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AgriculturAl
MechAnics
Fundamentals and Applications
7th edition
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Agricultural
Mechanics
Fundamentals and Applications
7th Edition
Ray V. Herren, Ed.D.
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed.
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Applications, 7E Precision Exams Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Ray V. Herren
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
tAble oF
contents
At A glAnce
Preface xiv
About the Author xxi
section 1 exploring careers in Agricultural Mechanics

unit 1 Mechanics in the World of Agriculture 2
unit 2 Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics 11
section 2 using the Agricultural Mechanics shop

unit 3 Shop Orientation and Procedures 26
unit 4 Personal Safety in Agricultural Mechanics 37
unit 5 Reducing Hazards in Agricultural Mechanics 50
unit 6 Shop Cleanup and Organization 61
section 3 hand Woodworking and Metalworking

unit 7 Hand Tools, Fasteners, and Hardware 72
unit 8 Layout Tools and Procedures 97
unit 9 Selecting, Cutting, and Shaping Wood 119
unit 10 Fastening Wood 138
unit 11 Finishing Wood 153
unit 12 Identifying, Marking, Cutting, and Bending Metal 165
unit 13 Fastening Metal 183
section 4 Power tools in the Agricultural Mechanics shop

unit 14 Portable Power Tools 202
unit 15 Woodworking with Power Machines 224
unit 16 Adjusting and Maintaining Power Woodworking
Equipment 247
unit 17 Metalworking with Power Machines 259
section 5 Project Planning

unit 18 Sketching and Drawing Projects 272
unit 19 Figuring a Bill of Materials 289
unit 20 Selecting, Planning, and Building a Project 300
section 6 tool Fitting

unit 21 Repairing and Reconditioning Tools 314
unit 22 Sharpening Tools 327
v
vi Table of Contents at a Glance
Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Unit 23 Using Gas Welding Equipment 342
Unit 24 Cutting with Oxyfuels and Other Gases 352
Unit 25 Brazing and Welding with Oxyacetylene 364
Section 8 Arc Welding

Unit 26 Selecting and Using Arc Welding Equipment 382
Unit 27 Arc Welding Mild Steel and GMAW/GTAW Welding 394
Section 9 Painting
Unit 28 Preparing Wood and Metal for Painting 424
Unit 29 Selecting and Applying Painting Materials 436
Section 10 Power Mechanics

Unit 30 Fundamentals of Small Engines 454
Unit 31 Small Engine Maintenance and Repair 468
Unit 32 Diesel Engines and Tractor Maintenance 491
Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Unit 33 Electrical Principles and Wiring Materials 504
Unit 34 Installing Branch Circuits 522
Unit 35 Electronics in Agriculture 534
Unit 36 Electric Motors, Drives, and Controls 551
Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Unit 37 Plumbing 574
Unit 38 Irrigation Technology 594
Unit 39 Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Robotic Power 608
Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Unit 40 Concrete and Masonry 624
Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Unit 41 Planning and Constructing Agricultural Structures 646
Unit 42 Aquaculture, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics Structures 670
Unit 43 Fence Design and Construction 684
Appendix A Projects 700

Appendix B Data Tables 763
Appendix C Supervised Agricultural Experience 787
Appendix D National FFA Career Development Events
and Leadership Events 799
Glossary/Glosario 801
Index 848
Contents
Preface xiv
About the Author xxi
Section 1 Exploring Careers in Agricultural Mechanics

Unit 1 Mechanics in the World of Agriculture 2
The Role of Agricultural Mechanics 5
The Influence of Mechanization 5
Summary 8
Unit 2 Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics 11
Agriculture Is Number One 13
Agricultural Divisions 14
Career Selection 16
Agricultural Education Programs 18
Meeting the Challenge 20
Summary 22
Section 2 Using the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Unit 3 Shop Orientation and Procedures 26
The Shop as a Place to Learn 27
Policies for Safe Procedures in the Shop 32
Summary 34
Unit 4 Personal Safety in Agricultural Mechanics 37
Safety in the Workplace 38
Safety Colors 40
Focal Colors 42
Protective Clothing and Devices 42
Summary 47
Unit 5 Reducing Hazards in Agricultural Mechanics 50
Reducing Fire Hazards 51
Extinguishing Fires 52
Signs of Danger 55
Emergencies or Accidents 57
Summary 58
Unit 6 Shop Cleanup and Organization 61
A Clean and Orderly Shop 62
Reasons for Keeping the Shop Clean 62
Equipment and Containers Useful for Shop Cleanup 63
Techniques for Effective Cleaning 64
Shop Cleanup Systems 65
Summary 68
vii
viii Contents
Section 3 Hand Woodworking and Metalworking

Unit 7 Hand Tools, Fasteners, and Hardware 72
Tool Classifications 73
Fasteners 81
Hardware 90
Summary 92
Unit 8 Layout Tools and Procedures 97
Materials Used for Layout Tools 99
Systems of Measurement 100
Measuring Tools 101
Squares and Their Uses 105
Squaring Large Areas 109
Dividers and Scribers 110
Levels 110
Lines 110
Using Patterns 111
Summary 115
Unit 9 Selecting, Cutting, and Shaping Wood 119
Characteristics of Wood and Lumber 121
Cutting and Shaping Wood with Saws 129
Cutting and Shaping Wood with Boring and Drilling Tools 131
Cutting a Board to Width 132
Cutting Dados and Rabbets 134
Summary 135
Unit 10 Fastening Wood 138
Types of Joints 139
Fastening with Nails 140
Fastening with Screws 143
Fastening with Bolts 147
Fastening with Glue 147
Using Dowel Pins 148
Summary 150
Unit 11 Finishing Wood 153
Preparing Wood for Finishes 154
Applying Clear Finishes 157
Wood Stains 159
Solvents and Thinners 160
Use and Care of Brushes 161
Summary 163
Unit 12 Identifying, Marking, Cutting, and Bending Metal 165
Identifying Metals 167
Marking Metal 171
Cutting Metal 172
Bending Metal 177
Summary 180
Unit 13 Fastening Metal 183
Making Holes in Metal 184
Threading Metal 187
Fastening Metal Using Bolts and Screws 191
Contents ix
Fastening with Rivets 192

Fastening Metals with Solder 193
Summary 197
Section 4 Power Tools in the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Unit 14 Portable Power Tools 202
Safety Precautions 203
Power Cords 204
Air-Driven Tools 205
Portable Drills 208
Portable Sanders 210
Portable Saws 214
Power Routers 218
Summary 220
Unit 15 Woodworking with Power Machines 224
Safety with Power Machines 225
Band Saw 226
Jigsaw 228
Table Saw 230
Radial-Arm Saw 234
Miter Saws 236
Jointer 237
Planers 239
Sanders 241
Summary 242
Unit 16 Adjusting and Maintaining Power Woodworking 247
Equipment
Adjusting the Table Saw 249
Adjusting the Band Saw 251
Adjusting the Jointer 253
Adjusting the Planer 255
Summary 257
Unit 17 Metalworking with Power Machines 259
The Drill Press 260
Grinder 261
Metal-Cutting Power Saws 264
Power Shears 266
Metal Benders 267
Summary 267
Section 5 Project Planning

Unit 18 Sketching and Drawing Projects 272
Representing by Sketching and Drawing 273
Elements of a Plan 275
Scale Drawing 277
Making a Three-View Drawing 279
Summary 286
Unit 19 Figuring a Bill of Materials 289
Components of a Bill of Materials 290
Units of Measure 291
x Contents
Calculating Board Feet 292

Pricing Materials 295
Summary 297
Unit 20 Selecting, Planning, and Building a Project 300
Purposes of Projects 301
Scope of Projects 301
Selecting a Project 303
Preparing a Plan 304
Design 304
Summary 310
Section 6 Tool Fitting

Unit 21 Repairing and Reconditioning Tools 314
Protecting Tool Surfaces 316
Repairing Damaged Tools 318
Summary 325
Unit 22 Sharpening Tools 327
Tools Used for Sharpening 328
Cutting Edges 329
Testing for Sharpness 330
Sharpening Tools 330
Summary 337
Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Unit 23 Using Gas Welding Equipment 342
General Safety with Compressed Gases 343
Summary 350
Unit 24 Cutting with Oxyfuels and Other Gases 352
Oxyfuel Processes 353
Characteristics of Oxyfuels 353
Cutting Steel with Oxyfuels 355
Plasma Arc Cutting 361
Summary 362
Unit 25 Brazing and Welding with Oxyacetylene 364
Basics of Soldering, Brazing, and Fusion Welding 365
Brazing and Braze-Welding Procedures 369
Fusion Welding with Oxyacetylene 373
Summary 377
Section 8 Arc Welding

Unit 26 Selecting and Using Arc Welding Equipment 382
Arc Welding Process and Principles 383
Welding Equipment 385
Electrodes 389
Summary 392
Unit 27 Arc Welding Mild Steel and GMAW/GTAW Welding 394
Safety Procedures 395
Setting Up 397
Striking the Arc 398
Running Beads 400
Welding Joints 402
Contents xi
Welding in Various Positions 406

Welding Pipe 408
Piercing, Cutting, and Spot Welding 409
GMAW Welding 410
Automated and Robotic Welding 418
Summary 418
Section 9 Painting
Unit 28 Preparing Wood and Metal for Painting 424
Preservatives 426
Preparing Wood for Painting 426
Steam Cleaning Machinery 428
Preparing Machines for Painting 430
Masking for Spray Painting 432
Estimating Paint Jobs 432
Summary 433
Unit 29 Selecting and Applying Painting Materials 436
Selecting Paint 437
Using Brushes 439
Using Rollers 441
Using Aerosols 443
Spray-Painting Equipment 444
Spray-Painting Procedures 446
Summary 450
Section 10 Power Mechanics

Unit 30 Fundamentals of Small Engines 454
Types of Combustion Engines 455
Engine Systems 459
Summary 465
Unit 31 Small Engine Maintenance and Repair 468
Tools for Engine Repair 469
Maintenance of Small Engine Systems 469
Troubleshooting and Repair 476
Summary 483
Unit 32 Diesel Engines and Tractor Maintenance 491
How a Diesel Engine Operates 492
Maintaining Diesel Engines and Farm Tractors 494
Summary 501
Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Unit 33 Electrical Principles and Wiring Materials 504
Principles of Electricity 505
Electrical Safety 509
Electrical Wiring 510
Summary 519
Unit 34 Installing Branch Circuits 522
The Entrance Panel 524
Wiring Boxes 524
xii Contents
Wiring a Switch and Light 526

Testing a Circuit 528
Wiring Lights with Three-Way Switches 529
Summary 532
Unit 35 Electronics in Agriculture 534
Development of Electronics 536
Principles of Electronics 537
Agricultural Applications 545
Food Distribution 547
Strategies for Maintaining Electronics Equipment 548
Summary 548
Unit 36 Electric Motors, Drives, and Controls 551
Selecting Electric Motors 552
Interpreting Nameplate Information 555
Motor Drives 555
Electric Motor Controls 558
Maintaining Motors, Drives, and Controls 569
Summary 569
Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Unit 37 Plumbing 574
Tools for Plumbing 575
Identifying, Selecting, and Connecting Pipe 577
Identifying Pipe Fittings 582
Maintaining Water Systems 582
Summary 591
Unit 38 Irrigation Technology 594
Irrigation Planning 595
Water Requirements 595
Irrigation Systems 596
Managing Irrigation 602
Summary 605
Unit 39 Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Robotic Power 608
Principles of Fluid Dynamics 609
Hydraulic Systems 614
Filtering Systems 617
Pneumatic Systems 618
Robotics 618
Summary 620
Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Unit 40 Concrete and Masonry 624
Masonry Construction 625
Concrete Construction 625
Mixing Concrete 628
Estimating Materials for a Job 630
Preparing Forms for Concrete 630
Insulating Concrete Floors 631
Making Joints 632
Reinforcing Concrete 632
Contents xiii
Pouring, Finishing, and Curing Concrete 633

Laying Masonry Units 635
Summary 642
Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Unit 41 Planning and Constructing Agricultural Structures 646
Planning Agricultural Buildings 647
Constructing Agricultural Buildings 649
Building Materials 649
Laying out Stairs and Rafters 657
Insulating Agriculture Structures 658
Rope Work in Agricultural Settings 663
Summary 666
Unit 42 Aquaculture, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics Structures 670
Environmental Structures Used in Aquaculture 671
Greenhouses 675
Hydroponics 680
Summary 681
Unit 43 Fence Design and Construction 684
Early Uses of Fences 685
Modern Fences 686
Constructing Fences 691
Summary 693
Appendix A Projects 700

