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AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
AND IMAGE
INTERPRETATION

Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Third Edition David P. Paine and James D. Kiser
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
PREFACE

A number of new technologies were developed following the first edition of the
textbook in 1981, and these were incorporated in the second edition in 2003.
Most of these technologies were developed for use in outer space, but some
techniques, such as digital imagery and its transmission through space, global
positioning systems (GPS), and lidar, are now used in aircraft sensing systems.
Five new chapters were added in the second edition to cover global position-
ing systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), small-format aerial
imagery (SFAI), environmental monitoring, and mapping accuracy assessment.
In addition, information on LIDAR was added to the chapter on active remote
sensors.
Like the first and second editions, this book is organized into an introduction
and five parts: Part 1—Geometry and Photo Measurements (six chapters), Part 2
—Mapping from Vertical Aerial Photographs (five chapters), Part 3—Photo
Interpretation (nine chapters, with six chapters devoted to specific disciplines),
Part 4—Natural Resources Inventory, using timber cruising as an example (four
chapters), and Part 5—An Introduction to Remote Sensing (three chapters).
The beginning student may wonder why we included a chapter on statistics
in an aerial photo interpretation textbook. The answer is not obvious at first, but
it is essential to the understanding of sampling techniques used for inventorying
natural resources. Sampling combined with thematic maps can provide a complete
(estimated) inventory of specific natural resources or at least an essential first step
in the inventory process.
The only math required for using this text is an elementary knowledge of
algebra and geometry. It would be helpful to have completed a beginning course
in statistics but that is not necessary because statistics and sampling is thoroughly
covered in Chapter 22. In addition, we have kept the use of statistical symbols
and subscripts/superscripts to a minimum.
Each chapter begins with a set of objectives and ends with questions and
problems based on the objectives. Suggested laboratory exercises are provided
for selected chapters. Answers to selected mathematical problems can be found
in Appendix E, and a summary of most of the equations used throughout the
book can be found in Appendixes A and B. Answers to the laboratory exercises
presented in Chapters 3 and 15 are in Appendix F.
xi
xii Preface

This book is designed to be covered in a four- or five-credit course taught

over a 10-week term or a three- to four-credit hour course taught over a 13- to
15-week semester. If time or credit hours is limited, selected chapters can be
eliminated, depending on the instructor’s objectives and the specific disciplines
of interest involved.
However, in order to become a competent photo interpreter, the introductory
chapter, all of Part 1, Chapters 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, and selected chapters,
depending on your specific discipline or disciplines of interest, should be thor-
oughly covered.
If your primary interest is in satellite imaging systems, we recommend Remote
Sensing and Image Interpretation by Lillesand and Kiefer, also published by John
Wiley & Sons.
We wish to express our sincere appreciation to all those who contributed to this
and the previous editions of this book. Specifically, we wish to acknowledge the
following individuals who reviewed the entire first edition: Professors Joseph J.
Ulliman, University of Idaho; Marshall D. Ashley, University of Maine at Orono;
Garland N. Mason, Stephen F. Austin State University; and L. G. Arvanitis,
University of Florida. We also appreciate the cursory review by Professor Roger
M. Hoffer, Purdue University. Portions of the manuscript were also reviewed
by Professor Roger G. Peterson, Bo Shelby, and John “Dick” Dilworth, all at
Oregon State University.
Special recognition goes to Dick Dilworth, formerly the Department Head of
Forest Management, and Robert B. Pope of the U.S. Forest and Range Experi-
ment Station. These two men, with their knowledge of photo interpretation, were
instrumental in the writing of the first edition.
We are grateful for the help of Dr. Charles E. Poulton of NASA-Ames, Moffit
Field, California, who helped in the writing of Chapter 18. We also thank Bruce
Ludwig, Charlene Crocker, and Jessica Adine (graduate assistants) for verifying
the mathematics, and Sue Mason (instructor in journalism) for her very valuable
proofreading. In addition, we thank the many individuals, government agencies,
instrument manufacturers, and other commercial firms who provided information
and illustrations for this and the first edition. In addition, we wish to recognize
Gordon Wilkenson, WAC Corp., who provided illustrations for, and reviewed the
chapters on, acquisition of photography and films and filters, and to Dr. Michael
Lefsky (formerly at Oregon State University and currently at Colorado State
University) for his help and expertise on lidar, for his review of the chapter on
radar and lidar, and for providing illustrations for Plate VII and the bottom half
of Plate VIII.

Jim Kiser
Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Third Edition David P. Paine and James D. Kiser 1
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

As a natural resources manager, would you be interested in using aerial photography to

reduce costs by up to 35 percent for the mapping, inventorying, and planning involved
in the management of forest and rangelands? This was the cost savings estimated by
the staff of the Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington (Edwards 1975).
Because of advanced technology and increased availability, this estimate may be
low for all natural resources disciplines, as well as for land-use planning (state, urban,
and suburban), national defense, law enforcement, transportation route surveys, hydro-
electric dams, transmission lines, flood plain control, and the like. With savings of this
magnitude, it becomes increasingly important for all agencies, whether county, state,
federal, or private, to make maximum use of aerial photography and related imagery.
The study of aerial photography—whether it be photogrammetry or photo
interpretation—is a subset of a much larger discipline called remote sensing. A
broad definition of remote sensing would encompass the use of many different kinds
of remote sensors for the detection of variations in force distributions (compasses and
gravity meters), sound distributions (sonar), microwave distributions (radar), light
distributions (film and digital cameras) and lidar (laser light). Our eyes and noses
are also considered to be remote sensors. These detectors have one thing in common:
They all acquire data without making physical contact with the source. A narrower
definition of remote sensing, as used in this book, is the identification and study of
objects from a remote distance using reflected or emitted electromagnetic energy over
different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Photogrammetry is the art or science of obtaining reliable quantitative information
(measurements) from aerial photographs (American Society of Photogrammetry 1966).
Photo interpretation is the determination of the nature of objects on a photograph
and the judgment of their significance. Photo interpretation necessitates an elemen-
tary knowledge of photogrammetry. For example, the size of an object is frequently an
important consideration in its identification. The end result of photo interpretation is
Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Third Edition David P. Paine and James D. Kiser 1
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Introduction

frequently a thematic map, and mapmaking is the primary purpose of photogrammetry.

Likewise, photogrammetry involves techniques and knowledge of photo interpretation.
For example, the determination of acres of specific vegetation types requires the inter-
pretation of those types. The emphasis of this book is on image interpretation, but
it includes enough information on basic photogrammetry to enable one to become a
competent photo interpreter. A good interpreter must also have a solid background in
his or her area of interest.
Because of the introduction of digital technology into remote sensing, the terminol-
ogy used throughout this book to distinguish between digital and film-based technology
is important. This is because: (1) digital sensors (including cameras) produce images,
not photographs; and (2) film sensors produce photographs, but it is also correct to call
a photograph an image. Therefore, to clarify our terminology, the following scheme
will be used:

Terminology
1. When reference is made to a digital camera, the word digital will always be
used.
2. When reference is made to a film camera, film may be used (for emphasis), but in
many cases film will not be present.
3. The term photograph will be used only when it is produced by a film camera.
4. The term image will always be used when reference is made to a digital image, but
this term may also be used when reference is made to a photograph.

OBJECTIVES

After a thorough understanding of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Write precise definitions to differentiate clearly among the following terms:

remote sensing, photogrammetry, and photo interpretation.
2. Fully define the following terms: electromagnetic spectrum, atmospheric
window, f-stop, film exposure, depth of field, and fiducial marks.
3. Draw a diagram and write a paragraph to explain fully reflectance, trans-
mittance, absorption, and refraction of light.
4. List the wavelengths (bands) that can be detected by the human eye, film,
and terrestrial digital cameras (both visible and photographic infrared
bands).
5. Draw complete diagrams of the energy-flow profile (a) from the sun to the
sensor located in an aircraft or spacecraft and (b) within the camera.
6. Draw a diagram of a simple frame camera (film or digital), showing the
lens shutter, aperture, focal length, and the image captured.
7. Given the first and subsequent photographs taken by a typical, large-format,
aerial film camera in the United States, thoroughly explain the meaning of
the information printed on the top of most photographs.
 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Energy Flow 3

8. Given a list of characteristics (or abilities) of various types of cameras

discussed in this chapter, state whether each characteristic applies to film
cameras only, digital cameras only, or both types of cameras.
9. In a paragraph, briefly discuss the concept of pixel size and the number of
pixels associated with digital cameras as related to resolution.

