath is kindled against thee, and
against thy two friends.... Therefore, take unto you now seven
bullocks and seven rams, and go to my servant Job, and offer up for
yourselves a burnt-offering, and my servant Job shall pray for you,
for him will I accept.” (Job xlii. 7, 8.) It was not known to Elisha.
When Naaman said, “Shall there not then, I pray thee, be given to
thy servant two mules’ burden of earth? For thy servant will
henceforth offer neither burnt-offering nor sacrifice unto other gods,
but unto the Lord.” (2 Kings v. 17.) Elisha made no objection. He did
not tell him that he had only seven commandments to attend to.
Neither had Isaiah any idea that, when Judaism triumphed, the
whole world was to be compelled to adhere to the seven
commandments, for he plainly predicts the contrary. “And the Lord
shall be known to Egypt, and the Egyptians shall know the Lord in
that day, and shall do sacrifice and oblation: yea, they shall vow a
vow unto the Lord and perform it.” (Isaiah xix. 21.) Here again, then,
the oral law contradicts the Word of God.
But the law of God points out to us an eleventh commandment, in
the distinction between clean and unclean animals. The Lord
commanded Noah to take of the former by sevens and of the latter
by pairs. (Gen. vii. 2.) And when Noah came forth from the ark “he
builded an altar unto the Lord; and took of every clean beast, and of
every clean fowl, and offered burnt-offerings on the altar.” (Gen. viii.
2.) It is plain, from the command, that a greater number of clean than
unclean animals was required. Noah’s conduct shows that the rite of
sacrifice was the cause of the requirement. We have a twelfth
commandment in the appointment of a priesthood. “Melchizedek was
the priest of the Most High God,” (Gen. xiv. 10,) which he most
certainly could not have been, if he had not been Divinely appointed.
From the law itself, then, we have made out twelve distinct
commandments. Eight would have been sufficient to overthrow the
oral tradition. But we appeal to the common sense of every
Talmudist. We ask him to look over the meagre list of the seven
commandments, in which neither love to God nor man is included,
and to tell us whether it be at all probable that “the God of the spirits
of all flesh” would leave all mankind, excepting the small company of
Rabbinists, without any better rule for time, and any better guide to
eternity? Is it possible that the God of love and mercy should leave
the minority of his reasonable creatures in doubt as to his love, and
tell them that he requires no love from them? Yet this is what the oral
law says. The Gentiles are, according to it, left without any direction
as to the worship of God, and are pronounced guilty of death if they
study the law. Nay, they are expressly told that God does not require
them to glorify him by their obedience.
‫ אפילו נאנס לעבוד‬, ‫ מותר לו לעבור‬, ‫בן נח שאנסו אנס לעבור על אחת ממצוותיו‬
‫ לפי שאינן מצווין על קדוש השם ׃‬, ‫ע׳׳ז עובד‬
“A Noahite who is forced to transgress one of his commandments, it
is lawful for him to do so. Even if he be compelled to commit idolatry
he may commit it, for they are not commanded to sanctify God.”