Appendix B Data Tables 763
Appendix C Supervised Agricultural Experience 787
Appendix D National FFA Career Development Events
and Leadership Events 799
Glossary/Glosario 801
Index 848
Preface
Agricultural mechanics is one of the most widely substitute teachers. It also provides easy methods to
taught courses in agricultural education programs. It assess student progress. Each unit is part of a sec-
is taught in all 50 states and is considered to be among tion, and each includes (1) a statement of objective,
the most useful courses taught. Like any applied sci- (2) competencies to be developed, (3) a list of new
ence, this discipline is constantly changing as new terms, (4) a materials list, (5) highly illustrated text
advances are made and new techniques and equipment material, (6) student activities, and (7) self-evalua-
are put into use. Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals tion. This edition contains updated relevant websites
and Applications has for many years been a standard that provide more information on the unit topics. All
text for students studying agricultural mechanics. new terms are carefully defined in the text as well as
It grew out of the need for an easy-to-read, easy-to- in the glossary.
understand, and highly illustrated text on modern agri- The appendices include 40 project plans with bills
cultural mechanics for high school and post-secondary of materials and construction procedures. The projects
programs. This edition addresses the specific needs of were carefully selected to match the skills covered in
students enrolled in agriscience, production agricul- the text. Plans include some projects that have become
ture, ornamental horticulture, agribusiness, agricul- classics in the field, some that cover targeted enter-
tural mechanics, and natural resources programs. All prises, and some that are new and innovative. The
of these areas require basic knowledge and skills in projects were also chosen because they are used in high
mechanics to succeed in a career path. The text starts school agriculture/agribusiness, agriscience, or related
with very basic and general information, such as career programs.
opportunities, and then provides instruction on basic The appendices also include 36 tables contain-
mechanical skills and applications. ing information for estimating, planning, selecting,
This seventh edition focuses on additional tech- purchasing, and building in agricultural mechanics.
nical information, as needed, throughout. The text The project plans, tables, glossary, and index provide
is consistent in format, easy to use for individual- unique reference materials that, for many users, are
ized instruction, easy to teach from, and simple for alone worth the price of the text.
xiv
Agricultural
Mechanics
New and
Enhanced Content
for Seventh Edition
The Precision Exam

Edition of Agricultural
Unit Specific Updates
Mechanics: Fundamen Units 1 through 3
tals and Applications, 7E combines current top-notch • Many of the photos in these units have been
content with new information aligned to Precision replaced with updated images that depict modern
Exams’ Agricultural Systems Technology I exam, part equipment, practices, and professionals in the
of the Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources Career field of agricultural mechanics.
Cluster. The Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources
pathway connects industry with skills taught in the
classroom to help students successfully transition from Unit 4: Personal Safety in
high school to college and/or career. For more infor- Agricultural Mechanics
mation on how to administer the Agricultural Systems
Technology I exam or any of the 170+ exams available • New photographs related to workplace safety,
to your students, contact your local NGL/Cengage including guards or shields on moving parts, safety
Sales Consultant. switches, first aid stations, radiation hazards, wear-
Features that remain in this enhanced text, and ing eye protection, coveralls, and work boots
continue to engage and educate students, include the
following: Unit 5: Reducing Hazards in
• Updated statistics dealing with agricultural Agricultural Mechanics
mechanics. • New images related to electrical fires, fire extin-
• Expanded coverage of safety using power hand guisher safety, and fire classification
tools, stationary power equipment, and other areas.
• Updated Relevant Websites at the end of each unit
provide clearer search information in the event Unit 6: Shop Cleanup and
web links change or become out of date. Organization
• Integrates agricultural mechanization with plant,
• New photos of a clean work shop and a dust col-
animal, and environmental sciences to provide
lector/dust collection ducts
students with a broad view of the world of
agriculture.
• Every unit combines theory with practice. Unit 7: Hand Tools, Fasteners,
• Mathematical skill development is emphasized
throughout.
and Hardware
• Each unit has been updated to include the latest • No changes aside from Relevant Websites
information on agricultural mechanics.
• Over 350 new and modernized illustrations and Unit 8: Layout Tools and
photographs offer improved detail and modern
equipment related to small engines and power Procedures
mechanics, plumbing, planning and constructing • New images of layout tools, stainless steel tools,
agricultural structures, and more. New photos aluminum tools, plastic tools
depict actual high school students working in the • New image showing how patterns can be made
agricultural mechanics workshop. from fiber board or card stock
xv
xvi Agricultural Mechanics
• New images illustrating CAD (computer-aided device; blades with carbide tips; using a radial-
design) and 3-dimensional designs arm saw, a miter saw, a sliding compound miter
saw, proper standing position when feeding a
board into a planer, etc.
Unit 9: Selecting, Cutting, and • New information related to a newer type of locking
Shaping Wood table saw that protects against finger/hand injuries
• New images of green lumber, rough lumber, a • Updated safety information related to sawing and
kerf, and files cross cutting
• New images of drying lumber (stacking to air dry • New paragraph and photo illustrating careless use
and drying in kilns) of a table saw
Unit 10: Fastening Wood Unit 16: Adjusting and

• Expanded discussion of using biscuit joints Maintaining Power
• New photo of deck screws
• New photo and information on lag screws Woodworking Equipment
• No changes aside from Relevant Websites
Unit 11: Finishing Wood
• Updates related to types of fillers and wood-fin- Unit 17: Metalworking with
ishing products Power Machines
• New photos of proper sanding technique, apply-
• New photos of a grinding wheel, wire wheels, a
ing clear finishes, applying an oil finish, applying
tool rest, and an abrasive cutoff saw
polyurethane, applying lacquer, and applying
• New safety information and photo related to
penetrating wood stains
grinders
Unit 12: Identifying, Marking,

Unit 18: Sketching and
Cutting, and Bending Metal
Drawing Projects
• New images of structural steel, iron, cast iron,
wrought iron, and the carbon content of steel, • New images providing updated examples of
stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and lead sketching and drawing projects
Unit 13: Fastening Metal Units 19 and 20

• New image and information on taps and dies • No changes aside from Relevant Websites
• Updated images of soldering
Unit 21: Repairing and
Unit 14: Portable Power Tools Reconditioning Tools
• New photos of portable power tools (cordless • New images of various tools, including types of
drill, handsaw, belt sander, finishing sander, saber farm and household tools, metal tools, a mush-
saw, reciprocating saw) and a ground-fault circuit roomed head, a wedge, an improperly installed
handle, and a split handle
Unit 15: Woodworking with
Power Machines Unit 22: Sharpening Tools
• New photos related to safe operation of machin- • New images of a hand stone, bench stones, sharp-
ery using safety guards, eye and hearing protec- ening a rotary mower blade
tion; using a bandsaw, jigsaw blades, a contractor’s • New information and an image of an overheated
saw, table saw blade guard, and anti-kickback tool with damaged temper
Agricultural Mechanics xvii
• New information and images related to various Unit 29: Selecting and
types of knife sharpeners
• New image depicting the last step in sharpening a Applying Painting Materials
wood chisel (lay the blade on its back and remove • Updated information about enamels including inte-
the wire edge) rior and exterior enamels along with a new photo
• New information and images depicting the • Updated information about paint color and color
differences between a dull drill bit and a sharp matching, including a new photo
drill bit • Expanded information about different types of
paintbrushes and when to use each kind, includ-
ing a new photo
Unit 23: Using Gas Welding • Updated photos depicting painting with brushes,
Equipment applying paint with a roller, and an HVLP spray gun
• New information about acetylene gas including
precautions when using Unit 30: Fundamentals of Small
Engines
Unit 24: Cutting with Oxyfuels • New photos of early engines powered by steam;
and Other Gases use of eye and ear protection and proper shoes
• New images related to cutting torches and the when using small engine equipment
brazing process • New images of a modern two-cycle engine, piston
• Updated photo of plasma arc cutting rings, and a type of governor
• New information about gasoline additives
• New information and images related to setting
Unit 25: Brazing and Welding the gap using a spark plug gauge when replacing
with Oxyacetylene spark plugs
• No changes aside from Relevant Websites
Unit 31: Small Engine
Unit 26: Selecting and Using Maintenance and Repair
Arc Welding Equipment • Minor updates related to additives and gasoline
volatility
• New photos of a welding machine • New photos of spark plugs—one in good condi-
• New information about proper storage of electrodes tion and one in need of replacement; setting the
along with images of corroded electrodes gap using a spark plug gauge
• New photo and reference to lubricating
Unit 27: Arc Welding Mild Steel linkages
• Updated illustrations throughout this unit better
and GMAW/GTAW Welding depicting changing oil, the flywheel key, pulling a
• New photo related to proper positioning of an flywheel, checking valve stem clearance, and other
electrode tasks related to small engine maintenance and
• Updated photos and images related to welding repair
equipment and personal protective equipment • New photo and information related to OHC
• New photos of plasma arc welding and auto- (overhead cam)
mated/robotic welding
Unit 32: Diesel Engines and
Unit 28: Preparing Wood and Tractor Maintenance
Metal for Painting • New photos of a diesel engine; inventor Rudolf
• New photo related to primer Diesel; modern diesel engines; checking oil;
• Updated photos of using wood preservatives and a hydrometer; a dirty radiator/grill to illus-
removing loose paint trate importance of regular cleaning; proper
xviii Agricultural Mechanics
maintenance of tires (tire gauge); cleaning grease Unit 37: Plumbing

fittings; and batteries
• Most illustrations in this unit updated to modern-
• New illustration of an injector pump
ize the fixtures and equipment shown, including
• Updated illustrations of oil flow through an
the steps for soldering or sweating copper tubing,
oil filter; the function of the radiator; properly
the steps involved in cementing plastic pipe, plas-
adjusting tension on drive belt
tic vent and drain systems, common pipe fittings
• New information about air filtering systems in
and valves, parts of a washer-type faucet, and
the fuel system including a new series of photos
parts of float valve and flush valve assemblies
related to cleaning a modern dry filter
• New and updated photos depicting a pipe wrench
• New photos related to hydraulic system mainte-
and pipe vise; a tube cutter; using a flaring tool;
nance including use of a dipstick to monitor fluid
and tools used for cutting plastic pipe
levels; servicing fluid filters; and disconnecting
quick couplings
Unit 38: Irrigation Technology
Unit 33: Electrical Principles • Several new illustrations including updated depic-
and Wiring Materials tions of irrigation wells and plant rooting pattern
and moisture sensor placement
• Expanded information and a new photo related to
fluorescent lighting
• Updated images illustrating magnetism, including Unit 39: Hydraulic, Pneumatic,
a new photo of a strong magnet
• New photos of the commutator and the armature, and Robotic Power
and a modern electric motor • Updated illustrations of automotive braking sys-
• New photos or nonmetallic sheathed cable, tems and hydraulic systems
armored cable, and conduit
Unit 40: Concrete and Masonry
Unit 34: Installing Branch • New photos related to the history of masonry;
Circuits sizes of aggregates; slag; recycling concrete; sand
being flushed with water to remove clay and silt;
• New photos related to new work installations; and a broom finish
wiring boxes; wire nuts; using a wire stripper; • Updated illustrations related to proper form con-
connecting wire to a fixture struction and pouring and floating concrete
Unit 35: Electronics in Unit 41: Planning and

