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DAVID HUDDART & TIM STOTT
Adventure
Tourism
Environmental
Impacts and
Management
Adventure Tourism
David Huddart • Tim Stott
Adventure Tourism
Environmental Impacts and
Management
David Huddart Tim Stott
Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool John Moores University
Liverpool, UK Liverpool, UK
ISBN 978-3-030-18622-7 ISBN 978-3-030-18623-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover illustration: David Merron Photography/gettyimages
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their wives, Silvia and Debbie for their
patience and tolerance for understanding that it takes many hours to compile
a book such as this. Over many years the Outdoor Education students of
Liverpool John Moores University have provided an inspiration for the
authors in many ways. David Huddart would like to thank Emeritus Professor
Michael Hambrey; Verena Starke of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie
Institution of Washington; Soffia Kristin Jonsdottir of Visit Myvatn; Thomas
Olsen of North Safari Outfitters, Kangerlussuaq and Ralf Rolestshek for per-
mission to use some of their visual material to considerably enhance the text.
Tim Stott would like to thank his son Ewan Stott for providing a significant
number of the photographs used in the chapters on the Andes and Australia.
v
Contents
1 What Is Adventure Tourism?�� 1

1.1 Introduction�� 1
1.2 Global Figures for Tourism and the Adventure Sector �� 2
1.3 Consumer Trends�� 2
1.4 Adventure Tourism�� 2
1.4.1 Growth in Demand�� 5
1.5 Ecotourism�� 6
1.6 Other Popular Forms of Tourism that Share Characteristics
with Adventure Tourism�� 7
1.7 Concluding Remarks�� 8
References�� 9
2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica �� 11
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism�� 12
2.3 Growing Numbers�� 16
2.4 A Summary of IAATO Member Antarctic Tourism Trends�� 17
2.5 Types of Tourism�� 18
2.5.1 Cruise Ship Tourism�� 18
2.5.1.1 Industry Self-Regulation�� 19
2.5.2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica�� 21
2.5.3 Land-Based Commercial Tourism�� 22
2.5.4 Last Chance Tourism�� 23
2.5.5 Wildlife Tourism �� 23
2.5.6 Unique Environment Tourism�� 24
2.5.7 Luxury Tourism�� 24
2.5.8 Market Diversification�� 25
2.6 Impacts of Antarctic Adventure Tourism�� 25
2.6.1 Tourism Effects on Penguins �� 26
2.6.2 Whale Behavioural Modification in the Presence of
Whale-Watching Vessels (See Further Discussion
in Fox 2014)�� 28
2.6.2.1 Introduction�� 28
2.6.2.2 Is Anthropogenic Noise a Problem?�� 30
2.6.2.3 Collisions with Whales�� 30
2.6.2.4 Potential Benefits to Whales from Antarctic
Tourism�� 30
vii
viii Contents
2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations�� 31

2.6.4 Organisms that are Transported to Antarctica:
Invasion by Non-Indigenous Species�� 32
2.6.5 Ship Accidents�� 34
2.6.6 Visitor Impacts on Historical and Archaeological Sites�� 34
2.7 The Management of Antarctic Tourism�� 37
2.7.1 The Role of IAATO�� 37
2.7.2 Governance and Regulations�� 39
2.7.2.1 The Antarctic Treaty System�� 39
2.7.2.2 The Madrid Protocol (1991)�� 39
2.7.2.3 Compliance and Enforcement�� 40
2.7.3 The Polar Code �� 41
2.7.4 Difficulties in Reaching Agreement in a
Consensus-Based System�� 43
2.7.5 Lack of Gatekeeper Mechanisms�� 44
2.7.6 Visitor Rights�� 45
References�� 46
3 The Arctic Islands: Svalbard and Iceland �� 51
3.2 The Arctic Islands �� 53
3.2.1 Svalbard�� 53
3.2.1.1 Adventure Tourism Environmental Impacts
in Svalbard �� 56
3.2.1.2 Environmental Impacts on Vegetation �� 58
3.2.1.3 Introduction of Seeds and Alien Plant
Species �� 59
3.2.1.4 Environmental Impacts on Fauna�� 59
3.2.1.5 Environmental Impact of Snowmobiles�� 63
3.2.1.6 Tourism Impacts on Arctic Foxes�� 64
3.2.1.7 Environmental Impacts on Historical Sites
and Cultural Remains�� 65
3.2.1.8 Geological Sites �� 67
3.2.2 Management of Outdoor Recreation, Tourism and
the Environment in Svalbard�� 68
3.2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Tourism in Svalbard�� 71
3.3 Adventure Tourism in Iceland�� 72
3.3.1 Introduction�� 72
3.3.2 Types of Adventure Tourism in Iceland�� 77
3.3.2.1 Horse-Based Tourism�� 77
3.3.2.2 Hiking and Trampling Pressure �� 80
3.3.2.3 Off-Road Vehicle Impacts�� 81
3.3.2.4 Introduction of Invasive Plants�� 82
3.3.3 Glacier Tourism�� 84
3.3.4 Diving and Snorkelling �� 86
3.3.5 Wilderness Tourism�� 87
3.3.6 Volcanic Tourism�� 88
3.3.7 Whale-Watching Tourism �� 90
Contents ix
3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

North-West Iceland �� 92
3.3.9 Management of the Outdoor Recreational Impacts�� 94
References�� 96
4 Adventure Tourism in the Russian Arctic�� 101
4.2 Regional Areas of Interest for Adventure Tourism �� 102
4.3 Tourist Numbers�� 104
4.4 Tourism to the Franz Josef Land Archipelago and Novaya
Zemyla�� 106
4.4.1 Problems Related to the Development of Tourism
in FJL�� 111
4.4.2 Entry Permits�� 111
4.4.3 Remoteness and Logistics�� 113
4.4.4 High Price of Cruises�� 114
4.4.5 Lack of Qualified Personnel and Lack of Research�� 114
4.4.6 Chaotic System of Visits �� 114
4.4.7 Lack of Ship Infrastructure �� 115
References�� 119
5 Adventure Tourism in Greenland�� 121
5.2 Environmental Impact of Adventure Tourism�� 126
5.3 Examples of the Potential Development of Wildlife Viewing
around Kangerlussuaq�� 127
5.3.1 Peregrine Falcon Viewing �� 127
5.3.2 Other Adventure Tourism Developments in
Kangerlussuaq�� 136
6 Adventure Tourism in the Canadian Arctic�� 141
6.2 Definition of the Arctic in Canada�� 142
6.3 Tourism Numbers�� 144
6.3.1 North West Territory Tourism Numbers �� 145
6.3.2 Tourism Numbers in the Yukon�� 148
6.3.3 Tourist Numbers in Nunavut�� 148
6.3.4 The Strengths/Weaknesses/Opportunities/Threats
Facing Nunavut Tourism�� 148
6.4 Impacts of Adventure Tourism on Wildlife�� 149
6.4.1 Polar Bear Hunting �� 149
6.4.2 Polar Bear Viewing �� 154
6.4.3 Musk Oxen: Giardia in Musk Oxen on Banks Island �� 157
6.5 Marine Mammals and the Potential Effects of Adventure
Tourism �� 158
6.5.1 Beluga Whales (Delphinapterus leucas)�� 159
6.5.2 Conflicts with Traditional Inuit Beluga Hunting and
Adventure Tourism�� 161
6.5.3 Human Impacts on Narwhal (Monodon monocerus)�� 163
x Contents
6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