1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM AND ENERGY FLOW

All remote-imaging sensors, including the well-known film cameras and the more
recently developed digital cameras, require energy to produce an image. The
most common source of energy used to produce an aerial image is the sun.
The sun’s energy travels in the form of wavelengths at the speed of light, or
186,000 miles (299,000 km) per second, and is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum (Figure 1.1). The pathway traveled by the electromagnetic spectrum is
the energy-flow profile (Figure 1.8).

1.1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wavelengths that make up the electromagnetic spectrum can be measured from
peak to peak or from trough to trough (Figure 1.2). The preferred unit of measure
is the micrometer (mm), which is one-thousandth of a millimeter. The spectrum
ranges from cosmic rays (about 10–8 mm), to gamma rays, X-rays, visible light,
and microwaves, to radar, television, and standard radio waves (about 108 mm,
or 10 km). Different remote sensors are capable of measuring and/or recording
different wavelengths. Photographic film is the medium on which this energy is
recorded within the film camera and is generally limited to the 0.4 to 0.9 mm

Wavelength (μm)
10−8 10−7 10−6 10−5 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Co

In Lid

Ra

Te

Ra
am

-ra

fra ar

le
da

di
sm

vi
ys

o
m

re

r
ic

sio

w
d
ar
r

av
ay

n
ay

es
s

Visible

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 (μm)

Ultraviolet Reflected infrared
(UV) (IR) Thermal
IR
violet
blue
green
yellow
orange
red

Figure 1.1. The electromagnetic spectrum.

4 Introduction

Figure 1.2. Measuring the wavelengths (λ). The preferred unit of measure is the microm-
eter (μm, or one-thousandth of a millimeter). Wavelengths can also be measured by their
frequency—the number of waves per second passing a fixed point.

region, slightly longer compared to human vision, which can detect from 0.4 to
0.7 mm. The recording medium for digital cameras consists of arrays of solid-
state detectors that extend the range of the electromagnetic spectrum even farther,
into the near infrared region.

1.1.2 Properties of Electromagnetic Energy

Electromagnetic energy can only be detected when it interacts with matter. We
see a ray of light only when it interacts with dust or moisture in the air or when
it strikes and is reflected from an object. Electromagnetic energy, which we will
call rays, is propagated in a straight line within a single medium. However, if a
ray travels from one medium to another that has a different density, it is altered. It
may be reflected or absorbed by the second medium or refracted and transmitted
through it. In many cases, all four types of interactions take place (Figure 1.3).

Reflectance. The ratio of the energy reflected from an object to the energy
incident upon the object is reflectance. The manner in which energy is reflected

Figure 1.3. The interaction of electromagnetic energy. When it strikes a second medium,
it may be reflected, absorbed, or refracted and transmitted through it.
 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Energy Flow 5

Figure 1.4. Specular reflectance from a smooth surface (left) and diffuse reflectance from
a rough surface (right).

from an object has a great influence on the detection and appearance of the object
on film, as well as display and storage mediums for digital sensors. The manner
in which electromagnetic energy is reflected is a function of surface roughness.
Specular reflectance takes place when the incident energy strikes a flat, mir-
rorlike surface, where the incoming and outgoing angles are equal (Figure 1.4,
left). Diffuse reflectors are rough relative to the wavelengths and reflect in all
directions (Figure 1.4, right). If the reflecting surface irregularities are less than
one-quarter of the wavelength, we get specular reflectance from a smooth sur-
face; otherwise, we get diffuse reflectance from a rough surface. Actually, the
same surface can produce both diffuse and specular reflection, depending on the
wavelengths involved. Most features on the Earth’s surface are neither perfectly
specular nor perfectly diffuse, but somewhere in between.

Absorptance. When the rays do not bounce off the surface and do not pass
through it, absorptance has occurred. The rays are converted to some other form
of energy, such as heat.
Within the visible spectrum, differences in absorptance qualities of an object
result in the phenomenon that we call color. A red glass filter, for example,
absorbs the blue and green wavelengths of white light but allows the red
wavelengths to pass through. These absorptance and reflectance properties are
important in remote sensing and are the basis for selecting filters to control the
wavelengths of energy that reach the film in a camera. Absorbed wavelengths that
are converted to heat may later be emitted and can be detected by a thermal (heat)
detector.

Transmittance and Refraction. Transmittance is the propagation of energy

through a medium. Transmitted wavelengths, however, are refracted when enter-
ing and leaving a medium of different density, such as a glass window. Refraction
is the bending of transmitted light rays at the interface of a different medium. It is
caused by the change in velocity of electromagnetic energy as it passes from one
medium to another. Short wavelengths are refracted more than longer ones. This
can be demonstrated by passing a beam of white light through a glass prism. The
refracted components of white light (the colors of the rainbow) can be observed
on a white screen placed behind the prism (Figure 1.5).
6 Introduction

Figure 1.5. Separating white light into its components using a glass prism.

Atmospheric Windows. Fortunately, many of the deadly wavelengths (cosmic

rays, gamma rays, and X-rays) are filtered out by the atmosphere and never strike
the Earth’s surface. Atmospheric windows occur in portions of the electromag-
netic spectrum where the wavelengths are transmitted through the atmosphere
(Figure 1.6). The technology of remote sensing involves a wide range of the
electromagnetic spectrum with different sensors (cameras, scanners, radar, lidar,
etc.), designed to operate in different regions of the spectrum.
The spectral range of human vision (visible light window) and two of the
three image-forming sensors (cameras and scanners) in relation to the atmo-
spheric windows are shown in Figure 1.6. Radar (Section 27.1) operates in the
centimeter-to-meter range, where there is practically no atmospheric filtering.
Lidar (Section 27.2) operates between approximately 0.5 mm and 1.7 mm.
As mentioned earlier, the human eye can detect wavelengths between about
0.4 and 0.7 mm. Fortunately, this corresponds to an atmospheric window. Without
the window, there would be no light. The sensitivity range of photographic film
is greater than that of the human eye, ranging from about 0.4 to 0.9 mm. Normal
color and panchromatic (black-and-white) film is sensitized to the 0.4 to 0.7 mm
range. Recently developed Agfa panchromatic film has extended this range up to
0.75 mm, whereas infrared film (both color and black-and-white) is sensitized to
the 0.4 mm to 0.9 mm range. The region between 0.7 and 0.9 mm is called the
photographic infrared region. Thus, with the right film and filter combination, the
camera can “see” more than the human eye. An interesting example of extended
sensitivity range below 0.4 mm is shown in Figure 1.7. Using aerial film with
extended sensitivity to include ultraviolet (UV) rays between 0.3 and 0.4 mm and
a special camera lens, Lavigne and Oristland (1974) were able to photograph
white harp seal pups against their snowy background. The black adult seals
are clearly visible on both panchromatic and UV photography while the white
pups are visible only on the UV photography. Because of this white-on-white
combination, the pups are not visible to the human eye unless one is quite close.
Animal fur, whether black or white, absorbs UV wavelengths while snow and
 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Energy Flow 7

Figure 1.6. Atmospheric windows (not cross-hatched) within the 0 to 14 μm range of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

ice reflect UV wavelengths back to the camera. Thus, the images of both the
dark adults and white pups become visible on UV photography, as compared to
panchromatic photography, which shows only the dark adults.

1.1.3 Energy Flow from Source to Sensor

Contrary to common belief, infrared photography detects reflected infrared
energy, not heat. Emitted thermal infrared energy (heat) is detected by a thermal
scanner that uses an entirely different process (Chapter 28). Even though the
results of thermal scanning frequently end up on photographic film, the film acts
only as a display medium. In the photographic process (see Chapter 14), film
acts as both a detector and a display medium.
The energy-flow profile (Figure 1.8) begins at the source (usually the sun),
is transmitted through space and the atmosphere, is reflected by objects on the
Earth, and is finally detected by a sensor. Not all energy reaches the sensor
because of scattering and absorption. Scattering is really reflectance within the
atmosphere caused by small particles of dust and moisture.
8 Introduction

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.7. Using ultraviolet sensitized film (B) makes it possible to see the white harp
seal pups against a white, snowy background. Only black adult harp seals can be seen
on standard panchromatic film (A). (Courtesy David M. Lavigne, University of Guelph,
Ontario Canada).
 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Energy Flow 9

Figure 1.8. The energy-flow profile.