Agriculture Constructing Agricultural
• Updated photos of modern electronic devices; Structures
resistors; analog and digital meters; an oscillo-
scope; integrated circuit packages; water analysis • No changes aside from updates to Relevant Websites
equipment; diode packages; and microcomputers
Unit 42: Aquaculture,
Unit 36: Electric Motors, Drives, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics
and Controls Structures
• New image of a modern electric motor • Updated photos of net pens; mechanical aerators;
• Updated illustrations depicting a power genera- fish feeders; maintenance of dissolved oxygen
tion and distribution system and the movement of levels; greenhouse production; types of green-
electrical current from the local transformer to a houses; fans; cooling pad; hydroponic crops; and
building’s distribution panel trickle irrigation
Agricultural Mechanics xix
Unit 43: Fence Design and experience for the student and teacher. This MindTap
is highly customizable and combines an enhanced,
Construction interactive ebook along with a multitude of engaging
• No changes aside from Relevant Websites activities and assignments including powerpoint, vid-
eos, matching, image labeling, crossword puzzles, job
sheets, and auto-graded quizzing to enable students
to directly analyze and apply what they are learning
Extensive Teaching/ and allow teachers to measure skills and outcomes
Learning Package with ease.
The complete supplement package was developed to
achieve two goals:
1. To assist students in learning the essential infor- CLASSMASTER CD-ROM
mation needed to continue their exploration into
the exciting field of agricultural mechanics
TO ACCOMPANY
2. To assist instructors in planning and implement- AGRICULTURAL
ing their instructional programs for the most effi-
cient use of time and other resources
MECHANICS, 7TH
EDITION
ISBN-13: 978-1-28505-899-3
LAB MANUAL TO This technology supplement provides the instructor
with valuable resources to simplify the planning and
ACCOMPANY implementation of the instructional program. It has
AGRICULTURAL been expanded for this edition to include the following
support materials:
MECHANICS, 7TH EDITION • A PDF Instructor’s Manual provides objectives,
ISBN-13: 978-1-28505-901-3 competencies, glossary terms with definitions,
This comprehensive workbook tests students’ knowl- and answers to the end-of-unit question. New to
edge and reinforces learning of text content. Job sheets this edition, the instructor’s manual now includes
for each unit include an objective, tools and materi- lesson plan outlines for each unit with suggested
als needed, and a procedure with short-answer ques- class activities, a correlation guide to the National
tions, procedural checklists, image labeling activities, AFNR Career Cluster Standards, and additional
or other activities meant to reinforce comprehension suggested resources.
of unit content. • A PDF Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide pro-
vides answers to lab manual exercises and
additional guidance for the instructor. It has
MindTap for been expanded for this edition to include more
answer keys for the lab exercises found in the
Agricultural lab manual.
• A computerized test bank created in ExamView®
Mechanics: makes generating tests and quizzes a snap.
Fundamentals and Expanded to include 1,500+ questions with dif-
ferent question formats to choose from, you can
Applications, 7E create customized assessments for your students
Precision Exams with the click of a button. Add your own unique
questions and print rationales for easy class
Edition preparation.
The MindTap for Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals • Instructor support slide presentations that can
and Applications, 7E Precision Exams Edition fea- be customized in PowerPoint® format focusing
tures an integrated course offering a complete digital on key points for each chapter. There is a slide
xx Agricultural Mechanics
presentation for each unit available to accompany

the textbook.
Instructor Companion
• New! An Image Library with all of the Website
illustrations from the textbook can be used NEW! The instructor companion website provides
in slide presentations or as part of classroom online access to many of the instructor support
discussion. materials provided on the ClassMaster CD-ROM,
• New! Correlation guides include content including the Instructor’s Manual, Lab Manual
mapping to STEM, National AFNR Career Instructor’s Guide, computerized test bank files,
Cluster Standards, and National Science correlation guides, and support slides. To access the
Standards. available materials, sign up for a faculty account at
login.cengage.com. Add the core textbook to your
bookshelf using the 13-digit ISBN that appears on
the back cover of the textbook.
About the
Author
Dr. Ray V. Herren grew up on a diversified farm near Carbon Hill, Alabama.
He earned a B.S. in Agricultural Education at Auburn University, an M.S.
in Agribusiness at Alabama A&M University, and an Ed.D. in Vocational
Education at Virginia Tech University. He taught high school agriculture
in Gaylesville, Alabama, for 9 years and was on the faculty at Oregon State
University for 5 years. He is currently Professor Emeritus in the Department
of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communication at the
University of Georgia. He has traveled extensively throughout the world and
has authored and coauthored several books.
Dr. Herren has been involved with agricultural mechanics almost all of
his life. From practical experience on the farm to teaching preservice and
in-service courses, he is well versed in most areas of technical agricultural
mechanics. As a hobby, he is an accomplished woodworker.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank the following for their help in preparing the seventh
edition: Ross Hargett for his help in reviewing the text materials and Dr. Frank
Flanders, the University of Georgia, for his help with computer problems and
his encouragement. Additionally, we extend our thanks and appreciation to
the students and staff at Habersham Central High School in Mt. Airy, Georgia,
including Jonathan Stribling, CTAE Director, and Kyle Dekle, Teacher; Clay T.
Corey, BOCES Instructor, and the Saratoga Springs, New York BOCES loca-
tion; and Tom Stock, Stock Studios, for their time and participation in photo-
shoots that provide many of the photos used in this textbook.
The author and Cengage Learning wish to thank the many individuals
who provided encouragement and assistance during the preparation of this
text. Reviewers who contributed their expertise to the seventh edition of
Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications include:
Gary Blankenship
Hinckley Big Rock High School
Sheridan, IL
Michael Crim
Agriscience Instructor
Ridge Spring-Monetta High School
Monetta, SC
Al Garner, MS
Agricultural Education Instructor
NAAE and GVATA
Dublin, GA
xxi
xxii About the Author
Marshall Gerbitz Nikki Reed

Agriculture Instructor Danbury High School
Okeechobee High School Danbury, TX
Okeechobee, FL
Mark Rose
Donna Moeller Robinson High School
Instructor Robinson, TX
Steinbrenner High School
Lutz, FL
Ted O’Neil
Keene ISD
Keene, TX
How to Use This
Textbook
Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals and

Applications has been carefully designed to
enhance the study of mechanics and technology
in agriscience programs. For best results, you may
want to become familiar with the features incor-
porated into this text and accompanying learning
tools.
Each unit begins with the following tools:
• a core objective explains the purpose of the
unit;
• competencies to be developed list specific
goals to meet as you read and review the
unit;
• a materials list identifies items you will need
to complete the unit; and
• a list of Terms to Know identifies key vocabu-
lary to master.
Special Features
• Hundreds of new full-color photographs
provide up-to-date visual references for
the procedures described throughout the
textbook.
• Procedures are highlighted throughout the
textbook in order to highlight the basic steps
in performing specific tasks covered in each
unit.
• Notes emphasize important items you
should be aware of before proceeding with a
unit.
xxiii
xxiv How to Use This Textbook
• Caution! features indicate safety precautions

you need to be aware of.
• End of unit review materials include:
° a unit summary;
° student activities, including supervised
agricultural experiences;
° a list of relevant websites for further infor-
mation and research; and
° Self-Evaluations, which allow you to review
the unit content using multiple choice,
matching, and completion question.
Other Resources
Available
• The appendices offer numerous project plans
with bill of materials and construction proce-
dures as well as tables containing information
for estimating, planning, selecting, purchasing,
and building in agricultural mechanics.
• An English–Spanish glossary with over 425

definitions provides an excellent study aid and
reference.
Section 1
Exploring Careers
in Agricultural
Mechanics
Unit 1
• Mechanics in the World of
Agriculture
Unit 2
• Career Options in Agricultural
Mechanics
Unit 1
Mechanics in
the World of
Agriculture
Objective Terms to Know

To determine how mechanical skills, concepts, and prin- • agriculture
ciples are used in agriculture and related occupations. • agriscience
• renewable natural
resources
Competencies to be developed
• agricultural mechanics
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• efficiency
• Define agriculture and agricultural mechanics.
• Define occupation and describe an occupational cluster.
• Describe the role of mechanics and mechanical
applications in society.
• Demonstrate knowledge of contributions made by
mechanical application to the development of agriculture.
• Name eight inventors of important agricultural machines.
Materials List
• Pencil
• Paper
• Encyclopedias
Unit 1 • Mechanics in the World of Agriculture 3
T
o many people, the term agriculture refers
to production agriculture—farming or the
production of plants and animals. However,
agriculture is a very broad industry that includes
not only producing plants and animals, but also all
the related supplies, services, mechanics, products,
processing, and marketing related to producing plants
and animals, and keeping the environment sound.
Agriculture is a very complex industry. The industry
© iStockphoto/Lya Cattel
produces plant and animal products from which
thousands of commodities are made. Because every
person and many industries depend upon agriculture,
it is said to be a basic industry. Some products of
agriculture are food, oils, fiber, lumber, ornamental Figure 1-1 The average American farmer produces enough food
trees and shrubs, flowers, leather, fertilizers, feed, seed, to feed about 155 people.
and more. Basic agricultural products form the raw
materials for many items of everyday living.
Fabrics for clothing, curtains, and floor coverings electricity to all rural areas and developed the marvel-
are made from oils such as corn oil, soybean oil, and ous machines and implements that made human labor
cottonseed oil. Plastics of all kinds are also made much more efficient.
from vegetable oils. Products from animals are used The term agriscience refers to the science
to make materials such as glue, leather, and paint. involved with the industry of agriculture. Agriculture
Many medicines come from plants and animals. The is a science that involves most of the knowledge we
manufacture of automobiles, furniture, airplanes, process concerning the growth and reproduction of
radios, stereos, and computers depends on agriculture plants and animals. In fact, when one considers all
for certain raw materials. The construction of homes, the vast knowledge we have in biology, there are only
boats, and factories depends on agriculture for lumber, three applications: medicine, ecology, and agriculture.
fiber, and other basic commodities. Most dwellings Agriculture plays a vital role in both medicine and
in America are surrounded by lawn, shrubs, or other ecology, so our knowledge in biology is applied in
plants for beautification. These are also agricultural agriculture.
commodities. Renewable natural resources are considered
Agriculture is, indeed, a basic industry upon to be a part of agriculture. These are the resources
which all people depend. It is the backbone of the provided by nature that can be replaced or renewed.
American society. Even though the number of farms Examples of such resources are our forests; fish in our
has dramatically decreased over the past 150 years, streams, lakes, and oceans; and our wildlife such as
the amount of agricultural production has increased game animals. At one time most natural resources
manifold. For example, in 1940 there were about were not managed, and humans relied on nature to
6.5 million U.S. farms and one farmer fed about 19 replenish the resources. As our population began to
people. Today there are a little over 2.2 million U.S. grow, nature could not replenish natural resources as
farms. Of these, 98 percent are family farms with only fast as they were being consumed. A large industry
about 2 percent corporate operations. The families began to develop that helps to manage our resources.
who live on and operate our farms and ranches com- Most U.S. forestland is now managed—in terms of
prise only about 2 percent of the U.S. population. The planting and cultivating trees, regulating harvesting,
producers have become so efficient that one farmer and managing fire-control efforts (Figure 1-2). Large
feeds about 155 people (Figure 1-1). A lot of differ- hatcheries now produce young fish that are released
ent factors contributed to this increase in efficiency. into the wild. Both commercial and sport fishing
Scientific research that developed better varieties, more are closely regulated to prevent the depletion of fish
efficient fertilization programs, more effective insect populations. Game animals are closely regulated to
and disease control, and an overall better understand- prevent overhunting and to control population num-
ing of how plants and animals reproduce has been a bers to prevent overpopulation (Figure 1-3). Just
tremendous factor. However, just as important is the think of all the industry that is needed to support the
development of agricultural mechanics that brought management and enjoyment of our natural resources!
4 Section 1 • Exploring Careers in Agricultural Mechanics
Photo by John Deere

Figure 1-4 Workers in agricultural mechanics are responsible
for the design, manufacture, testing, sales, and service of farm
machinery.
maintenance of modern farm machinery. Also, con-

sider all the machinery needed to plant, cultivate, and
harvest trees (Figure 1-4). Consider all that goes into
© iStockphoto/georgeclerk
the construction and maintenance of buildings that

house agricultural products, equipment, supplies, and
machinery. A large industry is built around agricul-
tural construction (Figure 1-5).
Figure 1-2 Managed forests are a renewable resource.
Think of all the industry that goes with fishing—

everything from the production of fishing lures, rods
and reels to fishing boats.
American farmers are among the world’s most
efficient businesspeople. Much of this efficiency and
success is due to the invention, development, and
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®/Ray Herren.

© iStockphoto/twildlife
Figure 1-3 Game animals account for a significant part of our Figure 1-5 Agricultural construction is an important part of
natural-resource industry. agricultural mechanics.
The Role Of
Agricultural
Mechanics
Mechanical applications are found throughout agri-
culture. A few examples of people whose occupations
involve agricultural mechanics are:
Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS

• the engineer who designs tractors and other farm
and ranch machines (Figure 1-6)
• the forester who keeps chainsaws and other
equipment going
• the builder who constructs processing plants,
farm buildings, and aquaculture facilities
• the electrician who installs climate controls, silo Figure 1-7 Machinery parts can be ordered by computer.
unloaders, and milling equipment
• the soil conservationist who constructs terraces to
control erosion
• the hardware store employee who obtains and
stocks repair parts for agricultural tools and
machines (Figure 1-7)
• the specialist who creates air-conditioning and
refrigeration systems in processing and storage
facilities
• the specialist who designs and installs drainage
© Dziurek/Shutterstock.com
and irrigation systems for fields, turf, landscaping,
and golf courses (Figure 1-8)
• the lawn equipment service mechanic who repairs
lawn tractors
• the welder who repairs farm machinery
• the mechanic who keeps diesel trucks and Figure 1-8 Agricultural mechanics is needed in urban areas.
machines in good repair Ball fields, parks, and golf courses rely on machinery to
install and maintain turf, plants, and landscaping.
Processing plants for field crops, livestock, poul-
try, fruits, and vegetables all use machinery. Machines
require designers, engineers, operators, maintenance
and repair personnel, and construction workers. Even
people with jobs in finance, publishing, and communi-
cations may need some knowledge of mechanics when
their assignments deal with agriculture. All are likely
to use computers and computer applications in their
work.
The Influence Of
Mechanization
At the birth of the United States in 1776, more than
90 percent of the American colonists were farmers,
USDA/ARS
yet many of General Washington’s troops at Valley