(Hilchoth Melachim, c. x. 2.) So that, according to the Rabbies, the
Noahite who is compelled to commit murder, adultery, or even to
deny his God, may do it with impunity; he still belongs “to the pious
of the nations of the world,” and may have a share in the world to
come. We confess that we cannot see in this doctrine either charity
or toleration. We can discover only that narrowness of heart which
characterizes the oral law. In order to magnify themselves, and
depreciate the other nations, the Rabbies first swell out their own
commandments to 613, and reduce the commandments of the
nations to seven. But not content with that, they also strive to confine
the glories of martyrdom to themselves, and tell the Gentiles that
God does not require them to sanctify His name. Can such doctrine
come from God? Is God the God of the Rabbinists only? We grant
that the Jews are his “peculiar people.” We acknowledge that “they
have much advantage every way”—that “they are beloved for the
fathers’ sakes”—that the time is coming when “all that see them shall
acknowledge them that they are the seed whom the Lord has
blessed.” But we still think that God’s heart is large enough to
comprehend us Gentiles too in his love. We know that we are the
work of His hand, and we trust that, as He is our Father, he requires,
and is pleased to see even in Gentiles, the feelings of children, love
and filial fear. And we found this our faith on your Scriptures as well
as ours. The Word of God tells us that, long before there were any
Rabbies in the world, He had a gracious and tender care for all
mankind. He promised to our first parents a Saviour who should
“bruise the serpent’s head.” He saved Noah and his family, not one
of whom was a Rabbi, from the deluge; and when they came forth
from the ark, He made a gracious covenant not with one nation only,
but “with all flesh,” and hung up on high a lovely and glittering arch,
from one end of the heavens to the other, that all the habitants of
earth might have a token of their Father’s love and learn to look up
to Him with humble confidence. When he chose Abraham and his
seed, it was not an act of partiality, but that in his seed all the
families of the earth might be blessed. He did not leave himself
without witness to the nations. He manifested himself to Job, and
taught him “that his Redeemer liveth,” and moved even the prophets
of Israel to predict again and again the happy times when, “from the
rising of the sun to the going down of the same, His name should be
great among the Gentiles, and in every place incense should be
offered to his name, and a pure offering; for my name shall be great
among the heathen, saith the Lord of hosts.” (Mal. i. 11.) Having this
word, we reject the oral law which contradicts it, and would make
God the God of the Rabbinists only: and we believe in the New
Testament, which exactly agrees with your written law, and asks, “Is
he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of the Gentiles?”—and
answers, “Yes, of the Gentiles also” (Rom. iii. 29)—and which also
declares that, in the sight of God, “There is no difference between
the Jew and the Greek; for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that
call upon him, for whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord
shall be saved.” (Rom. x. 12, 13.)
In the fixing of the commandments, then, for the sons of Noah, we
have detected an intolerant and uncharitable spirit very different from
that of the Old and New Testament. But we have further to inquire,
what was the extent of toleration conceded to them? We do not stop
to prove that they were not allowed to possess land, nor to be
judges, nor members of the Sanhedrin, nor to hold any office, nor to
intermarry with the Jews. From all that, they were excluded by the
law of God himself. They were allowed to sojourn in the land, and
hence their name “sojourning proselytes.” Further, “They were to be
treated with the same courtesy and benevolence as the Israelites.”
(See No. 4, p. 26.) But further than this the toleration did not extend.
The oral law, though it commands “courtesy and benevolence,” does
not administer even-handed justice to the “pious of the nations of the
world,” as may be seen from the following specimens:—
‫ ישראל שהרג בשגגה את העבד או את גר תושב גולה‬.
‫ וכן גר תושב שהרג את גר תושב או את העבד בשגגה גולה‬.
‫ גר תושב שהרג את ישראל בשגגה אף על פי שהיה שוגג הרי זה נהרג‬.
“An Israelite who unintentionally kills a slave, or a sojourning
proselyte, is imprisoned (in one of the cities of refuge).”
“And so a sojourning proselyte who unintentionally kills a sojourning
proselyte, or a slave, is imprisoned.”
“A sojourning proselyte who unintentionally kills an Israelite, although
he did it unintentionally, is to be put to death.” (Hilchoth Rotzeach, c.
v. 3.) The written law, on the contrary, says, “These six cities shall be
a refuge, both for the children of Israel and for the stranger, and for
the sojourner among them: that any one that killeth any person
unawares may flee thither.” (Numbers xxxv. 15.) Again, the oral law
says—
‫ שנאמר וכי יזיד איש על רעהו ׃‬, ‫ישראל שהרג גר תושב אינו נהרג עליו בבית דין‬
“An Israelite who kills a sojourning proselyte, is not put to death on
his account by the tribunal, for it is said, ‘But if a man come
presumptuously upon his neighbour.’ (Exodus xxi. 14.)” The law of
God says, “Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be
shed: for in the image of God made he man.” (Gen. ix. 6.) And to this
law the New Testament commands us Christians to adhere, rejecting
the oral traditions; and in consequence the laws of Christian
countries make no difference between the murderer of a Jew, a
Christian, Turk, Infidel, or Heretic. Short as all Christian nations
confessedly come of the pure morality of the New Testament, their
laws direct the administration of impartial justice, and are a terror to
all evil doers of every creed and sect. The liberality of the Talmud
then, in allowing a share of salvation to the pious of the world is not
so very great, nor its toleration of a very comprehensive character. It
not only withholds justice from the pious of the world, but gives as
the reason, because they are not considered as neighbours. Want of
room prevents us from pursuing this subject further at present. We
therefore ask, Is this law from God? Can God, in an oral law, directly
contradict his written law? Can you point out anything similar in the
New Testament? Is this law just or unjust? You will grant that it is
unjust and erroneous. Then your fathers have been mistaken about
one of the first principles of the administration of justice, for many
centuries. And your brethren who adhere to this system as Divine, as
on the Barbary coast, for instance, are still mistaken. Why do you not
protest aloud against such error? Why not endeavour to convince
your brethren that they are wrong? In England there is nothing to
prevent you. There is full liberty, free toleration. You may lift up your
voice like a trumpet against the errors of the Talmud. You may
expunge all acknowledgment of its authority from your prayers—you
may return to Moses and the prophets, and no man will say nay.