Blue sky is nothing more than scattered blue wavelengths of sunlight. A red
sunrise or sunset is the result of additional scattering. During the morning and
evening, the solar path through the atmosphere is greatest and the blue and green
portions of sunlight are scattered to the point that red is the only portion of
the spectrum that reaches the Earth. Small particles within the atmosphere cause
more scattering of the blue and green wavelengths than the longer red ones. The
ozone layer of the Earth’s atmosphere is primarily responsible for filtering out
the deadly short wavelengths by absorptance.
Not all energy that reaches the sensor is reflected from terrestrial objects.
Some of the rays that are scattered by the atmosphere reenter the energy profile
and reach the sensor. Thus, photography from higher altitudes requires the use of
filters to filter out the shorter wavelengths. Because the total amount of scattered
energy increases with an increase in flying altitude, different filters are used for
different flying altitudes. Scattered energy is analogous to static in radio reception
and is called background noise (or noise, for short).

1.1.4 Energy Flow within the Camera

The most common source of energy for the camera system is the sun, although
electric lights, flashbulbs, flares, or fire can also be used. The following discussion
is limited to the sun as the energy source.
Energy that finally reaches the camera detector has navigated several obsta-
cles. It has been reflected, refracted, transmitted, and scattered, and has avoided
10 Introduction

absorption. The final obstacles before reaching the film are one or more lenses
and usually a filter. In addition, many aircraft, especially high-altitude aircraft,
are equipped with windows that protect the camera and the photographer from
wind pressure and other atmospheric conditions. These windows and camera
lenses absorb very little of the visible and photographic infrared portions of the
spectrum and are usually of little concern. However, filters do absorb significant
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Filters (see Chapter 14) are used to
control the quantity and quality of energy that reaches the film. The photogra-
pher selects the filter or filters based on the altitude, lighting, haze conditions,
the type of sensor used, and the final result desired. Finally, a portion of the
electromagnetic energy reaches the detector in the camera (film or solid-state
detectors) for image capture.

1.2 THE IMAGING PROCESS

Even though images produced by sensors other than the camera are frequently
displayed on photographic film, the film camera is the only sensor in which the
film is an essential part of the detection system. Photographic film in a camera
acts as a detector as well as a display and storage medium, whereas digital
cameras, scanners, and radar sensors use photographic film only as a display and
storage medium. (See Chapter 14 for more information on photographic film.)

1.2.1 Components of a Simple Film Camera

The film camera (Figure 1.9) can be described as a lightproof chamber or box in
which an image of an external object is projected on light-sensitive film through
an opening equipped with a lens, a shutter, and a variable aperture. A camera
lens is defined as a piece or a combination of pieces of glass or other transparent
material shaped to form an image by means of refraction. Aerial camera lenses
can be classified according to focal length or angle of coverage (see Chapter 2).
The shutter is a mechanism that controls the length of time the film is exposed
to light. The aperture is that part of the lens that helps control the amount of
light passing through the lens. The design and function of a camera is similar
to the human eye. Each has a lens at one end and a light-sensitive area at the
other. The lens gathers light rays reflected from objects and focuses them onto a
light-sensitive area. Images on the film negative are reversed from top to bottom
and from right to left. A second reversal is made when positives are produced,
thus restoring the proper image orientation.
Except for the image capture mechanisms, the components of a simple digital
camera (Section 1.3.2) are essentially the same as those of the film camera.

1.2.2 Exposing the Film

Film exposure is defined as the quantity of energy (visible light and/or photo-
graphic infrared) that is allowed to reach the film and is largely controlled by the
 1.2 The Imaging Process 11

Figure 1.9. Features of a simple film or digital camera.

relative aperture and shutter speed of the camera as well as the energy source.
The proper exposure is necessary to produce a good image.
The relative aperture, or lens opening, is called the f-stop and is defined as the
focal length divided by the effective lens diameter (controlled by the aperture).
Some of the more common f-stops, from larger to smaller lens openings, are f/2,
f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, and f/32. If the time the shutter remains open
is doubled, the lens opening must be decreased by one f-stop to maintain the same
exposure. For example, let’s assume that a photo is taken with a shutter speed of
one-hundredth of a second and a relative aperture of f/11. If the shutter speed is
changed to one-fiftieth of a second, the relative aperture must be decreased one
f-stop to f/16 in order to maintain the same exposure of the film. The whole idea
is to maintain the same total quantity of light energy that reaches the film. Thus,
if we want the same exposure and if we increase the size of the opening through
which light passes, we must decrease the length of time that light is allowed to
pass through the lens to the film.

1.2.3 Depth of Field

As we decrease the size of the lens opening, we increase what is called the depth
of field , which is the range of distances from the camera in which images are
in sharp focus. Depth of field is seldom a consideration with aerial photography
because it is only critical for objects relatively close (under 50 feet) to the camera.
This same effect can be achieved by squinting our eyes, thus reducing the opening
in the lens and sharpening the focus of the object we are viewing.
12 Introduction

1.3 TYPES OF CAMERAS

There are two basic types of cameras in use today, film and digital. Most readers
are familiar with the popular 35 mm and other small-format film cameras used
for everyday terrestrial use. In recent years, small-format digital cameras have
joined small-format film cameras and are rapidly becoming popular for amateur
and professional use. Both types of cameras are also used in light aircraft for
small-format aerial photography (see Chapter 13).

1.3.1 Film Cameras

For many decades, large-format 9 in. × 9 in. (23 cm × 23 cm) or larger cam-
eras have been the backbone of aerial photography for mapping and interpreting
purposes. Large-format aerial film cameras are specifically designed for use in
aircraft. Some of the more commonly used cameras are the aerial frame camera,
panoramic camera, and continuous-strip camera. Most aerial cameras can be clas-
sified as frame cameras in which an entire frame or photograph is exposed through
a lens that is fixed relative to the focal plane of the camera. Aerial frame cameras
(Figure 1.10) are used for reconnaissance, mapping, and interpretation purposes.
The typical aerial film camera has six essential components (Figure 1.11):
1. Lens assembly: The focus is fixed at infinity and typically at focal lengths
of 6, 8.25 and 12 inches.

Figure 1.10. A typical large-format aerial (LFA) frame camera (Wild RC 10 Aviophot
camera system) primarily used for reconnaissance, mapping, and interpretation. (Courtesy
of Wild Heerbrugg Instruments, Inc.).
 1.3 Types of Cameras 13

Figure 1.11. A diagram showing the component parts of a typical aerial camera.

2. Focal plane: A perpendicular plate aligned with the axis of the lens; it
includes a vacuum system to fix the film to the plate.
3. Lens cone: A fixed unit holds the lens and filters and prevents extraneous
light from entering into the camera body.
4. Body: The camera, mounting bolts, and stabilization mechanism are
encased in a protective shell.
5. Drive assembly: This includes the winding mechanism, shutter trigger, the
vacuum pressure system, and motion compensation.
6. Film magazine: The magazine secures the roll of unexposed film, advances
the film between exposures, holds the film in place, and winds-up the
exposed film.

Unlike the frame camera, the panoramic camera takes a partial or complete
(horizon-to-horizon) panorama of the terrain. In some panoramic cameras, the
film is stationary and the lens scans the film by rotating across the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft to produce highly detailed photography (Figure 1.12).
A continuous-strip camera exposes film by rolling the film continuously past a
narrow slit opening at a speed proportional to the ground speed of the aircraft (see
Figure 1.13). This camera system was developed to eliminate blurred photography
caused by movement of the camera at the instant of exposure. It allows for sharp
images at large scales obtained by high-speed aircraft flying at low elevations
14 Introduction

Figure 1.12. Operating principle of a panoramic camera. (Courtesy of T. M. Lillesand

and R. W. Kiefer, 2000 Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, copyright 2000, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., reprinted with permission).

and is particularly useful to the military or for research where very large-scale
photography is required.

1.3.2 Digital Cameras

The discussion that follows pertains to small-format digital cameras (similar to
35 mm cameras) for terrestrial use, but the same principles apply equally to
larger-format cameras (up to 4 in. × 4 in.) digital aerial imagery. Digital imagery
is a direct result of technology developed for imaging from orbiting satellites.
Small-format digital and film cameras have a similar outward appearance and
frequently using the same body, lens, and shutter system, but they are totally
different on the inside. A film camera uses film on which chemical changes
take place when exposed to photographic electromagnetic energy; the film is
developed into a negative from which positive prints are made.∗ Thus, the film
in a film camera acts as image capture, display, and storage medium. A digital

∗
Some films are developed directly into positive transparencies from which prints can be made—
35 mm slides, for example.
 1.3 Types of Cameras 15

Figure 1.13. Operating principle of a continuous-strip camera. (Courtesy of T. M. Lille-

sand and R. W. Kiefer, 1979, Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, copyright 1979,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., reprinted with permission.)

image capture, in contrast, is accomplished electronically by solid-state detectors.