Forge died for lack of food and clothing. Today, less
Figure 1-6 Engineers are needed to design machinery. than 10 percent of all Americans work in production
agriculture, yet there are generally food surpluses in day as 100 people could cut and bundle in one day in the
America. The ratio of farm workers to nonfarm work- 1830s (Figure 1-9).
ers in America approximately reversed in the last Two inventions had a profound influence on the
230 years. In 1776, the farm-to-nonfarm ratio was settling of this country. The first was by a man named
approximately 9:1. Today, the ratio of production John Deere, who developed a steel plow that replaced
agricultural workers to the remaining population is an iron plow invented by Thomas Jefferson. The
approximately 1:9. Mechanization has played a major plow, invented by Deere in 1837, allowed farmers to
role in this rise in production efficiency. Efficiency break up the tough sod that previously had prevented
means the ability to produce with a minimum waste of pioneers from cultivating the rich prairie soils.
time, energy, and materials. Previously plowshares (the parts that cut through the
America provided the inventors for many of the soil) were made either of wood or cast iron. Both of
world’s most important agricultural machines. For these materials were so heavy that the plow could not
example, grain has always been a basic food for humans. be drawn through the sod. Deere constructed plow-
For thousands of years people have planted, cultivated, shares out of steel that was both lighter and tough
and harvested grain to eat whole or to make bread. One enough to cut through the sod. Settlers inhabited all
of the most labor-intensive jobs was that of cutting the of the Midwest and Plains region where so much of
plants and threshing out the grain. This was done from our food is grown today. From this beginning, John
prehistoric times until the early part of the 1800s. Cyrus Deere became one of the world’s leading manufac-
McCormick invented the reaper in 1834 to cut small turers of agricultural and construction implements
grain crops. This machine used horse power to pull the (Figure 1-10).
reaper that cut the mature grain plants. This allowed one The other invention that affected settlement was
person to do the work of many people and the labor was by Eli Whitney, who developed a machine, called a
easier. This still left the job of threshing out the wheat. gin (short for “engine”), to remove seeds from cotton.
Later, a machine called a combine was invented, which Prior to his invention in 1793, seeds were removed
both cut and threshed the grain in the field. The name from cotton by hand. The seeds could be separated
combine was adopted because the machine combined the from the cotton, but it was a time-consuming task.
job of cutting and threshing. Today, one modern com- Another problem was the type of cotton grown.
bine operator can cut and thresh as much grain in one Cotton with loose seeds was the Sea Island or
© Orientaly/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1-9 A combine cuts and threshes grain in one operation.
revolutionizing the production of food and fiber.

Today, most of the machinery used in agricultural
production is based on the internal combustion
engine.
Perhaps no invention has had more impact on
agriculture and on the lives of people than the inven-
tion of refrigeration. Prior to its invention, produce
and meats had to be sold fresh, and their shelf life was
very short. With mechanical refrigeration, meats and
Photo by John Deere

produce could not only be stored much longer, but
could also be transported long distances. Refrigerated
railcars and trucks allowed livestock, fruits, and veg-
etables to be produced in one part of the country and
Figure 1-10 John Deere invented a plow that could cut through shipped across the country to large cities. For the first
the heavy sod of the Midwest. time in history, people could have fresh meats and veg-
etables year-round.
long-staple variety that would grow only along the The machines discussed here are only a few of the
coast of Georgia and the Carolinas. Upland cotton ones that have revolutionized agriculture. Our entire
would grow anywhere in the South, but the seeds of modern agricultural industry is based on complex,
this type were almost impossible to separate by hand. efficient machinery that performs crucial roles, all
Whitney’s gin not only saved labor, but it also opened the way from the research laboratories that develop
up the entire southern portion of the nation for culti- agricultural inputs to the businesses that harvest, store,
vation of upland cotton. process, and transport commodities to the consumer.
The power for agricultural machines was first All of these thousands of different types of machines
supplied by horses, oxen, and mules. Later, as heavier and implements that keep the agricultural industry
and more complex machines were developed, power going rely on a complex support system that designs,
was supplied by steam. Steam engines had proven produces, installs, maintains, and repairs them.
to be very effective in powering boats, ships, and Agriculture has become highly mechanized in all of
trains. They provided more power than animals, the developed countries of the world. In undeveloped
but they were extremely heavy and cumbersome on countries, many engineers, teachers, and technicians
land (Figure 1-11). The internal combustion engine have sought simple, tough, and reliable small machines
made machines tremendously efficient. Machinery to improve agriculture. In such countries, America’s
equipped with these relatively lightweight, power- highly developed, complex, computerized, expensive
ful engines replaced the steam-powered machines, machinery will not do, in part because these countries
lack people trained for the variety of agricultural
mechanics jobs that are needed to support agriculture
in the United States.
Many features, such as rubber tires, have been
standard equipment on American farms since the
1930s. Yet a machine with rubber tires is useless if a
tire gets damaged and repair services are not avail-
able. This is the case in most undeveloped countries
in Central and South America, Asia, and Africa.
© Alan Egginton/Shutterstock.com
Much of the world cannot compete with American

agriculture because the related agricultural prod-
ucts and services are not available to support farm
workers.
The efficiency of American agriculture will
increase in the future as computer-controlled machines
Figure 1-11 Heavy, bulky steam engines began to replace
and robotics play an important part. It is exciting to
animals as a power source in the 1800s. This antique tractor has envision the changes in store for agricultural mechani-
been restored. zation in the twenty-first century.
Summary
Agricultural mechanics has been fundamental to the development of the agricul-
tural industry in this country. Much of the tremendous increase in the efficiency of the
American producers is due to innovations in mechanics. The wiring of buildings to
supply power, the repairing of engines and equipment, the laying of pipes for water
supplies, and constructing buildings are only a few examples of mechanics in agri-
culture. As further advances are made, the role of mechanics in agriculture will be as
prominent in the future as it has been in the past.
Student Activities
1. Define the Terms to Know in this unit.
2. Interview a cooperative extension specialist for agricultural resources in your county or city. Ask the
specialist to describe the different agricultural or agriculturally related jobs that people do in your
locality.
3. Look up “inventors” or “inventions” in an encyclopedia. Pick out the inventions that relate to agriculture,
and report your findings to the class.
4. Select three or five classmates to join you in a debate on the role of agriculture in society. One team should
support the position that agriculture is the backbone of society. The opposing team should support the
notion that it is not.
5. Consider an everyday product such as bread, milk, leather gloves, or a corsage for Mother’s Day. Trace the
production, processing, and marketing of the item from its source to its sale as a finished product. List
points along the way where agricultural mechanics is involved.
Relevant Web Sites

About.com’s web page on Inventors, Agriculture, and Farm Innovations
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blfarm.htm
Delaware Agricultural Museum & Village
www.agriculturalmuseum.org
National FFA Online, Teacher’s Workroom
http://web.missouri.edu/~schumacherl/natcon.html
Online Encyclopedia Britannica
www.britannica.com
Self-Evaluation
A. Multiple Choice. Select the best answer. 9. Mechanization of agriculture has resulted in
1. The production of plants and animals and the a. decreased soil production
provision and management of related supplies, b. decreased farm expenses
services, mechanics, products, processing, and c. increased production efficiency
marketing defines d. increased numbers of farm workers
a. horticulture 10. Cyrus McCormick invented the
b. renewable natural resources a. steel plow
c. agricultural mechanics b. cotton gin
d. agriculture c. milking machine
2. Agriscience is d. reaper
a. the same as agricultural mechanics
B. Matching. Match the items in column I with
b. limited to the sale of agricultural
those in column II.
products
c. business stemming from agriculture Column I
d. the science that is behind agricultural
1. efficiency
production
2. agricultural mechanics
3. Examples of renewable natural resources are
a. oil, gas, and coal 3. Thomas Jefferson
b. fish, trees, and wildlife 4. loose seeds
c. rubber, steel, and water 5. John Deere
d. air, soil, and minerals
6. steam engines
4. Over the past 230 years, the number of 7. Eli Whitney
American farms has
a. decreased 8. mechanic
b. increased 9. technician
c. remained about the same 10. trade
d. not been measured
5. Agricultural mechanics stems mostly from Column II
a. physics a. o
ne who is specifically trained to perform
b. biology tasks having to do with a machine, a mecha-
c. medicine nism, or machinery
d. horticulture
b. the iron plow
6. Agricultural products come from
c. t he selection, operation, maintenance,
a. soil and coal
servicing, selling, and use of power units,
b. plants and animals
machinery, equipment structures, and
c. iron ore and aluminum
utilities used in agriculture
d. atomic fuel
d. t he ability to produce with minimum waste
7. Products of agriculture include
of time, energy, and materials
a. leather seat covers
b. paint e. Sea Island cotton
c. flower arrangements f. heavy and cumbersome
d. all of these
g. s pecific kinds of work or business, especially
8. Agricultural mechanics includes the those that require skilled mechanical
occupation of work
a. garden tractor repairperson h. the cotton gin
b. automobile mechanic
c. pile driver i. a mechanic who uses high technology
d. systems analyst j. the steel plow
C. Completion. Fill in the blanks with the word or D. Brief Answer. Briefly answer the following
words that make the following statements correct. questions.
1. Today a single combine operator can cut 1. It can be said that agriculture is the backbone
and thresh as much grain in one day as of American society. Explain.
__________ people could cut and bundle in 2. Compare the ratio of farm workers to
the same amount of time in the 1830s. nonfarm workers in 1776 with the farm-to-
2. The average U.S. farmer today feeds about nonfarm ratio today. What has made today’s
__________ people per year. food surpluses possible in spite of this
3. Early inventors such as Eli Whitney and John reversal?
Deere could be considered workers in the 3. Identify two inventions that had a profound
area of __________. influence on the settling of this country, and
4. Most of the machinery used today in agricul- explain the importance of each.
tural production is based on the __________. 4. Explain the impact of refrigeration on agri-
5. All jobs and types of work in the field of culture and society.
agriculture/agribusiness and renewable 5. In the past, agriculture meant to farm or to
natural resources make up an __________ grow plants or animals. Why is such a simple
__________. definition not possible today?
Unit 2
Career Options
in Agricultural
Mechanics
Objective Terms to Know

To determine how skills in agricultural mechanics may be • off-the-farm agricultural
used to earn a good living. jobs
• supervised agricultural
experience
Competencies to be developed • occupational division
After studying this unit, you should be able to: • FFA
• List the major divisions in the agricultural cluster of • agribusiness and
occupations. agricultural production
• Identify occupations in agriculture that require • 4-H
mechanical skills.
• Boy Scouts of America
• Describe the relationship between mechanical applications
and success in certain agricultural occupations.
• Conduct an in-depth study of one or more jobs in
agricultural mechanics.
• Establish tentative personal goals for using agricultural
mechanics skills.
Materials List
• A computerized, microfiche, or other career information
system
• Occupational Outlook Handbook
Y
oung people today have a wide variety of and rewarding. Just think of all the time you will be
options when planning a career (Figure 2-1). It spending on the job. If you do not enjoy what you
is never too early to begin thinking about what do, the quality of life will be much reduced. With the
you want to do for a living. Earning enough money to wide array of all the different career choices and the
make a comfortable living is important; however, it opportunities available, you should be able to find an
is also important to choose a career that is enjoyable enjoyable career.
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®.
Figure 2-1 The agriculture industry provides interesting careers in production, management, science, education, finance, communication,
government, conservation, and mechanics.
Unit 2 • Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics 13
and professional. Some professional jobs, such as vet-

erinarian and scientist, require a doctor’s degree. The
doctor’s degree requires 7 or more years of college educa-
tion. It is important to make a career choice as early as
possible so the proper training can be obtained. Career
goals should be set while in high school. High school
courses, supervised agricultural experience, work
experience abroad, and future schooling can then help
prepare for the chosen career. Jobs are available in agri-
© iStockphoto/Tongshan
cultural occupations at every work level (Figure 2-3).
Figure 2-2 The serenity of rural areas attracts many people to

careers in agriculture.
Agriculture may be the area with the greatest

opportunity for a satisfying career since it encompasses
so many different areas of interest. Whether you like
© TFoxFoto/Shutterstock.com
the serenity of living in a rural setting or you prefer the
bustle of suburban living, there are careers in agricul-
ture that may suit you (Figure 2-2).
Agriculture A Agricultural engineers and soil and water technicians seek

better ways to use water wisely.
Is Number One
For many years agriculture has been America’s number
one employer. While some labor analysts may say this
is no longer the case, there are literally many millions
of jobs in the field of agriculture. While the number of
farmers and ranchers has decreased, the need for sup-
port people has opened up many job opportunities. Any
way the job market is analyzed, agriculture accounts
for a very high percentage of America’s total workforce.
A large proportion of these jobs are off-the-farm agri-
cultural jobs. Off-the-farm agricultural jobs are those
jobs requiring agricultural skills but not regarded as
farming or ranching. The efficiency of this unique mix
of farm and nonfarm agricultural jobs permits the aver-
age American to use only about 9.8 percent of his or her
total disposable income on food with about 5.7 percent
© Grandpa/Shutterstock.com
spent on food for home and about 4.1 percent spent on

food away from home at restaurants and other prepared
food outlets This is the lowest of any nation in the world.
The opportunities in agriculture are found at all levels
of employment. The first level of employment is laborer;
b Machinery repair is a necessary part of modern
this level requires the least amount of preparation.
agriculture.
A few laborer jobs require less than a high school diploma.
Additional training is needed for the better-paying jobs. Figure 2-3 Many occupations are available in the field of
Other job levels include semiskilled, skilled, managerial, agriculture. (continued )
© Goodluz/Shutterstock.com
c Agriculture provides many jobs for those who prefer to work
outdoors.
© Denton Rumsey/Shutterstock.com
© iStockphoto/Kyu Oh
D Salespeople are needed to work in agricultural machinery E Food processers hire many people to repair and maintain
dealerships. equipment.
Figure 2-3 (continued )
Students enrolled in an agricultural education MANAGERS &