 No. IX.
CHRISTIANS CANNOT BE RECKONED AMONGST
THE “PIOUS OF THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD.”

We said, in our last number, that “the pious of the nations of the
world” are, according to the oral law, those who have received the
seven commandments of the sons of Noah. We said that of the laws
laid down for their own conduct, some, as for instance that
respecting divorces, are such as would introduce confusion and
misery into Gentile society—and that others, referring to the
administration of justice by Rabbinical tribunals, are extremely
unjust. But the advocates of the oral law think, nevertheless, that it is
very tolerant, more tolerant than the New Testament, because it says
that “the pious of the nations of the world have a share in the world
to come.” Now we cannot help feeling a curiosity to know how great
or how small that share will be. And this our curiosity is excited by
the following information, which the oral law commands to be
communicated to a Gentile who wishes to turn Jew:—
‫ ומודיעין‬, ‫וכשם שמודיעין אותו עונשן של מצוות כך מודיעין אותו שכרן של מצוות‬
‫ ושאין שום צדיק גמור אלא בעל‬, ‫אותו שבעשית מצוות אלו יזכה לחיי העולם הבא‬
‫החכמה שעושה ויודען ׃ ואומרים לו הוי יודע שהעולם הבא אינו צפון אלא לצדיקים‬
‫ וזה שתראה ישראל בצער בעולם הזה טובה היא צפונה להם שאין‬, ‫והם ישראל‬
‫ שמא ירום לבם ויתעו ויפסידו שכר‬, ‫יכולין לקבל רוב טובה בעולם הזה כאומות‬
‫העולם הבא כענין שנאמר וישמן ישורון ויבעט ׃ ואין הקדוש ברוך הוא מביא עליהן‬
‫רוב פורענות כדי שלא יאבדו אלא כל האומות כלין והן עומדין וכו׳ ׃‬
“As they are to make known to him the punishments attached to the
commandments, so they are also to inform him of the rewards for
keeping them. They should inform him, that, by the doing of these
commandments, he will be worthy of everlasting life; and that there
is no perfectly righteous man, except that possessor of wisdom who
does and knows them. And they are to say to him, Be assured that
the world to come is laid up for none but the righteous, and they are
Israel; and as to this that thou seest Israel in trouble in this world,
their good things are laid up for them, for they cannot receive an
abundance of good things in this world, like the nations. Their heart
might, perchance, be lifted up, and they might go astray, and lose
the reward of the world to come, as it is said, ‘Jeshurun waxed fat
and kicked.’ The Holy One, blessed be he, brings upon them the
abundance of afflictions for no other reason than this, that they may
not be lost. All the nations shall be utterly destroyed, but they shall
abide.” (Hilchoth Issure Biah., c. xiv. 3-5.) To us this sounds very
much like a flat contradiction to the above declaration, that “the pious
of the nations of the world have a share in the world to come.” Here,
on the contrary, it is stated that the blessings of that state are
reserved “for none but the righteous, and they are Israel;” and again,
“All the nations snail be utterly destroyed.” And it is even implied that
the nations get their good things in this world, and do not suffer
affliction, as they are not to have that blessedness, which is reserved
for the righteous. How, then, are we to reconcile these two sayings?