The detectors in a digital camera are used only for image capture and temporary
storage for downloading.
Each digital detector receives an electronic charge when exposed to elec-
tromagnetic energy, which is then amplified, converted into digital form, and
digitally stored on magnetic disks or a flash memory card. The magnitude of these
charges is proportional to the scene brightness (intensity). Currently, there are two
types of detectors, charged-coupled devices (CCD) and complementary metal-
oxide-semiconductors (CMOS). With the new Faveon chip (see Section 1.4.2)
the number of required pixels can be reduced. Most CCD and CMOS detectors
are able to differentiate a wider range of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., por-
tions of the thermal infrared spectrum) than photographic film or the human eye
(see Figure 1.1).
CCD detectors are analog chips that store light energy as electrical charges in
the sensors. These charges are then converted to voltage and subsequently into
16 Introduction

digital information. CMOS chips are active pixel sensors that convert light energy
directly to voltage. CCD chips offer better image resolution and flexibility but at
the expense of system size, while CMOS chips offer better integration and system
size at the expense of image quality. A newer sensor chip called an sCMOS chip
(scientific CMOS) has recently been developed that is a hybrid of the advantages
of the CCD and CMOS chips.
Digital image data stored in the camera can be transferred to computers or
other storage media for soft copy display (digital images displayed on a screen),
analysis, and long-term storage. Hard copy display (on film) can then be produced
by computer printers. Soft copy data can be electronically transmitted (e-mailed,
for example).
Digital frame camera images are captured using a two-dimensional array of
detectors composed of many thousands or even millions of individual detectors
(see Figure 1.14). Each detector produces one pixel (picture element), analogous
to a single silver halide in photographic film. Because silver halides are much
smaller than digital detectors, the resolution of a film camera is greater than that of
a digital camera. However, this difference in resolution is usually undetectable
by the human eye without image enlargement. Modern technology is closing
the resolution gap by reducing the size of individual detectors. Currently, CCD
detectors can be sensitive to as small as 1.1 μm. Pixels are of uniform size and
shape, whereas silver halides have random sizes and shapes. (See Chapter 14 for
more about silver halides.)
Because digital image data are computer compatible, images can be manip-
ulated quickly and in a number of ways to detect, analyze, and quantify digital
imagery (see color plate VIII [top] and Table 27.2).

Figure 1.14. Geometry of a digital frame camera—perspective projection.

 1.4 Comparison of Film and Digital Cameras 17

Digital images can be classified by the number of pixels in a frame. The

higher the number of pixels and the smaller their size, the better the resolution.
Earlier and cheaper small-format digital cameras had only about 500 rows and
500 columns—or about 250,000 pixels. Newer small-format cameras can have
6 million or more pixels. Slightly larger format aerial frame digital cameras have
even more.

1.3.3 Resolution
The resolution of film (Section 14.3.3) and digital cameras is usually handled
differently but basically, resolution for both types of cameras is related to the
smallest detail (on the ground) that can be distinguished on the imagery and is
influenced by several things, especially image scale. The ultimate limitation for
photographs for a given scale is the size of the silver halides in the film emulsion
and the size of the CCD detectors for digital cameras. A 9 in. × 9 in. format
digital camera would require about 400 million pixels to approach the resolution
of a typical 9 in. × 9 in. film camera. At present, this capacity does not exist and
it probably never will, even though pixel sizes are slowly being reduced (Schnek
1999).
Ground resolution can be optically (in contrast to silver halide or CCD size)
improved. Both digital and film cameras can be equipped with telephoto lenses.
Thus, with improved optics and the development of smaller solid-state detectors,
it is possible that digital cameras may replace film cameras. However, it should
be pointed out that as the focal length increases, the amount of light reaching the
detector and the angle of coverage are reduced.

1.4 COMPARISON OF FILM AND DIGITAL CAMERAS

Although small-format film and digital cameras have similar outward appear-
ances, their detectors are entirely different. The following list summarizes the
ten primary differences:

1. Image capture: Film cameras use photosensitive film with silver halides in
the film emulsion, whereas digital cameras use photosensitive solid-state
CCD or CMOS detectors.
2. Image storage: Film cameras use photographic film (negatives, diaposi-
tives, or prints), whereas digital cameras use flash memory cards, computer
chips, or other solid-state devices. Digital images involve large data files,
which create problems when attempting to emulate the massive amount
of data held in a conventional aerial photograph. Current technology falls
short of being a viable alternative to film for storage purposes. However,
it is only a matter of time before a practical solution will be found for stor-
ing and processing the vast number of pixels required for digital images
(Warner et al. 1996).
18 Introduction

3. Resolution: At present, film has far better resolution than solid-state detec-
tors. The gap is closing, but the resolution of digital images will probably
never equal that of photographs.
4. Silver halides versus pixels: Silver halides are of random sizes and shapes,
whereas pixels are always uniform (square, rectangular, and sometimes
octagonal).
5. Data transmission: Photographs must be mailed or faxed, whereas digital
data can be sent via phone, computer, or telemetry (from satellites, for
example). Note that a photograph may be scanned for transmission, but
at that point it becomes a digital image.
6. Soft copy display: Diapositives (i.e., 35 mm slides) produced by film
cameras can be projected, whereas digital images require computer or
television monitors.
7. Hard copy display: Film cameras produce film prints, whereas digital hard
copy display requires computer printers (standard, inkjet, or laser).
8. Access time: Film takes hours (or days) for processing. Digital imagery
is almost instantaneous.
9. Cost: At present, both digital cameras and soft copy display units cost
more than film cameras, but they are rapidly decreasing in price. However,
digital cameras eliminate the cost of film purchase and development.
10. Environmental effects: Film processing uses an array of chemicals for
development. The industry has eliminated most of the highly toxic chem-
icals, but some are still in use and their disposal remains an issue. Digital
processing uses no toxic chemicals.

1.4.1 The Future of Digital Imagery

The future of digital imagery is bright, especially for small-format aerial cam-
eras (Chapter 13) and spaceborne detectors (see Chapters 26, 27, and 28). In fact,
sales of digital cameras are increasing for use by the amateur photographer. How-
ever, there are problems with aerial-digital imagery that have not been resolved,
including the massive amount of digital data required and their permanent storage.

Data Requirements. Because of the massive number of pixels required for

good resolution, digital cameras have not yet been developed for aerial use with
formats over about 4 in. × 4 in. This format size can require up to 16 million
pixels. At this rate, it would require over 80 million pixels for a 9 in. × 9 in.
digital image—with resolution inferior to that of a film camera.
Color digital imagery requires even more pixels. If three color bands (red,
green, or √
blue) are used (Section 14.4.2), the image resolution is reduced by a
factor of 3 = 1.73, or increasing the image file size by a factor of 3 over a
monochrome (black-and-white) film (Warner et al. 1996).

Permanent Storage. Because temporary data storage space within digital cam-
eras is limited, the data must be frequently downloaded onto computer chips or
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 HISTORICAL RECORD
OF THE

EIGHTY-SIXTH,
OR

THE ROYAL COUNTY DOWN REGIMENT

OF

F O O T.

The last twelve years of the eighteenth century form a

period, remarkable in the annals of Europe, for the efforts 1793
made to overthrow the governments of Christendom, and to
establish the destructive domination of atheism and democracy,
upon the ruins of institutions which had elevated the inhabitants of
this quarter of the globe to an height of knowledge, refinement,
wealth, and power, unknown in other parts of the earth. France was
the great theatre of commotion: there the war of hostile principles
produced the most sanguinary results;—the cry of “equality” was
raised,—the blood of princes, nobles, and citizens was shed, and
democracy appeared to triumph over the rights of society. In other
countries, republican principles were spreading to an alarming
extent; the sovereigns of Europe were forced to engage in war to
oppose the progress of destruction, and to Great Britain pertains the
honour of having persevered in this contest, for twenty years, when
the overthrow of that tyrannical power which sprung out of the
French revolution, was accomplished.
On the commencement of hostilities in 1793, the British army was
augmented: upwards of fifty regiments of foot were raised, and one
of the first corps embodied, on this occasion, was the regiment which
now bears the title of the Eighty-sixth, or the Royal County
Down Regiment.
This corps was raised by Major-General Cornelius Cuyler, who
had served with reputation in North America, and also in the West
Indies, where he had performed the duties of commander-in-chief; its
general rendezvous was at Shrewsbury, and its designation was
“General Cuyler’s Shropshire Volunteers;” but its ranks were
completed with men, principally from Yorkshire, Lancashire, and
Cheshire,—counties which have furnished many excellent soldiers.
Major-General Cuyler’s appointment was dated the 30th of October,
1793, and the royal warrants for raising recruits were issued on the
following day[1].
In February, 1794, the following officers were holding
commissions in the regiment:— 1794

Colonel, Major-General C. Cuyler.