FINANCIAL
course have the edge on others who seek careers in SCIENTISTS &
SPECIALISTS
ENGINEERS
agriculture. Agricultural education programs prepare 28.5% 14.3%
the student specifically for the world of work, as well as
for college. With so many areas inside the broad field
of agriculture, choices must be narrowed. Choosing a
division within agriculture generally permits more spe- MARKETING
& SALES
cializing and better job opportunities. The largest career 32.3%
areas in agriculture are in marketing and sales, science,
and engineering (Figure 2-4). There are also many other
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture
areas to choose from. This suggests an excellent employ-

ment outlook for agricultural education graduates.
EDUCATION &
COMMUNICATION
6.2% AG
Agricultural Divisions SOCIAL
SERVICES
PRODUCTION
7.7%
11.0%
A number of U.S. government agencies have worked
together to classify occupations. The National Center Figure 2-4 Employment opportunities for agriculture/agribusi-
for Educational Statistics publishes A Classification of ness, as reported by the USDA.
Instructional Programs. This book arranges all occu-

pations into occupational clusters and divisions. An
occupational division is a group of occupations or
jobs within a cluster that requires similar skills. All jobs
in agriculture are in one agricultural cluster grouped
under the headings of (1) Agribusiness and Agri
cultural Production, (2) Agricultural Sciences, and
Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA NRCS

(3) Renewable Natural Resources.
Divisions in Agribusiness and

Agricultural Production
The agribusiness and agricultural production area
contains eight divisions. They are: Figure 2-5 Many people make careers out of operating the
massive machinery used in agricultural work.
• agricultural business and management
• agricultural mechanics
• agricultural production
• agricultural products and processing
• agricultural services and supplies
• horticulture
• international agriculture
• agribusiness and agricultural production
Notice that agricultural mechanics is one of the
divisions. This division is absolutely vital to all aspects
of agriculture. Can you imagine what the industry
© iStockphoto/fotolinchen
would be like without equipment to plant, cultivate,
and harvest crops? Without mechanics, produce could
not be transported to processing plants. The process-
ing plants could not run, and supermarkets could not
be stocked. Within the designing, building, operating,
and maintaining of the machines, there are many job Figure 2-6 Solar panels can help create energy for farm use.
Note solar panels on the top of the building.
opportunities. For example, farm equipment opera-
tor is a part of agricultural mechanics. Many young
people find satisfaction in a career operating heavy Notice that each division under agricultural sci-
equipment (Figure 2-5). There are many interesting ences has an s on “science.” This is because there are
jobs available in agriculture that use mechanical appli- numerous sciences under each division.
cations. Figure 2-6 shows how solar energy can be American agriculture is based on scientific knowl-
used to help power agricultural buildings. Figure 2-7 edge. Production, management, and mechanics all
shows career areas in agriculture. rely on information obtained through the scientific
approach. Figure 2-8 shows satellite technology being
used to predict the weather.
Divisions in Agricultural
Sciences
Divisions in Renewable
The agricultural sciences have six divisions. They are:
Natural Resources
1. agricultural sciences, general
The renewable natural resources area contains seven
2. animal sciences
divisions:
3. food sciences
4. plant sciences 1. renewable natural resources, general
5. soil sciences 2. conservation and regulation
6. agricultural sciences 3. fishing and fisheries
AGRICULTURAL
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
SERVICES AND AND
SUPPLIES PROCESSING
AGRICULTURAL
HORTICULTURE PRODUCTION
SOME CAREER
OPTIONS IN
AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL
AGRISCIENCE
MECHANICS

RENEWABLE AGRIBUSINESS
NATURAL AND
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Figure 2-7 There are many career options to choose from in agriculture. Each area
of agriculture relies on many others to be successful. For example, a greenhouse
cannot be successful without people knowledgeable in mechanics and business.
4.
5.
forestry production and processing
forestry and related sciences
Career Selection
6. wildlife management Agriculture teachers, guidance counselors, and librar-
7. renewable natural resources ians are sources of information regarding careers in the
field of agriculture. Figure 2-9 provides a breakdown of
There are many jobs listed under the renewable natu- the various divisions in agriculture.
ral resources division that require agricultural mechanics. There are specific job titles in agricultural mechan-
ics. They are classified under the following categories:
• agricultural mechanics, general
• agricultural electrification, power, and controls
• agricultural mechanics, construction, and mainte-
nance skills
• agricultural power machinery
• agricultural structures, equipment, and facilities
• soil and water mechanical practices
• agricultural mechanics, other
Figure 2-10 shows some examples of jobs that are
included in these classifications.
Farmers, ranchers, greenhouse operators, pesticide
NASA
applicators, veterinarians, wildlife officers—all are better

Figure 2-8 Numerous scientific advances play important roles
at their jobs if they have agricultural mechanics skills. Even
in agriculture. This photo shows a satellite image that is used to those who simply use buildings, equipment, or materials
predict weather patterns. find mechanical skills help them solve problems.
AGRIBUSINESS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
AGRICULTURAL BUSINESS AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AGRICULTURAL SERVICES HORTICULTURE INTERNATIONAL AGRIBUSINESS AND
AND MANAGEMENT PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING AND SUPPLIES AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION, OTHER
Agricultural Business and Agricultural Mechanics, Agricultural Production, Agricultural Products and Agricultural Services and Horticulture, General International Agriculture Agribusiness and Agricultural
Management, General General General Processing, General Supplies, General Aboriculture Production, Other
Agricultural Business Agricultural Electrification, Animal Production Food Products Agricultural Services Floriculture
Agricultural Economics Power, and Controls Aquaculture Nonfood Products Agricultural Supplies Marketing Greenhouse Operation and
Farm and Ranch Management Agricultural Mechanics, Crop Production Agricultural Products and Animal Grooming Management
Agricultural Business and Construction, and Maintenance Game Farm Management Processing, Other Animal Training Landscaping
Management, Other Skills Agricultural Production, Horseshoeing Nursery Operation and
Agricultural Power Machinery Other Agricultural Services and Management
Agricultural Structures, Supplies, Other Turf Management
Equipment, and Facilities Horticulture, Other
Soil and Water Mechanical
Practices
Agricultural Mechanics,
Other
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, ANIMAL SCIENCES FOOD SCIENCES PLANT SCIENCES SOIL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
GENERAL OTHER
Agricultural Sciences, General Animal Sciences, General Food Sciences, General Plant Sciences, General Soil Sciences, General Agricultural Sciences, Other
Animal Breeding and Dairy Processing Agronomy Soil Chemistry
Genetics Food Distribution Horticulture Science Soil Conservation
Animal Health Food Engineering Ornamental Horticulture Soil Management and Fertility
Animal Nutrition Food Packaging Plant Breeding and Genetics Soil Microbiology
Animal Physiology Food Technology Plant Pathology (Applied) Soil Physics
Dairy Food Sciences, Other Plant Physiology Soil Sciences, Other
Fisheries Science Plant Protection (Pest
Livestock Management)
Poultry Range Management
Animal Sciences, Other Turf Management Science
Plant Sciences, Other
RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES
RENEWABLE NATURAL CONSERVATION AND FISHING AND FISHERIES FORESTRY PRODUCTION FORESTRY AND RELATED WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT RENEWABLE NATURAL
RESOURCES, GENERAL REGULATION AND PROCESSING SCIENCES RESOURCES, OTHER
Renewable Natural Resources, Conservation and Regulation Fishing and Fisheries, General Forestry Production and Forestry and Related Sciences, Wildlife Management Renewable Natural
General Conservation Commercial Fishing Operation Processing, General General Resources, Other
Resources Protection and (see 49.0303) Forest Production Forestry Science
Regulation Fisheries Forest Products Utilization Forest Biology
Conservation and Regulation, Fishing and Fisheries, Other Forest Products Processing Forest Engineering
Other Technology Forest Hydrology
Logging Forest Management
Pulp and Paper Production Forest Mensuration
Forestry Production and Urban Forestry
Processing Wood Science
Forestry and Related Sciences,
Other
Unit 2 • Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics
Courtesy of the U.S. Department of Education

17
Figure 2-9 There are many instructional programs in agriculture.

AGRICULTURAL
MECHANICS
AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL SOIL AND WATER

ELECTRIFICATION, POWER MACHINERY MECHANICAL PRACTICES
POWER, AND CONTROLS
Electrician Equipment delivery person Agronomist
Electrician assistant Equipment mechanic Appraiser
Safety technician Farm equipment mechanic Conservationist
Service company representative Local dealer Conservation technician
Machinery setup person Ecology technician
Parts person Irrigation operator
Salesperson Manager
Service representative Soil technician
Tractor mechanic Water control manager
AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS, AGRICULTURAL

CONSTRUCTION, AND STRUCTURES,
MAINTENANCE SKILLS EQUIPMENT, AND FACILITIES
Construction maintenance Agriculture structure contractor

worker Appraiser
Lubrication specialist Building maintenance supervisor
Machinery and equipment Construction supervisor
repairperson Farmstead planner
Shop foreperson Waste handling specialist
Safety specialist
Figure 2-10 Many challenging jobs are available in agriculture.
Agricultural organization is active in all 50 states and Puerto Rico.