(Phoca groenlandica) �� 164
6.5.5 Recreational Impacts on Birds�� 165
6.6 Impacts on Terrestrial Vegetation�� 166
6.7 Aboriginal (Indigenous) Tourism�� 167
6.8 Canadian Arctic Pleasure Craft Tourism�� 171
6.8.1 Management Concerns Regarding Pleasure Craft
Travel in the Canadian Arctic as Identified by
Survey of Interviewees�� 172
6.9 Canadian Arctic Cruise Tourism �� 174
6.10 Maintenance of Archaeological Sites�� 175
7 Adventure Tourism in Alaska �� 183
7.2 Adventure Tourism Impacts on Wildlife�� 187
7.2.1 Introduction�� 187
7.2.2 American Black Bears (Ursus americanus) and
Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)�� 188
7.2.2.1 Black Bears (Ursus americanus) �� 189
7.2.2.2 Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)�� 189
7.2.2.3 Winter Recreation and Brown Bears�� 192
7.2.2.4 Bear-Viewing Tourism �� 194
7.2.2.5 Management Approaches to Lessening the
Recreational Impacts on Bears�� 195
7.3 Recreational Impacts on Dall Sheep (Ovis dalli)�� 195
7.4 Winter Recreation Disturbances on Ungulates: Elk (Cervus
canadensis), Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), Musk Oxen
(Ovibos moschatus), White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus
virginianus), Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and
Moose (Alces alces)�� 196
7.4.1 Recreation Impacts on Mountain Caribou in British
Columbia and by Extension in Alaska�� 199
7.4.1.1 Snowmobiling�� 199
7.4.1.2 Heli-Skiing�� 201
7.4.1.3 Snow-Cat Skiing�� 201
7.4.1.4 Backcountry Skiing or Ski Touring �� 201
7.4.1.5 Management Recommendations and
Potential Guidelines �� 201
7.4.1.6 Caribou Response to Recreational Aircraft�� 202
7.4.1.7 Caribou Response to Tourist Buses �� 202
7.5 Recreational Impacts on Bird Populations�� 203
7.5.1 Impacts of Recreational Boating on Bald Eagles
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) �� 203
7.5.2 Impacts on Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus
bachmani) �� 204
7.5.3 Impacts of Boating and Campgrounds on Marbled
Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) �� 205
7.5.4 Impacts of Cruise Ships in Glacier Bay, Alaska, on
Murrelet Populations�� 205
Contents xi
7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts�� 207

7.7 Recreational Effects on Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) �� 209
7.8 Recreational Impact on Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina)�� 210
7.9 Recreational Impacts Caused by Camping �� 212
7.9.1 Hiking Trampling Pressure on the Tundra�� 213
7.9.2 Informal Trails in the Arctic Wildlife Refuges �� 216
7.9.3 Invasive Plants Spread along Trails�� 220
7.10 Impacts of Recreational All-Terrain, Off-Road Vehicles,
with Particular Reference to the Wrangell-St. Elias
National Park and Preserve �� 222
7.11 Impacts of Helicopter-Supported Recreation�� 226
7.11.1 Impacts on Wildlife�� 226
7.11.2 Impact on Mountain Goats�� 227
7.11.3 Other Wildlife �� 228
7.11.4 Wildlife Impact Mitigation �� 229
7.11.5 Impacts on Recreational Cabins and Rural Areas�� 229
7.11.6 Impacts on Recreationists and Recreation Areas�� 230
7.12 Impact of Climbing on Mount McKinley: Human Waste and
Faecal Bacteria�� 230
7.13 Recreational Impacts of Sport Fishing�� 232
7.14 Recreational Gold-Panning Impacts �� 233
7.15 Some Recreational Impacts on Native Human Populations �� 233
8 Adventure Tourism in the Himalayas�� 241
8.2 Types of Adventure Tourism �� 243
8.3 Numbers Taking Part in Adventure Tourism in the
Himalayas �� 247
8.3.1 India�� 247
8.3.2 Nepal �� 247
8.3.2.1 Mountaineering in Nepal �� 249
8.3.2.2 History of Climbing in Nepal�� 249
8.3.2.3 Trekking �� 252
8.3.3 Bhutan �� 253
8.4 Rafting, Canyoning and Bungee Jumping�� 253
8.5 Religious and Cultural Tourism�� 255
8.5.1 Types of Religious Tourism�� 255
8.5.1.1 Pilgrimages�� 255
8.5.1.2 Monastery Visits and Guest Staying�� 255
8.5.1.3 Missionaries �� 256
8.5.1.4 Importance of Religious Tourism in Nepal�� 256
8.5.2 An Example of Religious Tourism from Sikkim�� 256
8.5.3 The Impact of the Earthquakes (2015) on the Tourism
Sector of Nepal �� 257
8.6 Environmental Impacts Related to Tourism and in Particular
8.6.1 Trail Erosion �� 257
8.6.2 Introduction of Non-Native Plants�� 259
xii Contents
8.6.3 Waste Issues�� 260

8.6.4 Disposal of Human Waste�� 262
8.6.4.1 Human Waste Disposal: An Example of
Bio-Toilets in the Himalayas �� 264
8.6.4.2 The Mount Everest Biogas Project�� 264
8.7 Deforestation�� 265
8.7.1 The Theory of Himalayan Environmental
Degradation�� 266
8.7.1.1 What is the Reality of this Environmental
Degradation?�� 266
8.8 Impacts of Recreational Fishing �� 268
8.9 Ski Developments and Potential Environmental Damage�� 272
8.10 Attempts to Manage Tourism�� 273
8.10.1 Banning of Tourism and the Development of Eco
Development Committees�� 273
8.10.2 Khangchendzonga Conservation Committee�� 275
8.10.3 Zero-Waste Trekking�� 276
8.10.4 Ecotourism Service Providers Association of
Yuksam (ESPAY)�� 277
8.10.5 Environmental Education Activities �� 277
8.11 Bhutan’s Tourism Development Policy�� 278
8.12 The Annapurna Conservation Area Project�� 278
8.12.1 Management Approaches and Objectives �� 279
8.12.2 Institutional Arrangements�� 280
8.12.3 Challenges�� 281
8.13 Codes of Conduct, Ethical Codes and Minimum-Impact
Codes for Tourists and Expeditions�� 282
8.13.1 The Nanda Devi Declaration�� 284
9 The Andes �� 291
9.1 Definitions�� 292
9.1.1 Geography of the Andes�� 293
9.1.2 Geology of the Andes�� 293
9.1.2.1 Orogeny�� 293
9.1.2.2 Volcanism�� 294
9.1.2.3 Ore Deposits and Evaporates �� 294
9.1.3 Climate and Hydrology of the Andes�� 294
9.1.4 Glaciers of the Andes�� 295
9.1.5 Flora of the Andes�� 295
9.1.6 Fauna of the Andes�� 297
9.1.7 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in the Andes�� 297
9.2 Adventure Tourist Attractions in the Andes�� 300
9.2.1 Venezuela�� 300
9.2.2 Colombia�� 300
9.2.2.1 The Cocora Valley�� 302
9.2.2.2 Trek to Ciudad Perdida�� 302
Contents xiii
9.2.3 Ecuador �� 302

9.2.3.1 Mount Chimborazo�� 302
9.2.3.2 Hike the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador�� 303
9.2.3.3 The Galapagos Islands �� 303
9.2.4 Peru �� 306
9.2.4.1 The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu�� 306
9.2.4.2 The Salkantay Trek�� 306
9.2.4.3 Colca Canyon and the Andean Condors�� 306
9.2.4.4 Huascarán and Yungay �� 306
9.2.5 Bolivia�� 307
9.2.5.1 Lake Titicaca�� 307
9.2.5.2 Salar Uyuni�� 309
9.2.5.3 Death Road Mountain Bike Tour �� 309
9.2.6 Chile�� 309
9.2.6.1 Torres del Paine National Park�� 309
9.2.6.2 The Atacama Desert�� 312
9.2.7 Argentina: Aconcagua�� 312
9.3 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in the Andes�� 312
9.3.1 Aconcagua Case Study �� 314
9.3.1.1 Visitor Numbers �� 314
9.3.1.2 Visitor Impacts on Trails and Vegetation �� 314
9.3.1.3 Human Waste on Aconcagua �� 317
9.3.2 Tourist Threats to Birds and Breeding
Andean Condors�� 318
9.4 Management and Education�� 319
9.4.1 Trails, Soil and Vegetation�� 320
9.4.2 Human Waste�� 321
9.4.3 Birds�� 321
10 East Africa�� 325
10.2 Top Ten Adventure Tourism Attractions in East Africa�� 327
10.2.1 Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya�� 327
10.2.2 Omo River Region, Ethiopia�� 330
10.2.3 Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda�� 330
10.2.4 Zanzibar, Tanzania�� 331
10.2.5 Serengeti National Park, Tanzania�� 331
10.2.6 Watamu, Kenya �� 331
10.2.7 Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania�� 332
10.2.8 Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania �� 333
10.2.9 Lalibela, Ethiopia�� 335
10.2.10 Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya�� 336
10.3 Other Important East Africa Adventure Tourism
Attractions Not in This Top Ten List�� 337
10.3.1 Murchison Falls National Park �� 337
10.3.2 Kidepo Valley National Park�� 337
10.3.3 The Rwenzori Mountains�� 337
xiv Contents
10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda�� 338