Lieut.-Colonel, George Sladden.
Major, R. M. Dickens.
Captains. Lieutenants. Ensigns.
T. C. Hardy Thomas Neilson Willm. Murray
W. H. Digby Hugh Houstown Thos. Thornhill
Charles Byne W. S. Curry Thomas Symes
Edward Robinson Edward Barnes W. C. Williams
Alexander Campbell Thos. Pickering James Burke
Rowland Hill[2] Charles Dod Danl. McNeill
Robert Bell. Geo. Middlemore Edward Fox
Chas. E. Jolley Wm. St. Clair.
Captain-Lieutenant. Daniel Gavey
George Cuyler. Wm. Semple
J. C. Tuffnell.
Chaplain, Chas. Austen; Adjutant, Daniel Coleman;
Quarter-Master, Richard Jackson; Surgeon, Hugh Dean.
 From Shrewsbury, the regiment proceeded to Park-gate, where it
embarked, in April, for Ireland, and after landing at Cork, marched to
Kilkenny.
At this period the newly-raised corps were numbered, and this
regiment received the designation of the Eighty-sixth, or
Shropshire Volunteers.
On the 20th of June, 1794, Major-General Cuyler was appointed to
the Sixty-ninth Regiment, and was succeeded in the colonelcy of the
Eighty-sixth, by Lieutenant-General Russell Manners.
After remaining in Ireland ten weeks, the regiment embarked at
Cork, and was held in readiness for active service; but it landed at
Frome, in Somersetshire, in September, and proceeded from thence
to the Isle of Wight.
The regiment having been brought into a state of discipline
and efficiency, was selected to serve on board the fleet as 1795
marines; eight officers, and four hundred and fourteen non-
commissioned officers and soldiers, embarked in January, 1795, on
board the “Prince of Wales,” “Triumph,” “Brunswick,” and “Hector,”
line-of-battle ships, and in February, seven officers, and two hundred
and seventy-six non-commissioned officers and soldiers, embarked
on board the “Prince,” “Saturn,” and “Boyne.” The “Boyne” caught
fire at Spithead, and was destroyed, when the grenadier company of
the regiment lost its arms, accoutrements, and baggage.
Lieut.-General Russell Manners was removed to the Twenty-sixth
Light Dragoons, in March, 1795, and was succeeded by Major-
General William Grinfield, from Lieut.-Colonel in the Third Foot
Guards.
The head-quarters of the regiment were at Newport, in the Isle of
Wight, where they were inspected by His Royal Highness the Duke
of York, who expressed his approbation of their appearance; and in
October the establishment was augmented to one hundred rank and
file per company, its numbers being completed by drafts from the
118th and 121st Regiments; the men of the last-mentioned corps
were then recently liberated from French prison. In December, the
regiment was stationed at Portsmouth and Hilsea.
In the beginning of 1796, the establishment was augmented
to twelve companies,—the eleventh and twelfth being 1796
recruiting companies; and as the ships of war came into port, the
officers and soldiers of the Eighty-sixth landed and joined the
regiment; they had served in several engagements in which the
ships they were embarked in had taken part, during that eventful
period. In April, the regiment proceeded to Guildford, and in June it
returned to the Isle of Wight.
Meanwhile, Flanders and Holland had embraced the republican
principles of France, and the British government resolved to deprive
the Dutch of the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope; the Eighty-
sixth embarked for the Cape, where they landed on the 22nd of
September, six days after the Dutch governor had surrendered the
colony to the forces under General Sir Alured Clarke.
The regiment was stationed at the Cape of Good Hope
during the years 1797 and 1798, and received drafts from the 1797
1798
95th, and other corps. In February, 1799, it embarked for the
1799
East Indies, and landed, on the 10th of May, at Madras,
upwards of thirteen hundred strong,—a splendid body of men,
whose appearance excited much admiration.
The capture of Seringapatam had rendered the services of the
regiment at this station unnecessary, and after a month’s repose at
Madras, it embarked for Bombay, where it arrived on the 22nd of
July, and sent detachments by sea, under Major Bell, and Captain
James Richardson, to Tannah and Surat: these detachments
returned to Bombay, in December following.
From Bombay, three companies sailed, towards the end of
1800, for Ceylon, in the expectation of taking part in the 1800
1801
reduction of the Isle of France[3]; but orders had, in the
meantime, arrived for an army from India, to co-operate with a body
of troops from Europe, in the expulsion of the French “Army of the
East” from Egypt, and the detachment returned, in January, 1801, to
Bombay, where Major-General Baird assumed the command, and
the expedition sailed for the Red Sea.
It was originally designed, that the army from India should land at
Suez, a city of Egypt, situate at the head of the Red Sea, on the
borders of Arabia; and a small squadron under Admiral Blanquett,
having on board three companies of the Eighty-sixth (the
grenadier, light, and colonel’s companies) under Lieut.-Colonel
Lloyd, a detachment of Bombay artillery, a battalion of sepoys, with
other detachments, sailed some time before the main body of the
expedition, to attack Suez, and interrupt the formation of any
establishment there by the French. This small force left Bombay in
December 1800, arrived at Mocha in the middle of January 1801,
where the fleet remained two days to procure provisions, when it
sailed for Jedda, where one of the ships was lost on a bank. The
navigation of the Red Sea, from Jedda to Suez, proved particularly
difficult and tedious, on account of the want of a sufficient depth of
water, the fleet having to anchor daily, and take advantage of the
tides. On reaching Suez, the French had evacuated the place in
consequence of the arrival of the army from Europe, under General
Sir Ralph Abercromby, on the Mediterranean shores of Egypt, and
the success of the British arms near Alexandria, where Sir Ralph
Abercromby was killed.
The troops landed at Suez, and Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd, in reporting
his arrival, solicited permission to cross the Desert and share in the
dangers and honours of the army, which was advancing up the Nile,
and approaching Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, which it was
expected the French would defend. Lieut.-General Hutchinson
acquiesced in Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd’s wishes, and preparations were
accordingly made to pass the Desert.
At six o’clock, on the evening of the 6th of June, the three
companies of the Eighty-sixth commenced their march, with only
three pints of water per man; the distance in a straight line, was only
fifty-eight miles; but the Arab Sheiks, furnished for guides by the
Vizier, and made responsible for the safe passage of the
detachment, represented that a detour of ten or twelve miles would
be necessary to prevent the French intercepting the detachment.
 After marching two hours over a hard sandy country, Captain
Cuyler, Lieutenant Morse, and Lieutenant Goodfellow, were taken so
ill as to be unable to proceed. At eleven the troops halted for two
hours, then resumed the march until seven in the morning, when
they again halted, having performed twenty-six miles of the journey.
The day became so intolerably hot, that Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd ordered
the tents to be pitched to shelter the men from the sun; but at ten
o’clock the guides stated it was necessary to march, as the camels
would be so debilitated by the heat, if they rested on the sand, as to
require water before they could move again; but if kept in motion
they would not be affected in so fatal a degree; adding, if the soldiers
slept, the camel drivers might steal the water, which they feared
would be found scarcely sufficient. The guides being responsible for
the safety of the detachment, Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd acceded to their
wishes; the tents were struck at eleven, and the march resumed; the
thermometer being at 109. Captain Cuyler soon fainted again, and
fell from his horse, and a camel and two men were left to attend him
and bring him forward. The men beginning to drop fast in the rear,
Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd halted about one o’clock, cut his own baggage
from the camels, which example was followed by all the officers, as
many men as could be carried were then mounted on the camels,
and the whole proceeded. At two o’clock a camseen, or south wind
began to blow, the thermometer rose to 116, and afterwards much
higher; the officers and soldiers were seized with dreadful
sensations:—some were affected with giddiness and loss of sight,
and others fell down gasping for breath, and calling for drink. At four
o’clock, Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd was forced to halt. The skins had been
cracked by the sun, and the water had become of a thick
consistence; the men who drank it were seized with vomiting and
violent pains. The officers had brought with them some Madeira
wine, which they divided among the soldiers; a proportion of spirits
were mixed with the remaining water, which was issued to the men,
accompanied with the warning, that every drop was in their own
possession, half the journey had not been performed, and on their
own prudence, in reserving a portion in their canteens, must depend
whether or not they should be enabled to accomplish the remainder
of the distance.
 Between six and seven o’clock the wind ceased; as the sun
declined, the air became more temperate, and the detachment being
a little refreshed, though still a languor pervaded the whole, the order
for marching was given at seven o’clock. Seventeen men, unable to
travel, were left on the ground, and camels were left to bring them
forward as soon as they could be moved.
During the march several officers and soldiers experienced an