Over 450,000 students participate in activities and pro-
Education Programs grams sponsored by the FFA.
As students plan courses in agricultural education, they This organization began in 1928 when students
should get as much experience in agricultural mechan- studying agriculture met in Kansas City for the pur-
ics as possible. Such experiences should be stimulat- pose of establishing a national association. Prior to this,
ing and rewarding. They may occur in the classroom, many states had created similar organizations for rural
shop, greenhouse, school farm, at home, in supervised young people. The state organizations began to com-
agricultural experiences, or FFA. pete in livestock judging and looked for a place to hold
The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided funding for a national competition. The American Royal in Kansas
agriculture in high schools. Through these programs, stu- City agreed to host the event. This brought the students
dents in rural areas had the opportunity to learn the latest together for the first time, and they decided there was
scientific principles in agricultural production. Teachers a need for a national organization. In 1928, the FFA
began visiting students after school to help with the stu- came into existence.
dent projects. This was the beginning of the SAE. This The FFA was patterned after the Future Farmers of
program component is explained in detail in Appendix C Virginia. This state association was developed by Henry
at the back of this text. The third component, the Future Groseclose, Walter Newman, Edmund Magill, and Harry
Farmers of America (FFA), completed the three parts of Sanders. They saw the need to give rural youth opportuni-
the program: classroom/lab, SAE, and FFA. ties to develop social graces and leadership skills. Ceremonies
The National FFA is an organization for students for the FFA were designed after the ceremonies of the
studying agricultural education in high school. This Freemasons, and the awards were patterned after the Boy
Scouts. The colors selected for the organization are corn gold I can exert an influence in my home and community
and national blue. which will stand solid for my part in that inspiring task.
The FFA emblem was designed by Henry Groseclose.
It features a cross section of an ear of corn that represents By E.M. Tiffany. Adopted at the Third National FFA
the nationwide scope of FFA. The rising sun represents a Convention. Revised at the 38th and 63rd Conventions.
new era in agriculture, and the plow represents labor and To that end, each state chapter includes a program
tillage of the soil. The owl stands for wisdom that is neces- of activities (POA) at the local level, which defines chap-
sary for progress. The eagle at the top symbolizes freedom ter goals, outlines steps in order to meet those goals,
and the ability fulfills to go as far as our abilities take us. and acts as a written guide for events in the upcom-
The FFA has passed many milestones since 1928. ing year pertaining to committee members, including
In 1965, the FFA merged with the New Farmers of administrators, advisory committees, alumni members,
America (NFA). The NFA was an organization for and other stakeholders. A well-planned POA includes
black youths studying agriculture. In 1969, girls were divisions, or the types of activities a chapter conducts,
allowed to join the organization. In 1988, the name was and quality standards, which provide guidance for the
changed from the Future Farmers of America to the planning and execution of those activities.
National FFA Organization. That same year the pro- Chapter officers are a vital component of ensur-
gram name was changed from Vocational Agriculture ing the success of chapter activities. These officers
to Agricultural Education. The name change was include the president, who presides over meetings,
reflected on the FFA emblem. appoints committees, coordinates activities, and repre-
Today, the National FFA and its state chapters are sents the chapter; the vice president, who works closely
thriving and continue to educationally enrich the lives with the president to achieve chapter goals and may
of academic students nationwide and uphold the mis- assume duties of president if necessary; the secretary,
sion described in the FFA Creed: who is responsible for many administrative duties;
the treasurer, who oversees the finances of the chap-
The FFA Creed ter and maintains treasury records; the reporter, who
I believe in the future of agriculture, with a faith born participates in public relation activities; the sentinel,
not of words but of deeds—achievements won by the who assists the president in official meetings and other
present and past generations of agriculturists; in the activities; and the advisor, who supervises activities
promise of better days through better ways, even as the year-round and acts a leader and guide for other FFA
better things we now enjoy have come to us from the members and stakeholders. Other chapter officers may
struggles of former years. include a historian, parliamentarian, and chaplain.
To learn more about the National FFA Organization,
I believe that to live and work on a good farm, or to be refer to the Official FFA Manual and FFA Student
engaged in other agricultural pursuits, is pleasant as well as Handbook. Visit www.ffa.org.
challenging; for I know the joys and discomforts of agricul- In FFA, students may participate in agricultural
tural life and hold an inborn fondness for those associations mechanics or tractor operation contests. There are
which, even in hours of discouragement, I cannot deny. proficiency awards for farm and home safety and agri-
I believe in leadership from ourselves and respect from cultural mechanics. Proficiency award winners receive
others. I believe in my own ability to work efficiently significant monetary awards, depending on the level of
and think clearly, with such knowledge and skill as I can the award. Additionally, agricultural mechanics may be
secure, and in the ability of progressive agriculturists to used as a speech topic in any organization.
serve our own and the public interest in producing and Members of 4-H conduct many projects using
marketing the product of our toil. agricultural mechanics skills. Some of these projects
are wood science, electricity, tractor safety and main-
I believe in less dependence on begging and more power
tenance, and automotive and small engines. The Boy
in bargaining; in the life abundant and enough honest
Scouts of America has over 115 merit-badge areas,
wealth to help make it so—for others as well as myself;
of which at least 25 involve agricultural mechanics
in less need for charity and more of it when needed; in
skills. Some of these are camping, drafting, electricity,
being happy myself and playing square with those whose
energy, engineering, farm mechanics, forestry, garden-
happiness depends upon me.
ing, home repairs, landscape architecture, machinery,
I believe that American agriculture can and will hold metalwork, plumbing, soil and water conservation,
true to the best traditions of our national life and that and woodwork.
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At the end of five months the gang returns to dry land, and a
statement of account from the overseer’s book is drawn up,
something like the following:—
Sam Bo to John Doe, Dr.
Feb. 1. To clothing (outfit) $5 00
Mar. 10. To clothing, as per overseer’s 2 25
account
Feb. 1. To bacon and meal (outfit) 19 00
July 1. To stores drawn in swamp, as 4 75
per overseer’s account
July 1. To half-yearly hire, paid his 50 00
owner.
$81 00
Per Contra, Cr.
July 1. By 10,000 shingles, as per 100 00
overseer’s account, 10c
Balance due Sambo $19 00
which is immediately paid him, and of which, together with the
proceeds of sale of peltry which he has got while in the swamp, he is
always allowed to make use as his own. No liquor is sold or served
to the negroes in the swamp, and, as their first want when they come
out of it is an excitement, most of their money goes to the grog-
shops.
After a short vacation, the whole gang is taken in the schooner to
spend another five months in the swamp as before. If they are good
hands and work steadily, they will commonly be hired again, and so
continuing, will spend most of their lives at it. They almost invariably
have excellent health, as have also the white men engaged in the
business. They all consider the water of the “Dismals” to have a
medicinal virtue, and quite probably it is a mild tonic. It is greenish in
colour, and I thought I detected a slightly resinous taste upon first
drinking it. Upon entering the swamp also, an agreeable resinous
odour, resembling that of a hemlock forest, was perceptible.
The negroes working in the swamp were more sprightly and
straightforward in their manner and conversation than any field-hand
plantation negroes that I saw at the South; two or three of their
employers with whom I conversed spoke well of them, as compared
with other slaves, and made no complaints of “rascality” or laziness.
One of those gentlemen told me of a remarkable case of providence
and good sense in a negro that he had employed in the swamp for
many years. He was so trustworthy, that he had once let him go to
New York as cook of a lumber schooner, when he could, if he had
chosen to remain there, have easily escaped from slavery.
Knowing that he must have accumulated considerable money, his
employer suggested to him that he might buy his freedom, and he
immediately determined to do so. But when, on applying to his
owner, he was asked $500 for himself, a price which, considering he
was an elderly man, he thought too much, he declined the bargain;
shortly afterwards, however, he came to his employer again, and
said that although he thought his owner was mean to set so high a
price upon him, he had been thinking that if he was to be an old man
he would rather be his own master, and if he did not live long, his
money would not be of any use to him at any rate, and so he had
concluded he would make the purchase.
He did so, and upon collecting the various sums that he had loaned
to white people in the vicinity, he was found to have several hundred
dollars more than was necessary. With the surplus, he paid for his
passage to Liberia, and bought a handsome outfit. When he was
about to leave, my informant had made him a present, and, in
thanking him for it, the free man had said that the first thing he
should do, on reaching Liberia, would be to learn to write, and, as
soon as he could, he would write to him how he liked the country: he
had been gone yet scarce a year, and had not been heard from.
Deep River, Jan. 18th.—The shad and herring fisheries upon the
sounds and inlets of the North Carolina coast are an important
branch of industry, and a source of considerable wealth. The men
employed in them are mainly negroes, slave and free; and the
manner in which they are conducted is interesting, and in some
respects novel.
The largest sweep seines in the world are used. The gentleman to
whom I am indebted for the most of my information, was the
proprietor of a seine over two miles in length. It was manned by a
force of forty negroes, most of whom were hired at a dollar a day, for
the fishing season, which usually commences between the tenth and
fifteenth of March, and lasts fifty days. In favourable years the profits
are very great. In extremely unfavourable years many of the
proprietors are made bankrupt.
Cleaning, curing, and packing houses are erected on the shore, as
near as they conveniently may be to a point on the beach, suitable
for drawing the seine. Six or eight windlasses, worked by horses, are
fixed along the shore, on each side of this point. There are two large
seine-boats, in each of which there is one captain, two seine-
tenders, and eight or ten oarsmen. In making a cast of the net, one-
half of it is arranged on the stern of each of the boats, which, having
previously been placed in a suitable position—perhaps a mile off
shore, in front of the buildings—are rowed from each other, the
captains steering, and the seine-tenders throwing off, until the seine
is all cast between them. This is usually done in such a way that it
describes the arc of a circle, the chord of which is diagonal with the
shore. The hawsers attached to the ends of the seine are brought
first to the outer windlasses, and are wound in by the horses. As the
operation of gathering in the seine occupies several hours, the boat
hands, as soon as they have brought the hawsers to the shore, draw
their boats up, and go to sleep.
As the wings approach the shore, the hawsers are from time to time
carried to the other windlasses, to contract the sweep of the seine.
After the gaff of the net reaches the shore, lines attached toward the
bunt are carried to the windlasses, and the boats’ crews are
awakened, and arrange the wing of the seine, as fast as it comes in,
upon the boat again. Of course, as the cast was made diagonally
with the shore, one wing is beached before the other. By the time the
fish in the bunt have been secured, both boats are ready for another
cast, and the boatmen proceed to make it, while the shore gang is
engaged in sorting and gutting the “take.”
My informant, who had $50,000 invested in his fishing establishment,
among other items of expenditure, mentioned that he had used
seventy kegs of gunpowder the previous year, and amused himself
for a few moments with letting me try to conjecture in what way
villanous saltpetre could be put to use in taking fish.
There is evidence of a subsidence of this coast, in many places, at a
comparatively recent period; many stumps of trees, evidently
standing where they grew, being found some way below the present
surface, in the swamps and salt marshes. Where the formation of the
shore and the surface, or the strength of the currents of water, which
have flowed over the sunken land, has been such as to prevent a
later deposit, the stumps of great cypress trees, not in the least
decayed, protrude from the bottom of the sounds. These would
obstruct the passage of a net, and must be removed from a fishing-
ground.
The operation of removing them is carried on during the summer,
after the close of the fishing season. The position of a stump having
been ascertained by divers, two large seine-boats are moored over
it, alongside each other, and a log is laid across them, to which is
attached perpendicularly, between the boats, a spar, fifteen feet long.
The end of a chain is hooked to the log, between the boats, the other
end of which is fastened by divers to the stump which it is wished to
raise. A double-purchase tackle leads from the end of the spar to a
ring-bolt in the bows of one of the boats, with the fall leading aft, to
be bowsed upon by the crews. The mechanical advantages of the
windlass, the lever, and the pulley being thus combined, the chain is
wound on to the log, until either the stump yields, and is brought to
the surface, or the boats’ gunwales are brought to the water’s edge.
When the latter is the case, and the stump still remains firm, a new
power must be applied. A spile, pointed with iron, six inches in
diameter, and twenty feet long, is set upon the stump by a diver, who
goes down with it, and gives it that direction which, in his judgment,
is best, and driven into it by mauls and sledges, a scaffold being
erected between the boats for men to stand on while driving it. In
very large stumps, the spile is often driven till its top reaches the
water; so that when it is drawn out, a cavity is left in the stump, ten
feet in depth. A tube is now used, which is made by welding together
three musket-barrels, with a breech at one end, in which is the tube
of a percussion breech, with the ordinary position of the nipple
reversed, so that when it is screwed on with a detonating cap, the
latter will protrude within the barrel. This breech is then inserted
within a cylindrical tin box, six inches in diameter, and varying in
length, according to the supposed strength of the stump; and soap or
tallow is smeared about the place of insertion to make it water tight.
The box contains several pounds of gunpowder.
The long iron tube is elevated, and the diver goes down again, and
guides it into the hole in the stump, with the canister in his arms. It
has reached the bottom—the diver has come up, and is drawn into
one of the boats—an iron rod is inserted in the mouth of the tube—
all hands crouch low and hold hard—the rod is let go—crack!—whoo
—oosch! The sea swells, boils, and breaks upward. If the boats do
not rise with it, they must sink; if they rise, and the chain does not
break, the stump must rise with them. At the same moment the heart
of cypress is riven; its furthest rootlets quiver; the very earth
trembles, and loses courage to hold it; “up comes the stump, or
down go the niggers!”
The success of the operation evidently depends mainly on the
discretion and skill of the diver. My informant, who thought that he
removed last summer over a thousand stumps, using for the purpose
seventy kegs of gunpowder, employed several divers, all of them
negroes. Some of them could remain under water, and work there to
better advantage than others; but all were admirably skilful, and this,
much in proportion to the practice and experience they had had.
They wear, when diving, three or four pairs of flannel drawers and
shirts. Nothing is required of them when they are not wanted to go to
the bottom, and, while the other hands are at work, they may lounge,
or go to sleep in the boat, which they do, in their wet garments.
Whenever a diver displays unusual hardihood, skill, or perseverance,
he is rewarded with whisky; or, as they are commonly allowed, while
diving, as much whisky as they want, with money. Each of them
would generally get every day from a quarter to half a dollar in this
way, above the wages paid for them, according to the skill and
industry with which they had worked. On this account, said my
informant, “the harder the work you give them to do, the better they
like it.” His divers very frequently had intermittent fevers, but would
very rarely let this keep them out of their boats. Even in the midst of
a severe “shake,” they would generally insist that they were “well
enough to dive.”
What! slaves eager to work, and working cheerfully, earnestly, and
skilfully? Even so. Being for the time managed as freemen, their
ambition stimulated by wages, suddenly they, too, reveal sterling
manhood, and honour their Creator.
Norfolk, Jan. 19th.—The market gardens at Norfolk—which have

been profitably supplying New York markets with poor early
vegetables, and half-hardy luxuries for several years past—do not
differ at all from market gardens elsewhere. They are situated in
every direction for many miles from the city, offering a striking
contrast, in all respects, to the large, old-fashioned Virginian farms,
among which they are scattered.
On one of the latter, of over a thousand acres, a friend told me he
had seen the negroes moving long, strawy manure with shovels, and
upon inquiry found there was not a dung-fork on the place.
The soil is a poor sandy loam, and manure is brought by shipping
from Baltimore, as well as from the nearer towns, to enrich it. The
proprietors of the market gardens are nearly all from New Jersey,
and brought many of their old white labourers with them. Except at
picking-time, when everything possessing fingers is in demand, they
do not often employ slaves.
The Norfolk Argus says that, from about the 20th June to the 20th
July, from 2,000 to 2,500 barrels of potatoes will be shipped daily
from that city to Philadelphia and New York, together with 300 to 500
barrels of cucumbers, musk-melons, etc.
Norfolk, Jan. 20th.—While driving a chaise from Portsmouth to Deep