There are only two ways which occur to us, either by saying that this
is not strictly true, but only a fair speech in order to catch proselytes;
or, if it be strictly true, that then “the pious of the world” are to have a
much smaller share in the blessedness to come. In any case the
spirit is far from charitable or tolerant. It represents God as an
accepter of persons, saving Israelites simply because they are
Israelites, and destroying the other nations because they are not
Israelites. The New Testament representation is very different, and
far more worthy of “the Judge of all the earth.” It does indeed say,
“He that believeth shall be saved, and he that believeth not shall be
damned.” But in this very declaration, we have an impartial rule
applied to all mankind. “He that believeth,” of whatsoever nation,
kindred, or tongue—Jew or Gentile, white or black—“shall be saved.”
“He that believeth not,” whether he be called a Jew or a Christian,
whether he be a son of Japhet, of Shem, or of Ham, “shall be
damned.” The New Testament asserts no monopoly of salvation for
one favoured family. It excludes none because he had not the
happiness to be descended from a privileged stock. It lays down a
general and impartial rule to be applied to all the children of men.
The oral law says,
‫כל ישראל יש להם חלק לעולם הבא ׃‬
“All Israel has a share in the world to come.” The New Testament
says, “Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter the
kingdom of heaven, but he that doeth the will of my Father which is
in heaven.” (Matt. vii. 21.) The oral law says, “The world to come is
laid up for none but the righteous, and they are Israel.” The New
Testament says, “God is no respecter of persons; but in every nation
he that feareth him, and worketh righteousness, is accepted with
him.” (Acts x. 34, 35.) Now then we appeal to the good sense of
every Jew, even of the Talmudists to tell us which of these two
statements is most just, impartial, and worthy of the Just Judge?
But the reasoning employed in the above extract from the oral law, is
as false as the principles which it is intended to support, when it
says, “As to this that thou seest Israel in trouble in this world, their
good things are laid up for them, for they cannot receive an
abundance of good things in this world like the nations,” it directly
contradicts the law of Moses, which everywhere promises an
abundance of temporal blessings to Israel, if obedient. “It shall come
to pass, if thou shalt hearken diligently unto the voice of the Lord thy
God, to observe and to do all the commandments which I command
thee this day, that the Lord thy God will set thee on high above all
nations of the earth, and all these blessings shall come upon thee,
and overtake thee, if thou shalt hearken unto the voice of the Lord
thy God. Blessed shalt thou be in the city, and blessed shalt thou be
in the field. Blessed shall be the fruit of thy body, and the fruit of thy
ground, and the fruit of thy cattle, the increase of thy kine, and the
flocks of thy sheep.... The Lord shall cause thine enemies that rise
up against thee to be smitten before thy face; they shall come out
against thee one way, and flee before thee seven ways. The Lord
shall command the blessing upon thee in thy store-houses, and in all
that thou settest thine hand unto; and he shall bless thee in the land
which the Lord thy God giveth thee.” (Deut. xxviii. 1-8, &c.) Here,
then, is temporal blessing in abundance, promised to obedience; and
the afflictions which have come upon Israel are not because of their
piety, but because of their disobedience. In this case, then, the oral
law speaks utter falsehood. God has not two ways of dealing with
nations, but one way. He gives every nation a fair trial, and if they
refuse to hearken to his voice, he pours out upon them his wrath.
The rise, and growth, and trial, of a nation is slower, and requires
more time than the growth and trial of individual men. The life of a
nation is, so to speak, longer than the life of a man. Centuries are
required as the time of a nation’s trial, but all history, sacred and
profane, testifies the truth of the general rule given in the Old
Testament, “Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to
any people.” The only difference which God makes between Israel
and the other nations, is with regard to their national existence in this
world. He has crumbled the mighty empires of Assyria, Babylon,
Greece, and Rome into dust, but he still preserves the independent
existence of the family of Abraham, according to his covenant; and
when, as a nation, they repent and return to him, He will remove the
rod of his anger, and give them the temporal prosperity which He has
promised by the mouth of Moses his servant. But this promise of
temporal blessing will not justify any impenitent Jew at the tribunal of
God’s judgment. The hopes held out by the oral law are utterly
fallacious, and dishonouring to God, inasmuch as he is represented
as unduly favouring one nation, and unjustly condemning all others.