10.3.5 Mount Kenya National Park�� 338
10.3.6 Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe�� 338
10.4 Environmental Impact�� 338
10.4.1 Wildlife Safaris �� 347
10.4.1.1 Balloon Flights in the Maasai Mara�� 349
10.4.1.2 The Mountain Gorilla�� 349
11 Australia and New Zealand�� 355
11.2 Definitions�� 356
11.2.1 Australia�� 356
11.2.1.1 Geography of Australia�� 357
11.2.1.2 Geology of Australia�� 358
11.2.2 Climate and Hydrology of Australia �� 359
11.2.3 Flora and Fauna of Australia�� 359
11.2.4 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in Australia�� 360
11.2.5 Tourism in Australia�� 361
11.2.6 New Zealand �� 361
11.2.6.1 Geography of New Zealand�� 362
11.2.6.2 Geology of New Zealand�� 363
11.2.6.3 Climate and Hydrology of
New Zealand�� 364
11.2.6.4 Flora and Fauna of New Zealand�� 364
11.2.6.5 Population, Human Activity and
Economy in New Zealand �� 365
11.2.6.6 Tourism in New Zealand �� 365
11.3 Adventure Tourist Attractions in Australia and
New Zealand �� 366
11.3.1 Australia�� 366
11.3.1.1 Climb the Sydney Harbour Bridge�� 366
11.3.1.2 Four-Wheel Drive on Fraser Island,
Queensland�� 366
11.3.1.3 Sail in the Whitsundays, Queensland�� 368
11.3.1.4 Jet Boat Through the Horizontal Falls,
Western Australia�� 368
11.3.1.5 Snorkel with Whale Sharks at Ningaloo
Reef, Western Australia �� 369
11.3.1.6 The Twelve Apostles, Victoria�� 370
11.3.1.7 Kayak Katherine Gorge (Nitmiluk
National Park), Northern Territory�� 370
11.3.1.8 Surf the Jungle at Cape Tribulation,
Queensland�� 370
11.3.1.9 Drive the Gibb River Road, Western
Australia�� 371
Contents xv
11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

New South Wales �� 371
11.3.1.11 Raft the Franklin River, Tasmania �� 371
11.3.1.12 Travel the Oodnadatta Track, South
Australia�� 371
11.3.1.13 Ski or Snowboard at Falls Creek�� 371
11.3.1.14 Dive with Great White Sharks in Port
Lincoln �� 371
11.3.1.15 Visit Uluru (Ayers Rock) and
the Olgas�� 373
11.3.1.16 Sky Diving �� 373
11.3.1.17 Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling on the
Great Barrier Reef�� 373
11.3.2 New Zealand �� 373
11.3.2.1 Skiing and Heli-Skiing in the
Remarkables�� 376
11.3.2.2 Caving�� 376
11.3.2.3 White Water Kayaking and Rafting �� 376
11.3.2.4 Swim with Dolphins�� 378
11.3.2.5 Whale Watching �� 378
11.3.2.6 Canyoning�� 379
11.3.2.7 Jet Boating �� 379
11.3.2.8 Mountain Biking�� 379
11.3.2.9 Horse-Riding�� 379
11.3.2.10 Hike Through Abel Tasman National
Park�� 380
11.3.2.11 The Fox Glacier �� 380
11.3.2.12 Hooker Lake/Mount Cook �� 380
11.3.2.13 Hiking the Tongariro Crossing; the
Routeburn Track�� 380
11.3.2.14 Visit Taupo Volcanic Zone and Zorb�� 380
11.3.2.15 Off-road Driving/Quad Bike Safaris�� 381
11.3.2.16 Zip Lining�� 381
11.3.2.17 Bungee Jumping�� 381
11.3.2.18 Sky Diving �� 381
11.4 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in
Australia and New Zealand�� 381
11.4.1 High Mountains Case Study: Kosciuszko
and Mount Cook (Aoraki)�� 382
11.4.1.1 Trail Impacts�� 382
11.4.1.2 Mountain Biking and Horse-Riding�� 384
11.4.1.3 Human Waste�� 386
11.4.2 Impacts in the Marine Environment�� 387
11.4.2.1 Whale- and Dolphin-Watching�� 387
11.4.2.2 The Australian Great Barrier Reef�� 389
11.5.1 Managing Trails, Soil and Vegetation �� 392
11.5.2 Managing Human Waste in High Mountains�� 395
xvi Contents
11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching�� 396

11.5.4 Managing Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling�� 397
11.5.5 Managing Boat Tours�� 397
12 Scotland�� 403
12.1.1 History�� 405
12.1.2 Geography�� 406
12.1.3 Geology and Geomorphology�� 406
12.1.4 Climate�� 407
12.1.5 Flora and Fauna�� 407
12.1.6 Population and Economy�� 408
12.2 Adventure Tourism in Scotland�� 409
12.3 Environmental Impact�� 410
12.3.1 Walking/Climbing: Mountain Walks/Treks,
Long Distance Trails, Rock Climbing and
Mountaineering (Including Bothies and
Camping)�� 410
12.3.2 Mountain Biking �� 415
12.3.3 Downhill Skiing�� 416
12.3.4 History and Development of Skiing in Scotland�� 416
12.3.5 Environmental Impacts of Skiing in Scotland�� 419
12.3.5.1 Skiing Impacts on Soils and Vegetation�� 419
12.3.5.2 Skiing Impacts on Water Resources�� 422
12.3.5.3 Ski Development Impacts on Birds and
Mammals �� 422
12.3.5.4 Scottish Skiing and Climate Change �� 424
12.4 Wildlife and Nature Encounters�� 424
12.4.1 Field Sports: Deer, Grouse, and Heather
Moorland�� 425
12.4.2 Impact of Recreation on Fresh Waters:
Salmon Fishing and Water Sports �� 425
12.4.3 Whale and Dolphin Watching �� 426
13 Climate Change and Adventure Tourism�� 437
13.1 Principles of Climate Change �� 438
13.1.1 Glacial Periods�� 439
13.1.2 The Present Climate�� 439
13.2 Future Climate Change �� 443
13.2.1 Predictions, Scenarios and Projections �� 444
13.2.2 Climate Models�� 446
13.2.3 Principal Findings of the UN Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report
(AR5)�� 446
13.3 Effects of Climate Change on Participation Numbers�� 450
Contents xvii
13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Tourism �� 452
13.4.1 Sea Level Rise and Coastal Adventure Tourism �� 454
13.4.2 Future Climate Change and Mountaineering
13.4.2.1 Moving Towards Mountains Without
Snow and Ice?�� 456
13.4.2.2 The Future of Mountaineering
13.4.3 Snow Sports: Skiing and Snow Boarding �� 460
13.4.3.1 Impacts of Future Projected Climate
Change�� 460
13.4.3.2 Do Ski Resorts Need to Become
‘Greener’ for Tourism to Become
Sustainable?�� 463
Index�� 471
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Antarctica�� 12

Fig. 2.2 Ocean Endeavour in Paradise Harbour�� 13
Fig. 2.3A Map referencing the 25 most popular Landing Sites during
the 2014–2015 season on the Antarctic Peninsula ��14
Fig. 2.3B Landsat image showing the Transantarctic Mountains,
East and West Antarctica and sea areas�� 14
Fig. 2.4A Emperor Penguins, the only animals to breed on
Antarctica��15
Fig. 2.4B Adélie Penguin�� 15
Fig. 2.4C Gentoo Penguin�� 15
Fig. 2.4D Adelie penguins and tourist zodiac at Bourdin Island �� 15
Fig. 2.5 Blue Whale�� 29
Fig. 2.6 Weddell Seal. A Weddell Seal at a breathing hole �� 31
Fig. 2.7 Tourist zodiac and a pair of leopard seals in Mikkelsen
Harbour�� 32
Fig. 2.8A Inside Scott’s Discovery Hut at McMurdo Sound �� 36
Fig. 2.8B Provisions brought by Shackleton at Cape Royds �� 36
Fig. 2.8C Cape Royds historic hut built by Shackleton’s expedition
1907–1909�� 36
Fig. 2.9A Abandoned British base at Port Lockroy before
renovation�� 38
Fig. 2.9B Museum at Port Lockroy after Renovation�� 38
Fig. 3.1 Arctic regions�� 52
Fig. 3.2 Svalbard archipelago�� 53
Fig. 3.3 Svalbard glacier and ice bergs�� 54
Fig. 3.4 Ski Touring with sledges�� 55
Fig. 3.5 Wild Camping in Svalbard with a youth group �� 55
Fig. 3.6 Cruise Liner in Longyearbyen, 2001 �� 56
Fig. 3.7 Walrus�� 61
Fig. 3.8 Thermal Springs along the along the Breibogen Fault�� 68
Fig. 3.9 Iceland�� 72
Fig. 3.10 Eyafjallajökull, April 17th 2010. Major ash eruption�� 73
Fig. 3.11 Katla erupting through the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap in 1918��74
Fig. 3.12 Vatnajökull showing many outlet glaciers all around the
ice cap�� 74
Fig. 3.13A Gullfoss, 6th April 2008. The gorge of the river Hvita�� 75
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 3.13B Dettifoss, the largest waterfall in Europe, located in