River, I picked up on the road a jaded-looking negro, who proved to
be a very intelligent and good-natured fellow. His account of the
lumber business, and of the life of the lumbermen in the swamps, in
answer to my questions, was clear and precise, and was afterwards
verified by information obtained from his master.
He told me that his name was Joseph, that he belonged (as
property) to a church in one of the inland counties, and that he was
hired from the trustees of the church by his present master. He
expressed contentment with his lot, but great unwillingness to be
sold to go on to a plantation. He liked to “mind himself,” as he did in
the swamps. Whether he would still more prefer to be entirely his
own master, I did not ask.
The Dismal Swamps are noted places of refuge for runaway
negroes. They were formerly peopled in this way much more than at
present; a systematic hunting of them with dogs and guns having
been made by individuals who took it up as a business about ten
years ago. Children were born, bred, lived, and died here. Joseph
Church told me he had seen skeletons, and had helped to bury
bodies recently dead. There were people in the swamps still, he
thought, that were the children of runaways, and who had been
runaways themselves “all their lives.” What a life it must be! born
outlaws; educated self-stealers; trained from infancy to be constantly
in dread of the approach of a white man as a thing more fearful than
wild cats or serpents, or even starvation.
There can be but few, however, if any, of these “natives” left. They
cannot obtain the means of supporting life without coming often
either to the outskirts to steal from the plantations, or to the
neighbourhood of the camps of the lumbermen. They depend much
upon the charity or the wages given them by the latter. The poorer
white men, owning small tracts of the swamps, will sometimes
employ them, and the negroes frequently. In the hands of either they
are liable to be betrayed to the negro-hunters. Joseph said that they
had huts in “back places,” hidden by bushes, and difficult of access;
he had, apparently, been himself quite intimate with them. When the
shingle negroes employed them, he told me, they made them get up
logs for them, and would give them enough to eat, and some
clothes, and perhaps two dollars a month in money. But some, when
they owed them money, would betray them, instead of paying them.
I asked if they were ever shot. “Oh, yes,” he said; “when the hunters
saw a runaway, if he tried to get from them, they would call out to
him, that if he did not stop they would shoot, and if he did not, they
would shoot, and sometimes kill him.
“But some on ’em would rather be shot than be took, sir,” he added,
simply.
A farmer living near the swamp confirmed this account, and said he
knew of three or four being shot in one day.
No particular breed of dogs is needed for hunting negroes: blood-
hounds, fox-hounds, bull-dogs, and curs were used,[24] and one
white man told me how they were trained for it, as if it were a
common or notorious practice. They are shut up when puppies, and
never allowed to see a negro except while training to catch him. A
negro is made to run from them, and they are encouraged to follow
him until he gets into a tree, when meat is given them. Afterwards
they learn to follow any particular negro by scent, and then a shoe or
a piece of clothing is taken off a negro, and they learn to find by
scent who it belongs to, and to tree him, etc. All this the farmer told
me. I don’t think dogs are employed in the ordinary “driving” in the
swamp, but only to overtake some particular slave, as soon as
possible, after it is discovered that he has fled from a plantation.
Joseph said that it was easy for the drivers to tell a fugitive from a
regularly employed slave in the swamps.
“How do they know them?”
“How do you mean?”
“Oh, dey looks strange.”
“Skeared like, you know, sir, and kind o’ strange, cause dey hasn’t
much to eat, and ain’t decent [not decently clothed], like we is.”
When the hunters take a negro who has not a pass, or “free papers,”
and they don’t know whose slave he is, they confine him in jail, and
advertise him. If no one claims him within a year he is sold to the
highest bidder, at a public sale, and this sale gives title in law against
any subsequent claimant.
The form of the advertisements used in such cases is shown by the
following, which are cut from North Carolina newspapers, published
in counties adjoining the Dismals. Such advertisements are quite as
common in the papers of many parts of the Slave States as those of
horses or cattle “Taken up” in those of the North:—
WAS TAKEN UP and committed to the Jail of Halifax
County, on the 26th day of May, a dark coloured boy, who
says his name is Jordan Artis. Said boy says he was
born free, and was bound out to William Beale, near
Murfreesboro, Hertford County, N.C., and is now 21 years
of age. The owner is requested to come forward, prove
property, pay charges, and take the said boy away, within
the time prescribed by law; otherwise he will be dealt with
as the law directs.
O. P. SHELL, Jailer.
Halifax County,
N.C., June
8,1855.
TAKEN UP,
AND COMMITTED to the Jail of New Hanover County, on
the 5th of March, 1855, a Negro Man, who says his name
is EDWARD LLOYD. Said negro is about 35 or 40 years
old, light complected, 5 feet 9½ inches high, slim built,
upper fore teeth out; says he is a Mason by trade, that he
is free, and belongs in Alexandria, Va., that he served his
time at the Mason business under Mr. Wm. Stuart, of
Alexandria. He was taken up and committed as a
runaway. His owner is notified to come forward, prove
property, pay charges, and take him away, or he will be
dealt with as the law directs.
E. D. HALL, Sheriff.
In the same paper with the last are four advertisements of
Runaways: two of them, as specimens, I transcribe.
$200 REWARD.
RAN AWAY from the employ of Messrs. Holmes & Brown,
on Sunday night, 20th inst., a negro man named YATNEY
or MEDICINE, belonging to the undersigned. Said boy is
stout built, about 5 feet 4 inches high, 22 years old, and
dark complected, and has the appearance, when walking
slow, of one leg being a little shorter than the other. He
was brought from Chapel Hill, and is probably lurking
either in the neighbourhood of that place, or Beatty’s
Bridge, in Bladen County.
The above reward will be paid for evidence sufficient to
convict any white person of harbouring him, or a reward of
$25 for his apprehension and confinement in any Jail in
the State, so that I can get him, or for his delivery to me in
Wilmington.
J. T. SCHONWALD.
RUNAWAY
FROM THE SUBSCRIBER, on the 27th of May, his negro
boy ISOME. Said boy is about 21 years of age; rather light
complexion; very coarse hair; weight about 150 lbs.;
height about 5 feet 6 or 7 inches; rather pleasing
countenance; quick and easy spoken; rather a downcast
look. It is thought that he is trying to make his way to
Franklin county, N.C., where he was hired in Jan. last, of
Thomas J. Blackwell. A liberal Reward will be given for his
confinement in any Jail in North or South Carolina, or to
any one who will give information where he can be found.
W. H. PRIVETT,
Canwayboro’,
S.C.
Handbills, written or printed, offering rewards for the return of
runaway slaves, are to be constantly seen at nearly every court-
house, tavern, and post-office. The frequency with which these
losses must occur, however, on large plantations, is most strongly
evidenced by the following paragraph from the domestic-news
columns of the Fayetteville Observer. A man who would pay these
prices must anticipate frequent occasion to use his purchase.
“Mr. J. L. Bryan, of Moore county, sold at public auction,
on the 20th instant, a pack of ten hounds, trained for
hunting runaways, for the sum of $1,540. The highest
price paid for any one dog was $301; lowest price, $75;
average for the ten, $154. The terms of sale were six
months’ credit, with approved security, and interest from
date.”
The newspapers of the South-western States frequently contain
advertisements similar to the following, which is taken from the West
Tennessee Democrat:—
BLOOD-HOUNDS.—I have TWO of the FINEST DOGS
for CATCHING NEGROES in the Southwest. They can
take the trail TWELVE HOURS after the NEGRO HAS
PASSED, and catch him with ease. I live just four miles
southwest of Boliver, on the road leading from Boliver to
Whitesville. I am ready at all times to catch runaway
negroes.—March 2, 1853.
DAVID TURNER.
The largest and best “hotel” in Norfolk had been closed, shortly
before I was there, from want of sufficient patronage to sustain it,
and I was obliged to go to another house, which, though quite
pretending, was shamefully kept. The landlord paid scarcely the
smallest attention to the wants of his guests, turned his back when
inquiries were made of him, and replied insolently to complaints and
requests. His slaves were far his superiors in manners and morals;
but, not being one quarter in number what were needed, and
consequently not being able to obey one quarter of the orders that
were given them, their only study was to disregard, as far as they
would be allowed to, all requisitions upon their time and labour. The
smallest service could only be obtained by bullying or bribing. Every
clean towel that I got during my stay was a matter of special
negotiation.
I was first put in a very small room, in a corner of the house, next
under the roof. The weather being stormy, and the roof leaky, water
was frequently dripping from the ceiling upon the bed and driving in
at the window, so as to stand in pools upon the floor. There was no
fire-place in the room; the ladies’ parlour was usually crowded by
ladies and then friends, among whom I had no acquaintance, and,
as it was freezing cold, I was obliged to spend most of my time in the
stinking bar-room, where the landlord, all the time, sat with his boon
companions, smoking and chewing and talking obscenely.
This crew of old reprobates frequently exercised their indignation
upon Mrs. Stowe, and other “Infidel abolitionists;” and, on Sunday,
having all attended church, afterwards mingled with their ordinary
ribaldry laudations of the “evangelical” character of the sermons they
had heard.
On the night I arrived, I was told that I would be provided, the next
morning, with a room in which I could have a fire, and a similar
promise was given me every twelve hours, for five days, before I
obtained it; then, at last, I had to share it with two strangers.
When I left, the same petty sponging operation was practised upon
me as at Petersburg. The breakfast, for which half a dollar had been
paid, was not ready until an hour after I had been called; and, when
ready, consisted of cold salt fish; dried slices of bread and tainted
butter; coffee, evidently made the day before and half re-warmed; no
milk, the milkman not arriving so early in the morning, the servant
said; and no sooner was I seated than the choice was presented to
me, by the agitated book-keeper, of going without such as this, or of
losing the train, and so being obliged to stay in the house twenty-four
hours longer.
Of course I dispensed with the breakfast, and hurried off with the
porter, who was to take my baggage on a wheelbarrow to the station.
The station was across the harbour, in Portsmouth. Notwithstanding
all the haste I could communicate to him, we reached the ferry-
landing just as the boat left, too late by three seconds. I looked at my
watch; it lacked but twenty minutes of the time at which the landlord
and the book-keeper and the breakfast-table waiter and the railroad
company’s advertisements had informed me that the train left.
“Nebber mine, massa,” said the porter, “dey won’t go widout ’ou—
Baltimore boat haant ariv yet; dey doan go till dat come in, sueh.”
Somewhat relieved by this assurance, and by the arrival of others at
the landing, who evidently expected to reach the train, I went into the
market and got a breakfast from the cake and fruit stalls of the
negro-women.
In twenty minutes the ferry-boat returned, and after waiting some
time at the landing, put out again; but when midway across the
harbour, the wheels ceased to revolve, and for fifteen minutes we
drifted with the tide. The fireman had been asleep, the fires had got
low, and the steam given out. I observed that the crew, including the
master or pilot, and the engineer, were all negroes.
We reached the railroad station about half an hour after the time at
which the train should have left. There were several persons,
prepared for travelling, waiting about it, but there was no sign of a
departing train, and the ticket-office was not open. I paid the porter,
sent him back, and was added to the number of the waiters.
The delay was for the Baltimore boat, which arrived in an hour after
the time the train was advertised, unconditionally, to start, and the
first forward movement was more than an hour and a half behind
time. A brakeman told me this delay was not very unusual, and that
an hour’s waiting might be commonly calculated upon with safety.
The distance from Portsmouth to Welden, N.C., eighty miles, was
run in three hours and twenty minutes—twenty-five miles an hour.
The road, which was formerly a very poor and unprofitable one, was
bought up a few years ago, mainly, I believe, by Boston capital, and
reconstructed in a substantial manner. The grades are light, and
there are few curves. Fare, 2¾ cents a mile.
At a way-station a trader had ready a company of negroes, intended
to be shipped South; but the “servants’ car” being quite full already,
they were obliged to be left for another train. As we departed from
the station, I stood upon the platform of the rear car with two other
men. One said to the other:—
“That’s a good lot of niggers.”
“Damn’d good; I only wish they belonged to me.”
I entered the car, and took a seat, and presently they followed, and
sat near me. Continuing their conversation thus commenced, they
spoke of their bad luck in life. One appeared to have been a bar-
keeper; the other an overseer. One said the highest wages he had
ever been paid were two hundred dollars a year, and that year he
hadn’t laid up a cent. Soon after, the other, speaking with much
energy and bitterness, said:—
“I wish to God, old Virginny was free of all the niggers.”
“It would be a good thing if she was.”
“Yes, sir; and, I tell you, it would be a damn’d good thing for us poor
fellows.”
“I reckon it would, myself.”
When we stopped at Weldon, a man was shouting from a stage-