An advocate of the oral law may, however, find out some other way
of evading the evident intolerance of the above statement, and still
insist upon it, that as the Talmud says, “The pious of the nations of
the world have a share in the world to come,” it is a very tolerant
book. We therefore proceed to inquire what pains the Rabbies have
taken to add to the number of those who are to be saved. They
believe, as we are told, that every one, who receives and observes
the seven commandments of the sons of Noah, will be saved; they
believe that all others must be lost; have they then taken any pains
to make known this important information to the world? Or, if that
was not to be expected during the captivity, did they during the days
of their power and dominion? Or, at least, did they offer every facility
to those Gentiles who might come to renounce idolatry, to receive
the necessary instruction? Did they command all their disciples to be
ready day and night to open their doors at the knock of the penitent
idolater, and by receiving rescue him from everlasting destruction?
Not one of all these things. They commanded that, when there was
no jubilee, such converts should be refused, and that if they did not
choose to be circumcised and observe the whole Mosaic law, they
should be left to perish.
‫אי זה הוא גר תושב זה גוי שקבל עליו שלא יעבוד עכו׳׳ם עם שאר המצוות שנצטוו‬
‫ וממה‬, ‫בני נח ולא מל ולא טבל הרי זה מקבליו אותי והוא מחסידי אומות העולם‬
‫נקרא שמו תושב לפי שמותר לנו להושיבו בינינו בארץ ישראל כמו שבארנו‬
‫ ואין מקבלין גר תושב אלא בזמן שהיובל נוהג ׃‬, ‫בחלכות עכו׳׳ם‬
“What is meant by a sojourning proselyte? Such an one is a Gentile,
who has taken upon himself not to commit idolatry, together with the
remaining commandments given to the sons of Noah, but is not
circumcised nor baptized. Such an one is received, and is of the
pious of the nations of the world. And why is he called a sojourner?
Because it is lawful for us to let him dwell amongst us in the land of
Israel, as we have explained in the laws concerning idolatry. But a
sojourning Proselyte is not received WHEN THE JUBILEE CANNOT BE
OBSERVED.” (Hilchoth Issure Biah., c. xiv. 7, 8.) At all other times the
unfortunate heathen might perish, if they did not choose to become
Jews altogether. Now what will be thought of the charity of this law if
we add, that there has been no jubilee, and consequently no pious
amongst the nations for two thousand seven hundred years and
more? Yet this is what the oral law tells us.
‫משגלו שבט ראובן ושבט גד וחצי שבט מנשה בטלו היובלות שנאמר וקראתם‬
‫ והוא שלא יהיו מעורבבין שבט‬, ‫ בזמן שכל יושביה עליה‬, ‫דרור בארץ לכל יושביה‬
‫בשבט אלא כולן יושבים כתקונן ׃‬
“Since the time that the tribe of Reuben, and the tribe of Gad and the
half-tribe of Manasseh were led away captive, the jubilees have
ceased, for it is said, ‘And ye shall proclaim liberty throughout the
land unto all the inhabitants thereof’ (Lev. xxv. 10); that means, when
all its inhabitants are upon it, and, moreover, when the tribes are not
mixed one with another, but all dwelling according as they were
appointed.” (Hilchoth Shemitah, c. x. 8.) We have the account of this
captivity in the following words, “In those days the Lord began to cut
Israel short: and Hazael smote them in all the coasts of Israel: from
Jordan eastward, all the land of Gilead, the Gadites, and the
Reubenites, and the Manassites.” (2 Kings x. 32, 33.) That was,
according to the common chronology about 884 years before the
Christian era. If to this we add 1836, we have 2720 years since the
time that there could be a jubilee, and consequently 2720 years
since any Gentiles were converted from the errors of idolatry to the
religion of the sons of Noah. What is it then but solemn mockery, in
any one acquainted with the oral law, to tell us that the Talmud is
tolerant, and admits “that the pious of the nations of the world may
be saved;” when according to that same book seven-and-twenty
centuries have elapsed, since any such converts were received? We
believe that those who make this defence are unacquainted with the
principles of the system which they undertake to defend. The truth is,
that the authors of the oral law, finding that they could not altogether
deny salvation to the pious of other nations, were determined not to
add to their number, and therefore limited the possibility of this mode
of conversion to times that had elapsed long before they were born.