extraordinary sensation of seeing horses, camels, and all kinds of
animals, moving with rapid transition before them, which false
perception their judgment could not correct. At eleven the
detachment halted; the night was excessively dark, and the officers
and soldiers were so exhausted, that unconquerable sleep seized
upon all.
At four o’clock the guides awoke Lieut.-Colonel Lloyd, and the
soldiers formed in order of march with difficulty, a heavy dew having
fallen upon them, and their limbs being benumbed with cold. The
march was, however, resumed; the south wind began to blow at the
same hour as on the preceding day, but the men were not affected in
the same severe degree; and by strenuous exertions the detachment
arrived at the springs of Elhanka, between four and five o’clock in the
evening of the same day, when the joy experienced by every one
was very great. By eight o’clock all the camels had come up, and the
men, who, from giddiness had fallen from their backs, joined during
the night. Eight of the seventeen men left behind, joined on the 9th of
June, and the other nine perished in the Desert.
No man had partaken of food after quitting Suez, as it would have
increased the thirst, and the rations of salt pork were thrown away on
the first morning. On arriving at the springs, the soldiers partook of
the water with caution; but two officers’ horses having broke loose
drank till they died on the spot. During the march of seventy miles,
no vegetation, bird, or beast, had been seen.
After halting at the springs of Elhanka until the evening of the 9th
of June, the detachment commenced its march in the dark, to
prevent being discovered by the enemy, and at eleven o’clock on the
following day, it joined the Turkish army, encamped at Chobra, under
the Grand Vizier; the British, under Lieut.-General Hutchinson, being
encamped on the other side of the river Nile. The Eighty-sixth
pitched their tents with Colonel Stuart’s division, which was with the
Vizier’s army; the soldiers had suffered the loss of their uniforms,
which had been burnt in consequence of the plague, and they had
been forced to abandon their knapsacks on the march; being very
fine men, their appearance excited great interest. On the 16th, the
three officers left behind on the march, joined; they had returned to
Suez, and afterwards passed the Desert with a caravan.
Advancing towards the metropolis of modern Egypt, the army
made preparations for investing that extensive fortress; but on the
22nd of June a flag of truce arrived from the French Commandant,
General Belliard, who agreed to surrender Cairo, on condition of
himself and garrison being sent back to France.
On the surrender of Cairo, the three companies of the Eighty-
sixth marched into the citadel, which the French had evacuated a
few hours previously. On the same day they took possession of Fort
Ibrahim.
In the mean time, the other three companies of the regiment which
had returned from Ceylon to join the expedition, had been delayed
by the difficult navigation of the Red Sea, and had landed at Cosseir,
from whence a march of above one hundred and twenty miles had to
be performed across the Desert to Kenna on the Nile. This distance
was divided into stages, stores were formed at several points, relays
of camels were placed to convey water, wells were found, and others
digged, and the march was performed by the army with much less
suffering than was experienced by the three companies under Lieut.-
Colonel Lloyd, in the passage of the Desert from Suez to the springs
of Elhanka. At the third stage, called Moilah, some soldiers of the
Eighty-sixth dug a well at the foot of a hill, under the direction of
Captain Middlemore, and found an excellent spring, for which they
received the thanks of the commander of the forces.
Arriving on the banks of the Nile, the troops embarked in boats
and proceeded down the river to the island of Rhonda, where they
encamped, while the forces from Europe were engaged in the siege
of Alexandria. At Rhonda the six companies of the Eighty-sixth
were united; four companies remaining in India.
In the beginning of September, Alexandria surrendered; Egypt was
thus delivered from the power of the French “Army of the East,”
and Europe saw the dawn of liberty in the horizon. The Eighty-sixth
received, in common with the other corps which served in this
enterprise, the approbation of their Sovereign, the thanks of
Parliament, and the royal authority to bear on their colours the
Sphynx, with the word “Egypt,” to commemorate the share taken by
the regiment in this splendid achievement.
To perpetuate the remembrance of the services rendered to the
Ottoman Empire, the Grand Seignor established an order of
knighthood, which he named the order of the Crescent, of which
the superior officers of the army and navy were constituted
members. The officers of the Eighty-sixth, and other corps, had
gold medals presented to them by the Grand Seignor, which they
were permitted by King George III., to accept and wear.
The object of the expedition having been accomplished, the
Eighty-sixth sailed up the Nile in boats, in order to return to India;
they arrived at El Hamed on the 14th of October, and on the 30th
proceeded to Gheeza, where they remained several months.
In April of this year, one of the four companies left in India,
proceeded from Bombay to Surat, a town situate on the south bank
of the river Taptee, in the province of Guzerat; and in November, two
companies sailed for Dieu in the same province.
The two companies at Dieu returned to Bombay in
February, 1802, and in March they sailed to Cambay, under 1802
the command of Captain Richardson, and joined the company from
Surat, which had arrived there a short time previously. They
encamped at Cambay, with part of the Seventy-fifth, five companies
of the Eighty-fourth, a battalion of native infantry, and some artillery,
under Colonel Sir William Clarke.
The jealousy of the native chiefs at the accession of territory
acquired by the British in India, often produced hostilities, and
circumstances occurred which occasioned a detachment of the
Eighty-sixth, under Lieutenant William Purcell Creagh, to take part
in an attempt to surprise the hostile fortress of Kareah, one hundred
and twenty miles from Cambay, on the night of the 17th of March.
The soldiers were advancing to storm the place with the greatest
gallantry, when their progress was arrested by a deep ditch, cut
through the rock a short time previously, and the Arabs in garrison
being numerous and prepared, opened a heavy fire. Lieutenant
Creagh was killed by a cannon ball, while in the act of leading the
soldiers to the attack; Lieutenant Lovell was also killed, and many
officers and soldiers were wounded; soon after day-break the troops
were obliged to retire.
In consequence of this repulse, the three companies of the
Eighty-sixth, with the other detachments encamped at Cambay,
were ordered to advance upon Kareah. The enemy having formed
for battle a short distance from the fort, with a numerous force, were
routed by the British on the 30th of April; and immediately afterwards
the town was captured, also some out-works, in one of which an
explosion took place, killing an officer and twenty-five soldiers.
The siege of the fort was commenced; but when the batteries
opened their fire, the garrison surrendered. The chief, Mulhar Rao,
was sent a prisoner to Bombay. After placing a garrison in the fort,
the troops marched for Surat, (170 miles,) where they arrived on the
12th of June, having captured Tarrapore, and other small places,
while on the march.
The six companies of the regiment in Egypt remained at Gheeza
until May, when they traversed the Desert to Suez, and from thence
to “Moses’ Well,” or the “Font of Moses,” on the Arabian side of the
Gulf of Suez. While at Gheeza they received two hundred and seven
volunteers from the Twentieth, Thirty-fifth, Forty-eighth, and Sixty-
third Regiments; Major Henry Torrens joined at that station.
While at Moses’ Well, several soldiers died of the plague, when
the men’s clothing, bedding, and tents were burnt, and the six
companies embarked for India; no other cases of the plague
occurring, the companies landed at Bombay on the 4th of July. In
November, the three companies arrived from the province of
Guzerat, and the regiment was once more united at Bombay.
The Eighty-sixth were only permitted to enjoy a short repose at
Bombay: the hostile demonstrations of some of the predatory states
composing the Mahratta power, rendering it necessary for the British
forces to be held in readiness for active operations, and assembled
on the verge of the British territory. The Mahratta states were united
by a sentiment of interest founded upon their common origin, civil
and religious usages, and habits of conquest and depredation; the
chiefs acted as independent sovereigns, but nominally
acknowledged the supreme authority of the Peishwah. They,
however, viewed with jealousy the treaties between the British and
the Peishwah, as tending to restrain their predatory habits, and
prevent their acquisition of power; and this acknowledged head of
the Mahratta states found his independence controlled, and the
existence of his government menaced by the violence and ambition
of his feudatory chieftains; at the same time he was unable to fulfil
his engagements with the British, the safety of whose possessions
was endangered. In consequence of these events, connected with
other causes, the Eighty-sixth left Bombay in the middle of
November, for the province of Guzerat, and landed at Cambay, from
whence they marched towards the hostile fortress of Baroda, in the
vicinity of which place they encamped, with several other corps, on
the 3rd of December. An enemy’s force was assembled to protect
the fortress, and on the 18th of December the British advanced,
leaving their tents standing, and engaged their opponents. During