coach, “Passengers for Gaston! Hurry up! Stage is waiting!” As he
repeated this the third time, I threw up to him my two valises, and
proceeded to climb to the box, to take my seat.
“You are in a mighty hurry, aint ye?”
“Didn’t you say the stage was waiting?”
“If ye’r goin’ ter get any dinner to-day, better get it here; won’t have
much other chance. Be right smart about it, too.”
“Then you are not going yet?”
“You can get yer dinner, if ye want to.”
“You’ll call me, will you, when you are ready to go?”
“I shan’t go without ye, ye needn’t be afeard—go ’long in, and get yer
dinner; this is the place, if anywar;—don’t want to go without yer
dinner, do ye?”
Before arriving at Weldon, a handbill, distributed by the proprietors of
this inn, had been placed in my hands, from which I make the
following extracts:—
“We pledge our word of honour, as gentlemen, that if the
fare at our table be inferior to that on the table of our
enterprising competitor, we will not receive a cent from the
traveller, but relinquish our claims to pay, as a merited
forfeit, for what we would regard as a wanton imposition
upon the rights and claims of the unsuspecting traveller.
“We have too much respect for the Ladies of our House, to
make even a remote allusion to their domestic duties in a
public circular. It will not however, be regarded indelicate
in us to say, that the duties performed by them have been,
and are satisfactory to us, and, as far as we know, to the
public. And we will only add, in this connection, that we
take much pleasure in superintending both our “Cook-
House” and Table in person, and in administering in
person to the wants of our guests.
“We have made considerable improvements in our House
of late, and those who wish to remain over at Weldon, will
find, with us, airy rooms clean beds, brisk fires, and
attentive and orderly servants, with abundance of FRESH
OYSTERS during the season, and every necessary and
luxury that money can procure.
“It is not our wish to deceive strangers nor others; and if,
on visiting our House, they do not find things as here
represented, they can publish us to the world as
impostors, and the ignominy will be ours.”
Going into the house, I found most of the passengers by the train at
dinner, and the few negro boys and girls in too much of a hurry to
pay attention to any one in particular. The only palatable viand within
my reach was some cold sweet potatoes; of these I made a slight
repast, paid the landlord, who stood like a sentry in the doorway, half
a dollar, and in fifteen minutes, by my watch, from the time I had
entered, went out, anxious to make sure of my seat on the box, for
the coach was so small that but one passenger could be
conveniently carried outside. The coach was gone.
“O, yes, sir,” said the landlord, hardly disguising his satisfaction;
“gone—yes, sir, some time ago; you was in to dinner, was you, sir—
pity! you’ll have to stay over till to-morrow now, won’t you?”
“I suppose so,” said I, hardly willing to give up my intention to sleep
in Raleigh that night, even to secure a clean bed and fresh oysters.
“Which road does the stage go upon?”
“Along the county road.”
“Which is that—this way through the woods?”
“Yes, sir.—Carried off your baggage did he?—Pity! Suppose he
forgot you. Pity!”
“Thank you—yes, I suppose he did. Is it a pretty good road?”
“No, sir, ’taint first-rate—good many pretty bad slews. You might go
round by the Petersburg Railroad, to-morrow. You’d overtake your
baggage at Gaston.”
“Thank you. It was not a very fast team, I know. I’m going to take a
little run; and, if I shouldn’t come back before night, you needn’t keep
a bed for me. Good day, sir.”
In about half an hour I overhauled the coach: as I came up, the
driver hailed me—
“Hallo! that you?”
“Why did not you wait for me, or call me when you wanted to go, as
you promised?”
“Reckoned yer was inside—didn’t look in, coz I asked if ’twas all
right, and somebody, this ’ere gentleman here”—[who had got my
seat]—“‘Yes,’ says he, ‘all right;’ so I reckoned ’twas, and driv along.
Mustn’t blame me. Ortn’t to be so long swallerin’ yer dinner—mind,
next time!”
The road was as bad as anything under the name of a road can be
conceived to be. Wherever the adjoining swamps, fallen trees,
stumps, and plantation fences would admit of it, the coach was
driven, with a great deal of dexterity, out of the road. When the
wheels sunk in the mud, below the hubs, we were sometimes
requested to get out and walk. An upset seemed every moment
inevitable. At length, it came; and the driver, climbing on to the upper
side, opened the door, and asked—
“Got mixed up some in here then, didn’t ye? Ladies, hurt any? Well,
come, get out here; don’t want to stay here all night I reckon, do ye?
—Aint nothing broke, as I see. We’ll right her right up. Nary durn’d
rail within a thousan’ mile, I don’t s’pose; better be lookin’ roun’; got
to get somethin’ for a pry.”
In four hours after I left the hotel at Weldon, the coach reached the
bank of the Roanoke, a distance of fourteen miles, and stopped.
“Here we are,” said the driver, opening the door.
“Where are we—not in Gaston?”
“Durned nigh it. That ere’s Gaston, over thar; and you jast holler, and
they’ll come over arter you in the boat.”
Gaston was a mile above us, and on the other side of the river.
Nearly opposite was a house, and a scow drawn up on the beach;
the distance across the river was, perhaps, a quarter of a mile. When
the driver had got the luggage off, he gathered his reins, and said—
“Seems to me them ther gol-durned lazy niggers aint a goin’ to come
over arter you now; if they won’t you’d better go up to the railroad
bridge, some of ye, and get a boat, or else go down here to Free
Town; some of them cussed free niggers ’ll be glad of the job, I no
doubt.”
“But, confound it, driver! you are not going to leave us here, are you?
we paid to be carried to Gaston.”
“Can’t help it; you are clus to Gaston, any how, and if any man thinks
he’s goin’ to hev me drive him up to the bridge to-night, he’s
damnably mistaken, he is, and I aint a goin’ to do it not for no man, I
ain’t.”
And away he drove, leaving us, all strangers, in a strange country,
just at the edge of night, far from any house, to “holler.”
The only way to stop him was to shoot him; and, as we were all good
citizens, and travelled with faith in the protection of the law, and not
like knights-errant, armed for adventure, we could not do that.
Good citizens? No, we were not; for we have all, to this day,
neglected to prosecute the fellow, or his employers. It would, to be
sure, have cost us ten times any damages we should have been
awarded; but, if we had been really good citizens, we should have
been as willing to sacrifice the necessary loss, as knights-errant of
old were to risk life to fight bloody giants. And, until many of us can
have the nobleness to give ourselves the trouble and expense of
killing off these impudent highwaymen of our time, at law, we have
all got to suffer in their traps and stratagems.
We soon saw the “gol-durned lazy niggers” come to their scow, and
after a scrutiny of our numbers, and a consultation among
themselves, which evidently resulted in the conclusion that the job
wouldn’t pay, go back.
When it began to grow dark, leaving me as a baggage-guard, the
rest of the coach’s company walked up the bank of the river, and
crossed by a railroad bridge to Gaston. One of them afterwards
returned with a gang of negroes, whom he had hired, and a large
freight-boat, into which, across the snags which lined the shore, we
passed all the baggage. Among the rest, there were some very large
and heavy chests, belonging to two pretty women, who were moving,
with their effects; and, although they remained in our company all the
next day, they not only neglected to pay their share of the boat and
negro-hire, but forgot to thank us, or even gratefully to smile upon
us, for our long toil in the darkness for them.
Working up the swollen stream of the Roanoke, with setting-poles
and oars, we at length reached Gaston. When I bought my tickets at
the station in Portsmouth, I said, “I will take tickets to any place this
side of Raleigh at which I can arrive before night. I wish to avoid
travelling after dark.” “You can go straight through to Raleigh, before
dark,” said the clerk. “You are sure of that?” “Yes, sir.” On reaching
Gaston, I inquired at what time the train for Raleigh had passed: “At
three o’clock.”
According to the advertisement, it should have passed at two
o’clock; and, under the most favourable circumstances, it could not
have been possible for us, leaving Portsmouth at the time we did, to
reach Gaston before four o’clock, or Raleigh in less than twenty-
eight hours after the time promised. The next day, I asked one of the
railroad men how often the connection occurred, which is advertised
in the Northern papers, as if it were a certain thing to take place at
Gaston. “Not very often, sir; it hain’t been once, in the last two
weeks.” Whenever the connection is not made, all passengers whom
these railroad freebooters have drawn into their ambush, are obliged
to remain over a day, at Gaston; for, as is to be supposed, with such
management, the business of the road will support but one train a
day.
The route by sea, from Baltimore to Portsmouth, and thence by
these lines, is advertised as the surest, cheapest, and most
expeditious route to Raleigh. Among my stage companions, were
some who lived beyond Raleigh. This was Friday. They would now
not reach Raleigh till Saturday night, and such as could not
conscientiously travel on Sunday, would be detained from home two
days longer than if they had come the land route. One of them lived
some eighty miles beyond Raleigh, and intended to proceed by a
coach, which was to leave Saturday morning. He would probably be
now detained till the following Wednesday, as the coach left Raleigh
but twice a week.
The country from Portsmouth to Gaston, eighty miles, partly in
Virginia, and partly in North Carolina, is almost all pine forest, or
cypress swamp; and on the little land that is cultivated, I saw no
indication of any other crop than maize. The soil is light and poor.
Between Weldon and Gaston there are heavier soils, and we passed
several cotton fields, and planters’ mansions. On the low, flat lands
bordering the banks of the Roanoke, the soil is of the character of
that of James River, fine, fertile, mellow loam; and the maize crop
seemed to have been heavy.
Gaston is a village of some twenty houses, shops, and cabins,
besides the railroad storehouses, the hotel, and a nondescript
building, which may be either a fancy barn, or a little church, getting
high. From the manner in which passengers are forced, by the
management of the trains arriving here, to patronize it, the hotel, I
presume, belongs to the railroad companies. It is ill-kept, but affords
some entertainment from its travesty of certain metropolitan
vulgarities. I was chummed with a Southern gentleman, in a very
small room. Finding the sheets on both our beds had been soiled by
previous occupants, he made a row about it with the servants, and,
after a long delay, had them changed; then observing that it was
probably the mistress’s fault, and not the servants’, he paid the
negro, whom he had been berating, for his trouble.
Among our inside passengers, in the stage-coach, was a free
coloured woman; she was treated in no way differently from the
white ladies. My room-mate said this was entirely customary at the
South, and no Southerner would ever think of objecting to it.
Notwithstanding which, I have known young Southerners to get very
angry because negroes were not excluded from the public
conveyances in which they had taken passage themselves, at the
North; and I have always supposed that when they were so
excluded, it was from fear of offending Southern travellers, more
than anything else.[25]

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Agricultural mechanics : fundamentals

and applications 7th Edition Ray V.

Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications – Ebook

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: Fundamentals

Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications,

Fluid Mechanics : fundamentals and applications 4 in SI

Quantum Mechanics 3rd Edition Nouredine Zettili

Mechanics Of Materials 7th Edition Beer

Imides : medicinal, agricultural, synthetic

Munson, Young and Okiishi's Fundamentals of Fluid

Ray V. Herren, Ed.D.

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Printed in the United States of America

section 1 exploring careers in Agricultural Mechanics

section 2 using the Agricultural Mechanics shop

section 3 hand Woodworking and Metalworking

section 4 Power tools in the Agricultural Mechanics shop

section 5 Project Planning

section 6 tool Fitting

Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Section 8 Arc Welding

Section 10 Power Mechanics

Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Appendix A Projects 700

Section 1 Exploring Careers in Agricultural Mechanics

Section 2 Using the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Section 3 Hand Woodworking and Metalworking

Fastening with Rivets 192

Section 4 Power Tools in the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Section 5 Project Planning

Calculating Board Feet 292

Section 6 Tool Fitting

Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Section 8 Arc Welding

Welding in Various Positions 406

Section 10 Power Mechanics

Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Wiring a Switch and Light 526

Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Pouring, Finishing, and Curing Concrete 633

Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Appendix A Projects 700

The Precision Exam

Unit 10: Fastening Wood Unit 16: Adjusting and

Unit 12: Identifying, Marking,

Unit 13: Fastening Metal Units 19 and 20

maintenance of tires (tire gauge); cleaning grease Unit 37: Plumbing

Unit 35: Electronics in Unit 41: Planning and

presentation for each unit available to accompany

Marshall Gerbitz Nikki Reed

Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals and

• Caution! features indicate safety precautions

• An English–Spanish glossary with over 425

Objective Terms to Know

Photo by John Deere

maintenance of modern farm machinery. Also, con-

the construction and maintenance of buildings that