But in their own times they would not receive any one who was not
willing to be circumcised and to receive the whole law. And hence we
see how exactly the New Testament represents the state of the case,
when Christianity was first propagated amongst the Gentiles, and
free salvation was proclaimed to all who believed, without becoming
Jewish proselytes. The Rabbinists opposed with all their might. “And
certain men which came down from Judea taught the brethren and
said, Except ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, ye
cannot be saved.” And again, “There rose up certain of the sect of
the Pharisees which believed, saying that it was needful to
circumcise them, and to command them to keep the law of Moses.”
(Acts xv. 1-5.) There was no year of jubilee, and therefore
renunciation of idolatry was not sufficient in the eyes of these
traditionists, who believed that at such a time there was no salvation
except for those who observed the whole law. But how is it now? If a
Gentile should desire now to become one of the pious of the nations,
could the Jews receive him? According to the above general
principles, certainly not. The tribes are still scattered and mixed up
together. The land has not got “all its inhabitants.” There can be no
jubilee, and therefore those that wish to be saved, must, according to
the oral law, turn Jews, or take their chance of living to a year of
jubilee. But we are not necessitated to argue from the principles. The
thing is expressly laid down in the oral law. After explaining, as we
have quoted above, who are the pious of the world, and that when
the jubilee is possible, is the only time for receiving them, it adds—
‫אבל בזמן הזה אפילו קבל עליו כל התורה כולה חוץ מדקדוק אחד אין מקבלין‬
‫אותו ׃‬
“But in the present time, though a man should be willing to take upon
him the whole law, with the exception of only one of its least
requirements, he is not to be received.” Now then what becomes of
the boasted toleration of the Talmud? It says, that “the pious of the
nations of the world may be saved.” But it says, first, that such
converts can only be received when the jubilee can be celebrated. It
says, secondly, that this only opportunity has not occurred for the
last 2,700 years; and, lastly, it positively forbids the Jews in the
present time to give the Gentiles a chance of salvation, unless they
are willing to receive the whole law. What use is it then to talk of the
pious of the world, or to say that people of other religions may be
saved? According to the Talmud, there are no pious of the nations,
unless perchance there may be some descendants of those who
were received 2,700 years ago. But all history that we have ever
seen is silent on the subject. We do not know of a single
congregation of Noahites in the whole world. The forefathers of the
Christians were not received during the usage of jubilee. They were
idolaters received against the wishes of the Rabbinists. The Britons
and the Saxons were converted to Christianity long after the final
dispersion of the Jews, that is, at a time when, according to the
Talmud, it was unlawful to add to the pious amongst the nations.
Neither were they received according to the Talmudic condition, in
the presence of three learned Jews.
‫וצריך לקבל עליו בפני שלשה חברים ׃‬
“And it is necessary for such an one to take the seven
commandments on him in the presence of three learned men, who
are qualified to be Rabbies.” (Hilchoth Melachim, c. viii. 10.)
According to the oral law, then, there are no such persons now
existing as “the pious of the nations of the world.” It is, therefore, idle
to talk of the liberality with which they would be treated, were they
forthcoming. Thus the only appearance of an argument in favour of
the Talmud vanishes into thin air, and mocks our grasp, as soon as
we endeavour to lay hold of it. Those who caught at this phantom of
charity, no doubt meant it sincerely. They thought that the oral law
was misrepresented. They were told that it was charitable, and they
therefore nobly came forward in its defence. If they had known its
true principles, they would have renounced them. Their advocacy
went on a false supposition. But now that we have set forth the true
bearings of the case, and given them chapter and verse to which
they may refer, and convince themselves, we call upon them to do
so: and then, as they hate intolerance, to join with us in protesting
against it, even though it should be found in that system, which
hitherto they have believed, on the testimony of others, to be Divine.