Jökulsárgljúfur National Park in North-East Iceland�� 75
Fig. 3.14A þingvellir. Painting by þórannin þorláksson in 1900.
Showing Icelandic horses and central rift valley, with a
lake in a fissure�� 76
Fig. 3.14B Northern Lights near Namaskard�� 76
Fig. 3.15 Namafjell geothermal area�� 89
Fig. 4.1 Russian Arctic from the north of Scandinavia in the
west, through Novaya Zemyla, Franz Josef Land to the
Kamchatka Peninsula in the east�� 102
Fig. 4.2 Brown Bear, Kamchatka Peninsula�� 103
Fig. 4.3 Annual Number of Tourists in Kamchatka�� 104
Fig. 4.4A The Uzon and Geyzernaya calderas, Kamchatka�� 105
Fig. 4.4B Volcanoes of Kamchatka�� 105
Fig. 4.5A Franz Josef Land�� 106
Fig. 4.5B Novaya Zemyla, July 29th 2003�� 106
Fig. 4.6 Russian Nuclear Icebreaker Arktika, 26th March 2006��109
Fig. 4.7 Artist’s Depiction of the Snow-covered Hut in which
Nansen and Johansen spent the winter of 1895–6 �� 109
Fig. 5.1 South-West Greenland. Glaciated terrain, rugged scenery
and fjords �� 122
Fig. 5.2 Hvalsey Church, the best preserved church in South-
West Greenland�� 124
Fig. 5.3 Peregrine Falcons. Drawn by John James Audubon for
the book Birds of America, 1827–1838 �� 127
Fig. 5.4 Musk ox herd, near Kangerlussuaq�� 129
Fig. 5.5 Wildlife Management Zones around Kangerlussuaq�� 130
Fig. 5.6 Concession Areas in the Municipality Plan appendix no
7 areas for trophy hunting in Kangerlussuaq �� 131
Fig. 5.7 Musk ox Populations in Greenland�� 133
Fig. 5.8 Hunting zones around Kangerlussuaq �� 135
Fig. 5.9 Ice-Cap Tours, north of Kangerlussuaq �� 137
Fig. 5.10 Dog-Sledding Tours. Dog-sled musher from
Quqertarsuq �� 137
Fig. 6.1 Arctic Region �� 142
Fig. 6.2 Baffin Island�� 143
Fig. 6.3 Ellesmere Island�� 144
Fig. 6.4A Utsingi Point, the eastern arm of the Great Slave Lake,
eastern edge of the proposed Thaydene-Nene National
Park�� 146
Fig. 6.4B Nahinni National Park Reserve, North West Territories,
Virginia Falls (Nailicho)�� 146
Fig. 6.5 Nunivak musk oxen in defensive formation�� 147
Fig. 6.6 Polar Bear�� 150
Fig. 6.7 Polar Bear statue in Churchill, Manitoba�� 155
Fig. 6.8 Beluga Whale�� 159
Fig. 6.9 White Whale and Narwhal (lower image) �� 164
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 6.10 Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida,) The smallest of the Arctic
seals which is common in the Hudson BayN�� 165
Fig. 6.11 Pingos near Tuktoyoyaktuk�� 167
Fig. 6.12 The view from the top of Montana Mountain,
Carcross�� 171
Fig. 6.13 Annual Counts of recorded Pleasure Craft in the
Canadian Arctic, Vessel Count 1990–2012. From
NORDREG Data�� 172
Fig. 6.14 Beechey Island graves of crewman from the 1845
Franklin Northwest passage expedition �� 176
Fig. 7.1A Malaspina Glacier in south-east Alaska�� 184
Fig. 7.1B Agassiz glacier, Libby glacier and Agassiz Lakes �� 184
Fig. 7.2 Augustine Volcano, view from the west, January
12th 2006 �� 185
Fig. 7.3 Black Bear�� 188
Fig. 7.4 Brown Bears at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park,
Alaska�� 194
Fig. 7.5 Dall Sheep lambs on Alaskan clif�� 196
Fig. 7.6 Caribou on Tundra �� 200
Fig. 7.7 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) feeding on whale
carcase�� 203
Fig. 7.8A Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) at Auke
Bay marina, near Juneau�� 206
Fig. 7.8B Juvenile Kittletz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus breviros-
tris), Kachemak Bay, Alaska�� 206
Fig. 7.9 Killer Whales off the south side of Unimak Island,
eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska�� 210
Fig. 7.10 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Brook Range, with
tundra shrub willow �� 217
Fig. 7.11 Impacts of Off-Road vehicles on the study segment of
the Tanada Lake Trail (Wrangell-St. Elias National
Park and Preserve, Alaska). a) Partly vegetated trail
unvegetated trail on mineral soil b) Unvegetated trail
on organic soils with ponding c) Trail stream crossing
and channel initiation point with mineral soil d) Trail
stream crossing and channel initiation point with
organic soil and underlain by shallow permafrost �� 225
Fig. 7.12 Mt. McKinley, North America’s highest mountain�� 231
Fig. 8.1 Himalayas�� 242
Fig. 8.2 K2. Photo by Vittorio Sella on the 1909 Italian
expedition �� 243
Fig. 8.3A Everest from the Rongbuk valley in 1921. Photo by
George Mallory�� 244
Fig. 8.3B Everest from the Rongbuk glacier, 9th November
2005 �� 244
Fig. 8.4 Himalayas mosaic. Taken from the International Space
Station, 28th January 2004�� 245
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal�� 252

Fig. 8.6 Earthquakes in 2015 in Nepal. Epicentres marked by
stars, including the 1833 and 1934 earthquakes�� 258
Fig. 9.1 Map of South America showing the Andes running along
the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific
coast) of the continent�� 292
Fig. 9.2A Paron Lake in Huascaran National Park, Peru with
Pirámide peak (5885 m) and it’s glaciers in the back-
ground�� 296
Fig. 9.2B Glacier flowing east from Nevado Huascarán Sur (6,768
m), Peru�� 296
Fig. 9.3A Local shepherd tends her alpaca a valley adjacent to
Huayna potosi (6088 m) near Tuni Lake, La Paz,
Bolivia �� 298
Fig. 9.3B Chincilla living in moraines at 4900m of the Huayna
potosi West glacier near Tuni Lake, La Paz, Bolivia �� 298
Fig. 9.3C Flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes) at
Salar de Uyuni, amid the Andes in southwest Bolivia,
the world’s largest salt flat �� 298
Fig. 9.3D A hummingbird comes to a feeding station �� 298
Fig. 9.4A Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel, located in
the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru, on a mountain
ridge 2,430 m (7,970 ft) above sea level�� 301
Fig. 9.4B La Paz, Bolivia’s seat of government, is the highest
capital city in the world, at an elevation of approxi-
mately 3,650 m (11,975 ft)�� 301
Fig. 9.5A The Quilotoa is a water-filled caldera and the most
western volcano in the Ecuadorian Andes �� 304
Fig. 9.5B Hiking the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador�� 304
Fig. 9.6A Memorial gardens at Yungay to the 20 000 people killed
in the 1970 Ancash earthquake�� 308
Fig. 9.6B Christ statue at Yungay, memorial to the 20000 people
killed in the 1970 Ancash earthquake�� 308
Fig. 9.7A Vehicle track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �� 310
Fig. 9.7B Railway track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �� 310
Fig. 9.7C Four wheel drive excursions take tourists around the Salar
de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat in Bolivia��310
Fig. 9.8 International tourism receipts of Latin America (in
billions of US dollars) from 2010 to 2017, sorted by
sub-region�� 313
Fig. 9.9 Impacts of recreational use on different environmental
components that have been assessed in the Andes region
(in grey) including the number of studies in relation to
the more general conceptual model of recreation impacts
on the natural environment developed by Wall and
Wright (1977)�� 314
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 9.10A The number of tourists visiting Aconcagua region during