the fight the garrison made a sally; but the English proved victorious,
routing their adversaries with great slaughter, and capturing a pair of
Arab colours and many prisoners.
During the night the erection of batteries commenced; on the 21st
of December the fire of the artillery was opened, and the flank
companies of the Eighty-sixth stormed an outwork, defended by
Arabs, who refused quarter, and were nearly all destroyed, very few
escaping. In four days the breach was practicable, and the storming
parties were ready; but the garrison surrendered. The Eighty-sixth
had seven men killed, and twenty-three wounded in these services.
Captain John Grant distinguished himself during the siege, and at
the storming of the outwork.
Towards the end of this year, the usurpations of Jeswunt Rao
Holkar, one of the Mahratta chiefs, forced the Peishwah to abandon
his capital, and to seek British aid, when a treaty was concluded with
him; and the refractory chiefs persisting in aggression, hostilities
were commenced to reinstate the deposed chieftain.
On the third of February, 1803, three companies of the
Eighty-sixth, under Captain James Richardson, were 1803
detached, with other forces, the whole commanded by Major
Holmes, of the Bombay army, in pursuit of the Mahratta chieftain,
Canojee Rao Guickwar, who had taken the field with a considerable
force.
While in quest of the enemy, the advance-guard of the Seventy-
fifth Regiment was suddenly attacked, when emerging from a defile,
on the 6th of February, and overpowered, with a loss of many men
and a gun. The three companies of the Eighty-sixth, being at the
head of the column of march, moved forward, encountered the
enemy, and, by a determined charge, routed the hostile forces,
chasing them across the bed of a river into the jungle, where they
dispersed, leaving their tents, baggage, camels, horses, and the
captured gun behind. The regiment lost very few men in this gallant
exploit.
On the same day five companies of the regiment, under Captain
Cuyler, marched from Baroda to reinforce Major Holmes’
detachment, leaving two companies behind under Captain Grant.
The Chief Canojee was at the head of a considerable force, but he
avoided an engagement, which occasioned many harassing
marches in endeavouring to come up with him. On the 25th of
February, a party of the Eighty-sixth was detached against the fort
of Kirrella, which was captured without experiencing serious
opposition.
On the 1st of March, when near Copperbund, information was
received that Canojee’s force was not far distant; and by
extraordinary exertions, the detachment came up with the hostile
bands, which were in full retreat. The Mahratta horse, attached to the
British detachment, did not act with spirit; but the Eighty-sixth,
though nearly exhausted with the march, made a gallant effort, and
encountered the enemy, who was in the act of passing the bed of a
river. The adverse bands being nearly all cavalry, and the British
nearly all infantry, the enemy escaped with little loss. The Eighty-
sixth had two men killed; Lieutenant Alexander Grant, and a few
men wounded.
The forces of Canojee Rao Guickwar having been, in a great
measure, dispersed, the Eighty-sixth were allowed a short period
of repose; and these districts were annexed to the British
possessions in India.
Operations having commenced for the restoration of the
Peishwah, the Eighty-sixth were stationed a short time in Guzerat,
where a force was detained to afford security to that valuable and
important province, and also a reserve disposable for active
operations. The regiment formed part of the disposable force
stationed in front of Brodera, the residence of the Guickwar, and to
the northward of the Nerbudda river.
In May, the regiment advanced and pitched its tents before the
fortress of Keira, belonging to one of Doulat Rao Scindia’s chiefs,
where some native infantry and battering guns also arrived; but the
garrison surrendered without waiting for a breach having been made
in the works.
From Keira the regiment marched to Nerriade, where it was joined
by two companies left at Baroda under Captain Grant; but the rains
setting in, the operations were suspended.
Information having been received that a body of the enemy was
levying contributions about thirty miles from the quarters of the
regiment, Captain Grant performed a forced march with four
companies and some sepoys, and making a night attack with great
success, killed and took prisoners many of the enemy, and captured
some horses, &c. Lieutenant Procter and a few men of the regiment
were wounded on this occasion.
 A body of Canojee’s troops threatening to cross the river about
fifteen miles above Baroach, and plunder the country, four hundred
rank and file of the regiment, with a battalion of sepoys, and four
guns, under Captain James Richardson, advanced, on the 14th of
July, during the heavy rains, in search of the enemy. The gun-
bullocks failed, and the country being inundated by the rains, the
soldiers had to drag the guns, up to their waists in water; but by
extraordinary efforts they arrived at the bank of the river on the 16th
of July, and attacking a number of Canojee’s troops which had
crossed the stream, routed them, and forced them into the water,
where many lost their lives, the river being full and rapid.
The river having fallen considerably during the night, the soldiers
passed the stream on the following day, under cover of the fire of the
guns, and assaulting the breast-works of the main body of Canojee’s
legions, carried them at the point of the bayonet, and pursued the
routed enemy two miles with great slaughter. A body of Arabs
disdaining to seek their safety in flight, fought with great desperation
until overpowered.
Captain Richardson and Lieutenant Lanphier distinguished
themselves on this occasion; and the enterprise being accomplished
with the loss of a few men killed and wounded, the troops returned to
Baroda.
In pursuance of the plan suggested to the Governor-General by
Major-General Hon. Arthur Wellesley, five hundred men of the
Eighty-sixth, a small detachment of the Sixty-fifth, a proportion of
European artillery, and a battalion of Sepoys, advanced, under
Lieut.-Colonel Woodington, to besiege the strong fortress of
Baroach. On the 23rd of August, this small body of troops encamped
on the bank of the river within a few miles of the fortress, expecting
the arrival of the battering train in boats. The baggage of the
regiment was this day attacked by a numerous body of the enemy’s
horse, when nearly every soldier and follower was killed or wounded,
and the baggage captured and plundered.
A schooner and gun-boat having arrived with cannon and
ammunition, the troops advanced on the 25th of August, and arriving
within two miles of the fortress, discovered a numerous body of
hostile cavalry, infantry, and Arabs, in order of battle on the plain.
These opponents were speedily routed with the loss of their flag and
a number of killed and wounded; and the armament soon afterwards
attacked, and carried, the pettah with great gallantry; Ensign
D’Aguilar distinguished himself on this occasion.
The siege of the fort was commenced, and a breach was reported
practicable; at one o’clock on the 29th of August, the storming
parties assembled in the streets under the command of Major
Cuyler; the bayonets were firmly fixed by the introduction of a piece
of cotton cloth, to prevent the Arab swordsmen disengaging them,
and the soldiers proceeded quietly to their post behind the battery. At
three the signal to attack was fired, and the forlorn hope, consisting
of Serjeant John Moore and twelve soldiers of the Eighty-sixth,
sprang forward; a hundred soldiers of the Eighty-sixth, and a
hundred Sepoy grenadiers, under Captain Richardson, rushed
towards the breach, followed by three hundred men under Major
Cuyler, and a reserve of two hundred under Captain Bethune.
Passing the ditch knee-deep in mud, and climbing the long steep
and difficult ascent to the breach, the soldiers encountered the Arab
and Scindian defenders, who made a desperate resistance. Hand to
hand the combatants strove for mastery, and amidst the clash of
steel and turmoil of deadly contest, many feats of valour were
performed. Captain Maclaurin, who evinced great ardour, was
wounded and made prisoner, but he was rescued from the Arabs, by
Private John Brierly. Captain Richardson and Captain Grant
signalized themselves, and Serjeant Bills was conspicuous for the
heroic courage with which he fought. At length British valour proved
triumphant, and the breach was won, when the Eighty-sixth
crowned the rampart, the Scindian colours were pulled down, and
the British standard planted in their place, by Serjeant Moore.
Having overpowered all resistance at the breach, Captain
Richardson’s party swept the works to the Cuttoopore gate; Major
Cuyler led his detachment at a running pace to the Jaraseer gate,
and firing upon the Scindians and Arabs who were escaping by that
avenue, wounded one of the elephants in the passage. The Arabs
threw down their matchlocks, drew their creesis, and rushing upon
their assailants with deadly fury, refused to give or receive quarter.
The contest was of short duration; British discipline and prowess
were again victorious; two hundred Arab horsemen and foot lay on
the ground, and the Eighty-sixth stood triumphant on the scene of
conflict. Among the trophies of the day, were fifteen stand of
Scindian and Arab colours, which were sent to head-quarters,
excepting two, retained by the Eighty-sixth regiment, as trophies of
the valour displayed by the corps on this occasion.
Thus was captured a fortress of great importance to the
commercial interests of Britain, with a territory yielding a
considerable revenue, which were added to the British dominions. In
his public despatch, Lieut.-Colonel Woodington highly commended