At the same time we would seriously ask of them to compare this
system, which has been for more than 1,700 years the religion of the
majority of the Jewish nation, with the system laid down in the New
Testament, and to decide which is most agreeable to the character of
God, as revealed in the law and the prophets, and most beneficial to
the world. The oral law says, that God has commanded the heathen
to be left for 2,700 years without the means of instruction, and that
when the days of Israel’s prosperity come, the nations are to be
converted by force; but that even then, they will not be raised to the
rank of brethren, but only be sojourning proselytes. The oral law
looks forward to no reunion of all the sons of Adam into one happy
family. The New Testament has, on the contrary, commanded its
disciples to afford the means of instruction “to every creature.” It
speaks to us Gentiles, who were once regarded as poor outcasts, in
the language of love, and says, “Now, therefore, ye are no more
strangers and foreigners, but fellow-citizens with the saints, and of
the household of God.” (Ephes. ii. 19.) It takes nothing from you. It
asserts your privileges as the peculiar people of God; but it reveals
that great, and to us, most comfortable truth, “That the Gentiles
should be follow-heirs, and of the same body;” and it promises a
happy time, when there shall be one fold and one Shepherd. It does,
indeed, tell us not to forget what we once were, “aliens from the
commonwealth of Israel, and strangers from the covenant of
promise, having no hope, and without God in the world.” (Eph. ii. 12.)
It reminds us that the olive-tree is Jewish, and that you are the
natural branches, and warns us against all boasting. (Rom. xi. 16-
24.) And we desire to remember these admonitions, and to
acknowledge with thankfulness, that all that we have received, is
derived from the Jewish nation. We ask you not to compare the oral
law with any Gentile speculations, or systems, or inventions, but with
doctrines essentially and entirely Jewish. Christianity has effected
great and glorious changes in the world, but we take not the glory to
ourselves. We give it to God, who is the author of all good, and
under Him, to the people of Israel. We ask you, then, to compare
these two Jewish systems, Rabbinism, which has done no good to
the Gentiles, and perpetuated much error amongst the Jews; and
Christianity, which has diffused over the world the knowledge of the
one true God—disseminated the writings of Moses and the prophets,
and increased the happiness of a large portion of mankind. The
comparison may require time, and ought to be conducted with
calmness and seriousness. But we think that, even without instituting
that comparison, you must acknowledge that the principles of the
oral law, discussed in this paper, are contrary to the law of Moses;
and that, therefore, a decided and solemn protest against these
Rabbinical additions, is an immediate and imperative duty.
 No. X.
RABBINIC WASHING OF HANDS.

There are various marks by which a religion of man’s making may be

detected. It is usually intolerant, superstitious, and voluminous. It
limits the love of God to a particular class. It exalts ceremonial
observances above the worship of the heart; and so multiplies its
laws and definitions, as to put the knowledge of it beyond the reach
of any but the learned. Any one of these marks would go far towards
shaking the claims of a religious system. Far instance, if it lay down
as religious duties so many and such subtle laws, as it is impossible
for the unlearned to attain a knowledge of, it is plainly the invention
of the learned, who have thought only of themselves, and have not
that tender regard and consideration for the ignorant, which the
Creator has. His religion must be for all, the poor as well as the rich,
and the ignorant as well as the wise of this world. We fear that the
oral law of the Rabbies will not stand any one of these tests: it is, at
all events, a religion for the learned, and the learned only. There is
scarcely one of its commandments that is not so encumbered with
distinctions and definitions, as to make the right interpretation of it
the sole property of the educated. Take, for example, one of the first
and most frequent of the commandments, in the Rabbinist’s daily
practice, ‫( נטילת ידים‬the washing of hands.) The command appears
very simple. It says—
‫ירחץ ידיו ויברך על נטילת ידים ׃‬
“Let him wash his hands, and pronounce the benediction for the
washing of hands.” (Orach Chaiim., § 4.) But out of this short
command arise endless distinctions, according to which the act
performed is regarded as a valid or invalid fulfilment of the
command.