thirteen consecutive tourist seasons �� 315
Fig. 9.10B Mountaineering activity by type: climbing, short and
long trekking�� 315
Fig. 10.1 A: Cheetah, B: Eland, C: Elephant, D: Giraffe, E:
Hippotamus, F: Hyena, G: Two female lions with cub
(right), H: Male lions, I: Vultures, J: Warthog, K: Water
buffalo, L: White Rhinoceros, M: Zebra, N: Thompson’s
Gazelle, O: Impala, P: Ostrich �� 328
Fig. 10.2 A balloon floats above the Serengeti ecosystem�� 332
Fig. 10.3A Trekkers on the Rongai route, Kilimanjaro�� 334
Fig. 10.3B View of Kilimajaro summit from 3500m on the Rongai
route �� 334
Fig. 10.3C Giant groundsel (Dendrosenecio kilimanjari) is found
on the middle slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro�� 334
Fig. 10.3D The rapidly retreating Furtwängler Glacier is near
Kilimanjaro’s summit�� 334
Fig. 10.3E Kilimanjaro’s Uhuru Peak (5893 m) is the highest
summit on Kibo’s crater rim�� 334
Fig. 10.4 Lake Nakuru National Park is best known for its
thousands, sometimes millions of flamingos nesting
along the shores�� 336
Fig. 10.5A Overnight campsite (camp 1) on the Rongai route
showing vegetation damage and soil compaction�� 341
Fig. 10.5B Camp 4 on the upper Rongai route. Note the two
permanent buildings, toilets (right) and their proximity
to the lake�� 341
Fig. 10.5C Trail damage at Horombo Huts on the Marangu route,
Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5D A section of managed trail on the lower part of Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5E A typical section of un-managed trail on the Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5F Kibo camp/huts at 4700m, the last camp before trekkers
make their summit attempt�� 341
Fig. 10.6A Whitewater rafting on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �� 342
Fig. 10.6B Damage to river bank soil and vegetation at a kayak and
raft access point on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �� 342
Fig. 10.7A Balloon flight at dawn on the Maasai Mara, Kenya�� 346
Fig. 10.7B Tractor and trailer being used to manoeuvre a balloon
on the Masai Mara, Kenya�� 346
Fig. 10.7C Post balloon flight breakfast being prepared for guests
on the Maasai Mara, Kenya. Note the number of
vehicles�� 346
Fig. 10.7D Typical on the Maasai Mara safari vehicle. Note how
close it gets to the lions in left of photograph�� 346
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 10.7E Safari vehicles in the Maasai Mara keep in touch with
each other by radio. When a good sighting is made by
one vehicle (in this case it was a cheetah), the others in
the area are called in, thus concentrating damage to soil
and vegetation and causing additional stress to the
animal�� 346
Fig. 11.1A Physical map of Australia�� 357
Fig. 11.1B Political map showing the countries of Australia which
has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland
(QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria
(VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major
mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory
(ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT)�� 357
Fig. 11.2A The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family
Macropodidae (macropods, meaning “large foot”)�� 360
Fig. 11.2B The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal
herbivorous marsupial native to Australia�� 360
Fig. 11.2C Kookaburras are terrestrial tree kingfishers native to
Australia and New Guinea, found in habitats ranging
from humid forest to arid savanna, as well as in subur-
ban areas with tall trees or near running water�� 360
Fig. 11.2D The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is
a megabat native to Australia �� 360
Fig. 11.3A Physical features map of New Zealand�� 362
Fig. 11.3B Map of New Zealand regions (coloured) with territorial
authorities delineated by black lines�� 362
Fig. 11.3C The Lady Knox Geyser in Wai-O-Tapu Thermal area in
New Zealand’s Taupo Volcanic Zone, 27 km south of
Rotorua�� 362
Fig. 11.3D The Hooker Valley in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park
contains a popular walking track which is 5 km long�� 362
Fig. 11.3E Milford Sound is a fiord in the SW of New Zealand’s
South Island within Fiordland National Park, Milford
Sound Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World
Heritage site �� 362
Fig. 11.3F Abel Tasman National Park is a New Zealand national
park located between Golden Bay and Tasman Bay at
the north end of the South Island �� 362
Fig. 11.4 Sydney Harbour Bridge, where tourists are guided to the
134 m “summit”�� 368
Fig. 11.5A Fraser Island is considered to be the largest sand island
in the world�� 369
Fig. 11.5B Fraser Icon Tours 4WD bus taking tourists along its west
coast beach �� 369
Fig. 11.5C Fraser Island’s sandy tracks require 4WD vehicles to get
around�� 369
Fig. 11.5D Sand Island Safaris – a typical adventure tourism
company on Fraser Island�� 369
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 11.5E Fraser Island dingoes are reputedly some of the last
remaining pure dingoes in Eastern Australia �� 369
Fig. 11.6 Falls Creek Alpine Resort is an alpine ski resort in north
eastern Victoria, catering mainly for beginner/intermedi-
ate skiers and boarders �� 372
Fig. 11.7 Shark cage diving from Port Lincoln off South
Australia�� 372
Fig. 11.8A Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is one of Australia’s
most recognisable natural landmarks, great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.8B Kata Tjuta, also known as The Olgas, are rock forma-
tions 25km west of Uluru which has great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.8C Formerly it was popular to climb to the top of Uluru as
can be seen by the light coloured erosion mark in this
photo�� 374
Fig. 11.8D Today visitors are respectfully requested not to climb the
rock to respect the wishes of the Anangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.9 Sky dive over Mission Beach, Queensland�� 375
Fig. 11.10A A typical day cruise to the Great Barrier Reef (from
Cairns). This cruiser has a glass bottom and some have a
glass tank which allows guests to have a semi-submarine
experience�� 376
Fig. 11.10B Scuba divers prepare for their dive onto the coral reef��376
Fig. 11.11A White water rafting is one of New Zealand’s top
attractions�� 376
Fig. 11.11B Jet boats on the Shotover River near Queenstown…. one
of the area’s top attractions�� 376
Fig. 11.11C Whale watching cruise setting off from Kaikoura, 180
km north of Christchurch �� 376
Fig. 11.11D Sperm whale spotted off Kaikoura�� 376
Fig. 11.11E A guided sea kayak tour in the Marlborough Sound,
Abel Tasman National Park �� 376
Fig. 11.11F Zorbing (globe-riding or orbing), seen here at Rotorua,
NZ, is the recreation or sport of rolling downhill inside
an orb, generally made of transparent plastic�� 376
Fig. 11.11G Fox Glacier sign�� 376
Fig. 11.11H Fox Glacier was one of the few glaciers in the world to
be advancing between 1985 and 2009. In 2006 the
average rate of advance was about a metre a week. Since
then there has been a significant retreat �� 376
Fig. 11.11I Sign for the AJ Hackett Ledge Swing above
Queenstown, NZ�� 376
Fig. 11.11J The AJ Hackett Kawarau Bridge Bungee Jump,
Queenstown NZ �� 376
Fig. 11.11K Paragliding over Queenstown, NZ �� 376
Fig. 11.12A Dolphins Up Close vessel in Akaroa Harbour �� 379
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 11.12B Swimmers enter the water with snorkels to ‘swim