the conduct of Major Cuyler and Captain Richardson, and added,
—“The whole of the officers and men employed on this service have
conducted themselves so much to my satisfaction, that I cannot
express myself too strongly in their commendation.”
The Governor-General in Council, also, signified in general orders,
—“his particular approbation of the valour and judgment manifested
by Major Cuyler, of His Majesty’s Eighty-sixth regiment, throughout
the service at Baroach, and in commanding the storm of the fort, and
by Captain Richardson of the same corps, leading the assault. His
Excellency in Council, also, observes with particular satisfaction the
conduct of Captain Cliffe, of the Engineers of Bombay. To all the
officers and troops, European and Native, employed on this
honorable occasion, His Excellency in Council signifies his high
commendation.”
Serjeant Bills was rewarded with the appointment of serjeant-
major; Serjeant Moore received a donation of five hundred rupees
from the Government for his gallantry, and Private Brierly was
promoted corporal, and afterwards serjeant.
The loss of the regiment was Captain William Semple, killed in the
breaching battery on the 25th of August—an excellent officer, whose
fall was much regretted; also two serjeants and ten rank and file
killed; Major Cuyler, Captain Richardson, Captain Maclaurin, and
twenty-three rank and file wounded.
From Baroach the regiment proceeded to Baroda, from whence
five hundred rank and file of the Eighty-sixth, a battalion of Sepoys,
some irregular horse, and a battering train, marched to attack the fort
of Powanghur, situated on a stupendous rock of extraordinary height
and of difficult ascent. Arriving before this place on the 14th of
September, and the garrison refusing to surrender, the walls were
battered until the 17th, when orders were issued to prepare to attack
the lower fort by storm. The garrison was intimidated by the
knowledge of the fact, that if they defended the breach, their
communication with the fort on the top of the mountain would be cut
off, and their escape rendered impossible; they therefore
surrendered. Thus a fort of great strength by nature and art fell into
the hands of the British.
The district of Champaneer, the only territory remaining to Scindia,
in the province of Guzerat, had thus been reduced, and annexed to
the British dominions. Lieut.-Colonel Murray, of the Eighty-fourth
regiment, assumed the command of the troops at Baroda, and
advanced towards Scindia’s territories, in the province of Malwa, in
quest of Holkar’s forces, but it was found impossible to bring the
armed bands of that chieftain to action. On the 18th of October the
city and fortress of Godera was taken possession of, the enemy
retiring as the British approached. At this place information was
received of the victory of Assaye, gained by the troops under Major-
General the Hon. Arthur Wellesley, on the 23rd of September, which
was followed by the submission of two of the hostile chiefs, Scindia
and the Rajah of Berar, leaving Holkar, Canojee, and some minor
chiefs in the field.
Leaving Godera, the troops took possession of Balinsanere in the
beginning of November; and advanced towards Lunawarrah. On the
march, the rearguard, consisting of five companies of Sepoys, and
some native cavalry, was suddenly attacked, while passing through
an extensive jungle, by a numerous body of the enemy in ambush.
 The hostile bands did not venture to attack the Europeans of the
advance-guard, nor the column, but rushed with great fury upon the
native troops in the rear, occasioning the loss of many Sepoys and
camp followers, with some baggage, before assistance could arrive
from the column. The Eighty-sixth had several men killed and
wounded on this occasion.
Lunawarrah was evacuated by the enemy, and Dhowd was taken,
about six weeks afterwards, with little opposition.
In this part of the country, the Eighty-sixth, and other corps, with
Lieut.-Colonel Murray, remained about two months[4], watching
Holkar, who had power to concentrate an overwhelming force, which
rendered vigilance particularly necessary.
On the death of Lieut.-General Grinfield, King George III.
conferred the colonelcy of the regiment on Lieut.-General Sir 1804
James Henry Craig, K.B., from the Forty-sixth Foot, by commission
dated the 5th of January, 1804.
From Dhowd, the Eighty-sixth, and other corps under Lieut.-
Colonel Murray, retired to Godera, and from thence to Jerode, in
order to obtain supplies, and protect the province of Guzerat. At this
period a dreadful famine raged in the Deccan, and other parts of the
country hitherto the seat of war.
After three weeks’ repose at Jerode, the Eighty-sixth, Sixty-fifth,
Sepoys and native cavalry, advanced once more into the province of
Malwa, under Lieut.-Colonel Murray, and arrived at Dhowd on the
12th of June, having lost many men from the excessive heat. On the
march Major Stuart, of the Sixty-fifth, died and was buried, (9th
June,) under the colours of the Eighty-sixth, on which day twenty-
one men of the Sixty-fifth, and eleven of the Eighty-sixth, died from
the effects of the hot winds.
From Dhowd, the troops advanced to Ongein, the capital of
Scindia, from whence the Eighty-sixth, three battalions of Sepoys,
a train of artillery, and a body of Scindia’s cavalry, were immediately
pushed on to Indore, the capital of Holkar’s dominions, where they
arrived on the 14th of August; the city having been evacuated on the
previous evening.
From Indore, the flank companies of the regiment, and a battalion
of Sepoys, advanced with scaling ladders, under Captain
Richardson, twenty miles, to surprise a fort, which was reported to
be full of troops and provisions; but when the soldiers scaled the
walls, they found the place empty; the enemy having fled a few
hours previously.
Having penetrated so far beyond the boundaries of Guzerat, the
troops under Lieut.-Colonel Murray found their communication with
that country cut off, and Holkar threatening to enter and lay waste
the province; their supplies were nearly exhausted; they were in a
territory devastated by famine and disease; the rainy season was
approaching, and a small force, under Lieut.-Colonel Monson, sent
by General Lord Lake to effect a junction with Lieut.-Col. Murray, was
pursued by Holkar’s numerous legions, and forced to make a
precipitate flight, abandoning its cannon and baggage. Under these
circumstances, a sudden advance was made, of two marches, to
deceive the enemy, and on the third march the troops faced about
and retreated. The rain set in with such violence as to destroy the
tents;—the artillery and baggage oxen and camels died in great
numbers;—much of the baggage was abandoned;—the soldiers had
to drag the guns through the cotton-grounds waist-deep in water;—
no cover or shelter for officers or soldiers;—the inhabitants dying in
great numbers from famine;—the European soldiers dying also from
excessive fatigue, the inclemency of the weather and privation;—the
native troops and followers also perishing in great numbers: such
were the distressing circumstances under which this retrograde
movement was executed, but, by the perseverance of the
Europeans, the guns were preserved, and the troops arrived at
Ongein, where the Sixty-fifth, Eighty-sixth, and artillery, were
accommodated with a building in the fort. This force had been
reduced by its sufferings, from six to three thousand men.
Exertions were made to re-equip this diminished force for the field,
and orders being received to advance, it was again in motion in the
middle of October, advancing in the direction of Kota and
Rhampoorae, and capturing, on the route, the hill fort of Inglehur by
escalade, also several other small forts.
The army of Holkar was routed and dispersed by the troops under
General Lord Lake; but the war was protracted by the defection of
the Rajah of Bhurtpore, and the Eighty-sixth were destined to
transfer their services to the rajah’s dominions.
Reinforcements having arrived from Bombay, Major-General
Jones assumed the command, and marched towards the city 1805
of Bhurtpore, the capital of the hostile rajah’s territory[5]. After a long
and harassing march, the troops approached that fortress on the
10th of February, 1805, when a large body of hostile horsemen
surrounded the column and impeded its movements across a level
country. Half the force was employed in protecting the baggage, and
the guns were repeatedly unlimbered, to keep the adverse cavalry at
a distance. On the following day, Major-General Jones’s division
joined the army before Bhurtpore, and was inspected by Lord Lake,
who expressed his satisfaction at the bearing of the troops. The
soldiers of the Sixty-fifth and Eighty-sixth presented a motley
appearance: their worn-out uniforms were patched with various
colours, or replaced by red cotton jackets; many of the men wore
sandals in the place of shoes, and turbans instead of hats; but
beneath this outward war-worn appearance, the innate courage of
Britons still glowed.
The siege of Bhurtpore had unfortunately been undertaken without
a battering train of sufficient weight, and necessary to insure the
reduction of so strong a fortress; the siege was, however,
persevered in. At three o’clock, on the 20th of February, two hundred
and fifty men of the Eighty-sixth, and two companies of Sepoys,
commanded by Captain Grant, of the Eighty-sixth, stormed an out-
work, covering one of the principal gates, with the bayonet, driving
the Arabs, who fought with their usual determination, into the city,
and capturing eleven brass guns; in which service Lieutenants
Lanphier and D’Aguilar distinguished themselves, the former
receiving a spear wound in the neck. As the Arabs fled to the gate,
Captain Grant followed, in the hope of being able to enter with them,
but he found it closed, and, after destroying the fugitives, who were