‫ במים עצמן שלא יהיו פסולין לנטילת‬, ‫כל הנוטל ידיו צריך להזהר בארבעה דברים‬
‫ ובכלי שיהיו המים שנוטלין בהן‬, ‫ידים ובשיעור שיהיה בהן רביעית לכל שתי ידים‬
‫ ובכוטל שיהיו המים באין מכח נותן ׃‬, ‫בכלי‬
“Every one who washes his hands must attend to four things. 1st, To
the water, that it be not unlawful for the washing of hands. 2d, To the
measure, that there be a quartern for the two hands. 3d, To the
vessel, that the water, wherewith the washing is performed, be in a
vessel. 4th, To the washer, that the water come with force from him
that pours.” (Hilchoth Berachoth, vi. 6.) Each of these four limitations
requires new explanations and definitions of its own, as for example,
there are four things that make water unlawful for the washing of
hands; one of these is, if any work be done with it. This necessarily
requires fresh definitions of what is and is not work. Then come the
directions as to how for the washing is to reach, the position of the
hands, whether they are to be held up or down, the drying of the
hands. A perfect and accurate knowledge of all these conditions can
be attained only by the learned. And after all the care which these
things require, the Israelite may after all fall short of Talmudic
requirement, for there is still another condition, that involves another
host of Rabbinic definitions, the non-observance of which will
invalidate the merit of his washing.
‫כל החוצץ בטבילה חוצץ בידים וכו׳ ׃‬
“Every thing that is an impediment in baptism is an impediment in
washing of hands.” (Hilchoth Mikvaoth, xi. 2.) This, of course, leads
to a new inquiry, what constitutes an impediment.
‫ והדם היבש שעל גבי‬, ‫ וגלד שחוץ למכה‬, ‫ לפלוף שחוץ לעין‬, ‫אלו חוצצין באדם‬
, ‫ ובצק או טיט שתחת הצפורן‬, ‫ וגלדי צואה שעל בשרו‬, ‫ והרטיה שעליה‬, ‫המכה‬
‫ וטיט היוצרים וכו׳ ׃‬, ‫והמלמולין שעל הגוף היון‬
“These are the impediments in human beings. The film that is
outside the eye. The incrustation outside a wound. Dry blood that is
on a wound. The plaster that is on it. Filth upon the flesh. The
impurity or dirt under the nails. Dirt upon the body, mud, potter’s clay,
&c.” (Ibid., c. ii. 1.) Every one of these can give rise to endless
questions in casuistry, which are evidently beyond the powers of the
unlearned, and must draw him, if he be a conscientious man, to the
Rabbi to solicit his advice. Thus, one of the very first commandments
with which the Jew begins the day, requires for its accurate fulfilment
a degree of knowledge which is far beyond the attainment of the
multitude. This one commandment involves scores of others. Nay,
we doubt not that an accurate Talmudist might make 613
constitutions out of this one alone; and we appeal to the conscience
of the great majority of Jews in London to decide whether they
possess the knowledge here required, and consequently whether it
is possible for them to keep this one commandment. If they
transgress any one of these Rabbinic distinctions, their hands are
not washed, and consequently they are unfit for prayer. But this is
not a command for the morning only. It must be repeated through the
day.
‫ ואף על פי‬, ‫כל האוכל הפת שמברכין עליו המוציא צריך נטילת ידים תחלה וסוף‬
‫שהוא פת חולין ואף על פי שאין ידיו מלוכלכות ואינו יודע להן טומאה לא יאכל עד‬
‫ וכן כל דבר שטיבולו במשקה צריך נטילת ידים תחלה ׃‬, ‫שיטול שתי ידיו‬
“Every one who eats that sort of bread, for which the benediction is,
‘Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe! who
bringeth forth bread from the earth,’[16] is bound to wash his hands at
the beginning and end. And although the bread be common, and
although his hands have not been defiled, and he is not aware of any
uncleanness upon them, he is not to eat until he wash both his
hands. And thus, also, with regard to anything that is dipped in fluid,
the washing of hands is necessary at the beginning.” (Hilchoth
Berachoth, vi. 1.) Here, again, it is necessary to know the different
sorts of bread, and the compounds that may be made with the
different sorts of flour, and the various forms of benediction, and out
of these again may arise as many doubts and questions as out of the
former, for the solution of which learning, acuteness, and practice
are required; and the want of these may lead to transgression, and,
according to the Rabbies, to most fatal consequences. For instance,
neglect of this command after the meal may cause blindness.