with Hector’s dolphins’ in Akaroa Harbour, South
Island, NZ�� 379
Fig. 11.13 One of the principal management responses to deal with
all these visitors on Mt Kosciuszko has been hardening
of tracks�� 383
Fig. 11.14A A 24-h mountain biking event taking place in Victoria,
Australia�� 385
Fig. 11.14B Soil compaction and vegetation damage resulting from a
mountain biking event in Victoria, Australia �� 385
Fig. 11.15 The spread of disease by has been a general concern in
Australia for some time. Here travellers are being asked
to help prevent a fruit fly outbreak by placing fruit in this
bin before they enter the Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone �� 387
Fig. 11.16A Scuba Diving, both for certified and introductory divers
is an option on most tourist cruises�� 391
Fig. 11.16B Many cruises include snorkelling as an option�� 391
Fig. 11.17 Typical minimal impact bushwalking sign in Australia ��393
Fig. 11.18A Mt Warning in New South Wales is a popular destination
for walkers�� 394
Fig. 11.18B The author standing on the ring of raised metal walk-
ways referred to by Pickering and Buckley (2003) on the
summit of Mt Warning, New South Wales�� 394
Fig. 11.19 Pohatu Marine Reserve Sign. A marine reserve is a type
of marine protected area that has legal protection against
fishing or development�� 396
Fig. 12.1 The location of Scotland�� 405
Fig. 12.2 Participation in mountain recreation activities in the last
year by John Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of
Scotland members compared to local residents �� 411
Fig. 12.3 Mountains visited for recreation in the last year by John
Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of Scotland
members�� 411
Fig. 12.4 The spatial distribution of adventure tourism business in
Scotland in 2003�� 412
Fig. 12.5A Location of Scotland’s five ski resorts �� 417
Fig. 12.5B The funicular railway on Cairngorm mountain was
opened in 2001�� 417
Fig. 12.5C Ski tow on Cairngorm mountain with Cairngorm summit
in the background�� 417
Fig. 12.5D The Lecht ski resort, near Tomintoul, Scotland �� 417
Fig. 12.6 Ski demand in Scotland 1980–1998�� 419
Fig. 12.7 Survey of landowners: Uses of the land�� 427
Fig. 13.1 Variation with time of the Vostok ice core isotope
temperature record, Antarctica, as a difference from the
modern surface temperature value of -55.5 oC�� 441
List of Figures xxvii
Fig. 13.2 Global temperature anomaly based on the instrumental

record of global average temperatures as compiled by
NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies�� 441
Fig. 13.3 The history of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra-
tions as directly measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii �� 442
Fig. 13.4 Recent Sea Level Rise. Sea level rise is caused primarily
by two factors related to global warming: the added
water from melting ice sheets and glaciers and the
expansion of seawater as it warms �� 443
Fig. 13.5 This image shows two graphs of changes in glacial and
ice cap mass balance for large regions (Europe, the
Andes, the Arctic, Asian high mountains, North West
USA and South West Canada, Alaska and coast moun-
tains, and Patagonia). Graph (a) shows cumulative mean
specific mass balances of glaciers and ice caps, and (b)
cumulative total mass balances of glaciers and ice caps
(Dyurgerov and Meier, 2005)�� 444
Fig. 13.6 Arctic sea ice extent as of February 3, 2016, along with
daily ice extent data for four previous years�� 445
Fig. 13.7 Confidence levels are a combination of level of agree-
ment and evidence�� 445
Fig. 13.8 Patterns of temperature (left column) and percent
precipitation change (right column) for the CMIP3
models average (first row) and CMIP5 models average
(second row), scaled by the corresponding global
average temperature changes �� 448
Fig. 13.9 Projections of annual mean GMST 1986–2050�� 449
Fig. 13.10 Maps of multi-model results for the scenarios RCP2.6,
RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 in 2081–2100 of average
percent change in mean precipitation�� 449
Fig. 13.11 Time series of global mean sea level (deviation from the
1980–1999 mean) in the past and as projected for the
future�� 450
Fig. 13.12 Summary of climate change impacts and process
linkages within the mountain cryosphere�� 457
Fig. 13.13 Schematic view of mountain systems and processes
addressed in this paper �� 458
Fig. 13.14 (Top) Northern Hemisphere (NH) spring (March to April
average) relative snow-covered area (RSCA) in CMIP5
(Bottom) NH diagnosed near-surface permafrost area in
CMIP5, using 20-year average monthly surface air
temperatures and snow depths �� 461
Fig. 13.15 Reduction in the number of ski days and the percentage
closure of ski resorts in various regions as a function of
temperature increase�� 462
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure�� 4

Table 3.1 People Ashore, Landing sites and Longyearbyen overnights�� 57
Table 3.2 Wear on vegetation in square metres, London, Kongsfjorden �� 67
Table 3.3 Recreation Purchased by Tourists whilst in Iceland 2016
(figures in %)�� 77
Table 3.4 Possible Environmental Impacts of Horse-Riding and
Horse-Keeping�� 78
Table 3.5 Trail degradation �� 81
Table 3.6 Glacier Tourism around the south margin of Vatnajökull �� 85
Table 3.7 Environmental Damage that Visitors Notice�� 88
Table 4.1 Number of Ships and Passengers to Franz Josef Land,
2000–2013�� 111
Table 5.1 Tourist Air Passengers into Greenland (After Visit
Greenland 2016)�� 125
Table 5.2 Cruise Ship Statistics 2017 (After Visit Greenland 2017)��125
Table 5.3 Musk Ox Kills 2010–2012 in Greenland (Adapted from
Olsen, 2015)�� 135
Table 6.1 NWT Growth of Tourism and Market Sectors Involved �� 145
Table 6.2 National Park Visitation in the NWT�� 147
Table 6.3 Visitation to the Yukon. Adapted from Tourism Yukon
2016 End of Year Report �� 148
Table 6.4 The Polar Bear Conservation Hunt: Economic Attributes��151
Table 6.5 Harvest Quotas for Nunavut (NU) and the Inuvialiut
Settlement Region (ISR) and the number of Polar Bears
killed in Canada 2008–9 to 2014–15�� 152
Table 6.6 Number of Cruise Ships present in the Canadian Arctic�� 174
Table 6.7 Iceberg Counts from the Canadian Ice Service Fall
Survey 2000–2007�� 174
Table 7.1 Participation Rates for Popular Outdoor Recreation
Activities in Alaska compared with the average for
the USA (Source from the 1994–5 NSRE Survey) �� 186
Table 8.1 Tourist Figures for Sikkim for the period 2011–2014�� 247
Table 8.2 International Arrivals in Nepal 1990–1997 and % change
per year�� 248
Table 8.3 Numbers in Nepal Tourism 2000–2016�� 248
Table 8.4 The Adventure Tourist Arrivals to Nepal in 1988 by
country�� 249
xxix
xxx List of Tables
Table 8.5 Annual Trekking and Mountaineering Numbers for Nepal

1993–2017�� 249
Table 8.6 Number of Climbers granted Permits and Royalties for
2017 for selected Mountains, where the grand total of
climbers was 2240 and the royalties $3,894,158�� 250
Table 8.7 Litter Deposited by Trekkers in 1988 in kg�� 260
Table 8.8 Tourists in the Lidder Valley, Kashmir�� 263
Table 9.1 Countries of the Andes, their capital cities, population and
population density, Gross Domestic Product and Percentage
of the population with less than $2 per person per day�� 300
Table 10.1 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�� 326
Table 10.2 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�� 326
Table 10.3 Top Ten Adventure Tourism attractions in East Africa as
listed by https://www.tripsavvy.com/�� 327
Table 10.4 List of adventure tourism activities (after Buckley, 2006)
with their relevance to East Africa indicated (+ very
relevant; - of some relevance; o not relevant) �� 339
Table 10.5 Summary of the major findings relating to recreational
motorboat activities (adapted from Whitfield and Becker,
2014)�� 343
Table 11.1 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by
international and domestic tourists in 2008
(source: Simmons, 2013, p. 345)�� 367
Table 11.2 Examples of research in Australia and New Zealand
concerned with the environmental impacts of hiking,
horse riding and adventure races�� 386
Table 11.3 Whale watching numbers in Australia 1991-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.162)�� 388
Table 11.4 Whale watching numbers in New Zealand 1994-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.186).�� 388
Table 12.1 List of Adventure Tourism Activities�� 410
Table 12.2 Response and recovery (after 3 months-8 years) of 4
montane heath communities on Cairngorm in relation to
variation in intensity of trampling (0–240 tramples)�� 413
Table 12.3 Management practices adopted by�� 428
Table 13.1 Proxy indicators of climate-related variables�� 440
Table 13.2 Changes in total outdoor recreation participants between
2008 and 2060 across all activities and scenarios �� 451
Table 13.3 Changes in total outdoor recreation days between 2008
and 2060 across all activities and scenarios�� 453
Table 13.4 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by international
and domestic tourists in 2008�� 454
What Is Adventure Tourism?
1
at least two of the following three elements:

Chapter Summary physical activity, natural environment and cul-
This chapter considers a definition of adven- tural immersion. While the definition of adven-
ture tourism that includes physical activity, ture tourism only requires two of these
the natural environment and cultural immer- components, trips incorporating all three would
sion. Both hard and soft adventure can be give tourists the fullest adventure tourism experi-
important. The trends and numbers involved ence. For example, the World Tourist Organisation
in this tourism area are discussed, including (2014) in its Global Report on Adventure Tourism
the growth in demand. Other types of often suggests that a trip to Peru involving trekking
related niche tourism types are considered (physical activity) along the Machu Picchu trail
and defined, such as ecotourism, wildlife (natural environment) and genuine interaction
tourism, sustainable and responsible tourism. with local residents and/or indigenous peoples
(cultural immersion) would be an excellent
example. A similar example would be Nand Raj
Jat in Uttarakhand (India) which incorporates all
1.1 Introduction three elements, including a twenty-day trek along
Himalayan trails, an interaction with local resi-
Tourism is one of the most rapidly growing eco- dents and an opportunity to watch and take part
nomic sectors in the world, and adventure tour- in local religious practices.
ism is one of its fastest growing categories. As Between 2010 and 2014, the adventure tour-
travellers seek new and different experiences, ism industry grew by 195% and the adventure
adventure tourism continues to grow in popular- segment of this is enjoying rapid growth, but
ity (Wicker 2017). Increasingly, countries in all globally it remains a relatively small player in the
stages of economic development are prioritising industry. The adventure tourism industry is also
adventure tourism for development and market helping to raise awareness of sustainability, the
growth, because they recognise its ecological, need to support local communities and promote
cultural and economic value. social responsibility. These values help to secure
To date no definition of adventure tourism the future of the sector. Adventure tourism practi-
exists in the United Nations World Tourism tioners and policymakers adhere to sustainable
Organisation (UNWTO) literature, but the environmental practices because they know that
Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) without pristine natural environments and
defines adventure tourism as a trip that includes meaningful cultural experiences, their destina-
© The Author(s) 2020 1

D. Huddart, T. Stott, Adventure Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4_1
2 1 What Is Adventure Tourism?
tion would lose its competitiveness and tourists nue from a trip goes to airlines, hotels and other
would go somewhere else. international companies. In contrast, in adven-
ture travel 70–80% of the revenue goes to local
communities; while 65.5% of total travel expen-
1.2 lobal Figures for Tourism
G diture per adventure travel remains in the desti-
and the Adventure Sector nations or destination the traveller has visited.
Tourism accounts for 30% of all services and one

in eleven jobs in the global economy, and in 2010 1.4 Adventure Tourism
the global value for the adventure market
amounted to more than US$614 billion. By 2013, When applied in a tourism context the term
this figure had tripled to more than US$1843 bil- adventure tourism embraces all types of com-
lion. The growth in turnover comes from an mercial outdoor tourism where there is a signifi-
increase in the number of adventure tourists, as cant excitement element involved, but it is a
42% of all tourists participate in one or more broad term: Buckley (2006) lists at least forty
adventure activities in the course of their holiday, activities involved in adventure tourism. It is a
and an overall increase in the amount of money term that is not easily defined, as different peo-
spent per holiday. Currently 69% of all adventure ple have different perceptions of what might be
tourists come from Europe, North America and considered an adventure. It involves adventurous
South America, but this will change in the future. travel where there is exploration and physical
In 2014, 53% of all adventure travellers were exertion, and the travel has a perceived or real
women and 47% were men; they were generally risk involved; the adventure tourists often step
well educated, with 37% of adventure travellers outside their comfort zone and experience a rush
spending four years or more in tertiary education or flow (Buckley 2012). However, it has to cater
and more than 11% having a professional qualifi- for differences in clientele, as there will be dif-
cation. They were also financially well off, with ferent expectations, different physical abilities,
an average income approximately US$45,500. different likes and dislikes and different psycho-
logical make-ups involved. The experience is not
about taking risks or pushing personal boundar-
1.3 Consumer Trends ies, and it is important for participants to know
and respect their personal limits whilst they are
When we split adventure travel into ‘hard’ and in unfamiliar regions. Adventure tourism is
‘soft’ categories, a pattern emerges. Travellers closely related to nature-based tourism (Buckley
in the soft category (for example, non-extreme et al. 2003), and there is also an overlap with
activities, cruise tourism, cultural activities, ecotourism. Adventure tourism is ‘nature tour-
community involvement and guided tours) ism with a kick, nature tourism with a degree of
spent about US$825 per trip. In comparison, on risk taking and physical endurance’ (Christ et al.
a global level, non-adventure tourists spend 2003). It focuses on doing, whilst the other cat-
about US$430 per person per holiday (exclud- egories mentioned often focus on seeing. There
ing travel costs). This is about 40% less than the is a wide range of outdoor recreation activities
amount spent by adventure tourists, who also packaged as commercial adventure tour prod-
spend more money in local communities— ucts, ranging from hiking trips to expensive and
where the economic impact is more tangible. equipment-intensive tours involving expedition
More extreme adventure travellers only spend cruise ships and helicopters. The activity can be
about US$338 per trip (excluding travel costs), part of independent travel, where the travellers
but spend significantly more money on gear and provide the adventurous experience for them-
equipment that they require for their holiday. In selves through the use of fixed site facilities,
mass tourism, approximately 80% of the reve- such as ski resorts, where there is a retail and
1.4 Adventure Tourism 3
accommodation component as part of the pack- 1. some real or perceived risk related to a physi-
age. Buckley (2006) identifies four component cal activity, remoteness or unfamiliar
types: independent travel, which involves at location;
least some commercial transport and accommo- 2. occurring in a natural environment that is rela-
dation but includes some activity that the travel- tively unexplored and with minimal or no
ler treats as adventurous; fully packaged, guided urban influences;
commercial adventure tours, departing on 3. a physical activity that tests both mental and
defined dates from specified gateways; fixed-site physical endurance;
adventure activities available to both tourists and 4. cultural immersion;
the local population, but where tourists make up 5. a minimalism that supports eco-, responsible
a significant percentage of the clientele, as in ski and sustainable tourism and discourages
resorts; and finally all the ancillary businesses mindless consumerism, although some of the
and economic sectors linked to adventure tour- luxury cruises that occur do not support this
ism through recreational equipment, adventure- element.
branded clothing and a significant proportion of
the amenity-migrant property market (where Adventure is not about how wild, high or
people move to an area to live or purchase a sec- extreme an activity is. It is primarily a mental
ond home, especially to take part in adventurous attitude to travel that shapes the values that visi-
activities). Buckley (2010) suggests that on a tors bring with them on their holiday. In other
global scale the outdoor and adventure tourism words, adventure is a subjective concept that
subsectors of the tourism market make up around revolves around how individual travellers like to
one-fifth of the global tourism market and travel shape their own experiences. The key for adven-
sector, and one that as we have noted continues ture travel is that the holiday should be based on
to expand. ATTA created a definition of adven- experiences, and that added value comes from
ture tourism and the adventure tourist. Such a really getting to know a destination through
tourist is one who includes at least two of the physical activity, cultural encounters and experi-
three following elements in his or her leisure encing the natural environment. Activities like
travel: physical activity, engagement with nature, these allow individual travellers to extend their
and cultural interaction and learning. Through own boundaries culturally, physically and geo-
this definition, it is seen that most tourists can be graphically, and these boundaries vary from per-
considered adventurers. The challenge for tour- son to person. Regardless of how tourism
ism will therefore always be to stimulate eco- professionals organise or categorise adventure
nomic and social development in a way that travel, adventure will always be a subjective term
factors in nature, culture and the environment. for travellers, because it is related to individual
Adventure travel addresses all these chal- experience. Adventure to one traveller may seem
lenges in a way that provides opportunities for routine or mundane to another. Adventure tour-
local communities to develop, and it takes ists push their own cultural, physical and geo-
account of the tourists’ diverse understanding of graphic comfort limits, and those limits differ for
what a responsible and sustainable adventure- each person. Rantala et al. (2018) suggest that the
based holiday involves. Hence adventure travel is boundaries between adventurous activities and
a form of travel where visitors interact with the tourism are blurred, and they explore the diffuse
environment and nature, take part in physical use of concepts such as wilderness, nature guid-
activities and are part of a cultural exchange that ing and adventurous activities. Nevertheless,
combines at least two of these elements. There adventure tourism has been widely studied, and
could also be an extra element of self exploration the literature review of 2119 references in Rantala
and connecting with self. It is possible therefore et al. (2018) indicates that the work was dispersed
to define adventure tourism as having some of the amongst many different subject disciplines and
following five elements: academic journals; their conclusion is that a
reconceptualisation of adventure tourism is Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or
soft adventure
required. Cheng et al. (2018) find a total of 114
publications on adventure tourism that revealed Activity Type
three broad areas of foci in adventure tourism Archaeological expedition Soft
Attending local festival/fairs Other
research. These are adventure tourism experi-
Backpacking Soft
ence; destination planning and adventure tourism Birdwatching Soft
operators. Studies examining non-Western tour- Camping Soft
ists in their own geographical contexts and non- Canoeing Soft
Western tourists in Western geographical contexts Caving Hard
are under-represented. We hope to show in this Climbing (mountain/rock/ice) Hard
book that there are important environmental Cruise Other
Cultural activities Other
impacts caused by adventure tourism that need to
Eco-tourism Soft
be managed, and that education of participants Educational programs Soft
and company operators is necessary for the sus- Environmentally sustainable activities Soft
tainable use of the environments in which adven- Fishing/fly-fishing Soft
ture tourism takes place. Getting to know the locals Other
There are two main categories of adventure Hiking Soft
activities, hard and soft adventure, and vigorous Horseback riding Soft
Hunting Soft
debate often surrounds which activities belong in
Kayaking/sea/whitewater Soft
each category (see Table 1.1). The easiest way to Learning a new language Other
identify an adventure trip as hard or soft adven- Orienteering Soft
ture is by its primary activity. Rafting Soft
Both hard and soft adventures are highly Research expeditions Soft
lucrative segments of the adventure tourism sec- Safaris Soft
tor. The cost of the permit to access the summit of Sailing Soft
Scuba diving Soft
Mount Everest, a hard adventure activity, was
Snorkelling Soft
estimated to be US$11,000 per person in 2015. Skiing/snowboarding Soft
When all of the other factors are added in, such as Surfing Soft
training, gear, airfare and tour guides, the average Trekking Hard
total cost is about US$48,000 per person. Walking tours Other
Commercial adventure travel tour operators Visiting friends/family Other
offering soft adventure activities charged an aver- Visiting historical sites Other
Volunteer tourism Soft
age of US$308 per day in 2012. With an average
trip length of 8.8 days, the average total cost of a Source: Adapted from Adventure Tourism Development
Index 2016 Report
soft adventure trip was US$2710 per person, not
including flights. In addition to hard or soft
adventure activities, there are also different types average of one extra day. They spend more money
of adventure tourists. For example, adventure on equipment and gear, because they value brands
enthusiasts, such as avid kayakers, cyclists or that fit their highly specialised needs, and they
birdwatchers, become progressively more skilled seek out locations that are difficult to access or
at a specific outdoor or athletic activity. These are newly emerging but not yet popular. On the
enthusiasts are described as passionate about a other hand, extreme adventurers, such as base
certain sport or activity, tending to pursue the jumpers, those who cross the Greenland Ice Cap
same activity trip after trip, and seeking new and or runners of 100 km races, are not so much tour-
exciting destinations in the process. ists as independent travellers and thrill-seekers.
Although enthusiasts’ spending is on a par Extreme adventurers spend less money, because
with other types of adventure traveller, their more they have their own equipment, may not seek
frequent international trips typically last an commercial support to practise the activity, seek
1.4 Adventure Tourism 5
out locations that are difficult to access, and often In the adventure tourism sector, the trend has
camp or provide their own transport. been towards the removal of the middle man, tour
Extreme adventurers constitute a very small operator or travel agent, who has traditionally
segment of the sector. Thus, although they can connected the consumer in the source market to
have public relations and marketing value for a the provider or ground handler in the destination
destination or company, they do not typically market. As the traveller can access information
require attention from tourism development pol- and trusted consumer reviews online, he is now
icy makers and land managers. more likely to go straight to the provider. The
AdventurePulse: USA Adventure Traveller
Profiles, a study of the US adventure travel mar-
1.4.1 Growth in Demand ket, indicates that 71% of US adventure travellers
are making arrangements solely on their own.
In 2012, global tourism arrivals passed the 1 bil- While emerging economies are slowly outpac-
lion mark. As one of the fastest growing seg- ing developed economies for departures and
ments, adventure tourism arrivals naturally spending, the UNWTO predicts that by 2015,
increased as well. In 2010, the first global adven- arrivals in emerging economies will have
ture tourism market sizing study was conducted exceeded those in advanced economies; and by
by ATTA, the George Washington University and 2030, 57% of arrivals will be in emerging econo-
Xola Consulting. It found that the global value of mies. To accommodate this surge in demand,
adventure tourism was US$89 billion. The study supply is expected to increase. The makeup of the
was repeated in 2013 and found that 42% of trav- sector is predominantly small, owner-operated
ellers departed on adventure trips, making the businesses. In fact, in 2013 the average size of
sector worth US$263 billion, an increase of ATTA’s member companies was forty-four
195% in two years. This remarkable growth was employees.
attributed to an increase in international depar- Destinations around the world are focusing on
tures, an increase in travellers going on adventure adventure as a key niche segment, because of its
trips and an increase in average spending. economic and sustainability benefits. They are
Overall, 69% of international departures origi- working to provide professional education for
nated in Europe, North America or South adventure travel companies to support local peo-
America; the same was true of adventure tour- ple in participating in the tourism economy.
ism. Between 2009 and 2010, South America’s Increasingly, destinations are recognising that
hard adventure travel population grew from 1.4% travellers are seeking more authentic products.
of all departures to 8%. The same time period Around the world, destinations are gearing their
saw a 5% increase in the soft adventure popula- advertising and branding to appeal to adventure
tion. In fact, the UNWTO Tourism Highlights of travellers. For example, Norway capitalises on its
2014 notes that ‘with rising levels of disposable towering fjords and glaciers with the slogan
income, many emerging economies have shown ‘Powered by Nature’; Greenland emphasises its
fast growth over recent years, especially in mar- ruggedness with ‘Greenland, Be a Pioneer’; New
kets in Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, the Zealand touts its culture, mountains, wildlife and
Middle East and Africa.’ Additionally, the report hiking with ‘100% Pure New Zealand’; Nepal’s
notes that Chinese travellers are the top spenders Naturally Nepal logo includes a stylised high
while on vacation, and that developed economies peak and a tagline “Once is not enough”;
will benefit from the favourable exchange rate for Kyrgyzstan, surrounded by glaciers, emphasises
Russian and Chinese travellers via inbound tour- its mountainous assets in its adventure tourism
ism. Widespread increases of projected arrivals marketing with the tagline “Something New,
from Russian, Chinese, and Latin American trav- Something Different”; and Slovenia beckons
ellers will change the shape of tourism demo- with hiking, mountains and caves in its ‘I Feel
graphics in the years to come. Slovenia’ campaign.
The trend is far-reaching. In 2011, 79% of of local communities, or to foster respect for dif-
tourism boards reported that the adventure tour- ferent cultures and for human rights. Since the
ism private sector had begun to emerge and/or 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical
grow in their destination. endeavour by environmentalists, so that future
In 2010, Greenland shifted its marketing to generations may experience destinations rela-
focus exclusively on the adventure sector. Its tively untouched by human intervention.
messaging and imagery were designed to capture Generally, ecotourism involves interaction with
the imaginations of tourists who sought off-the- biotic components of the natural environments. It
beaten track adventures and authentic cultural focuses on socially responsible travel, personal
interactions. Greenland’s marketing focused growth and environmental sustainability, and
equally on cultural, and especially culinary, typically involves travel to destinations where
activities through its ‘Taste of Greenland’ pro- flora, fauna and cultural heritage are the primary
gramme, and emphasised adventure activities attractions. It intends to offer tourists an insight
with the launch of a blog entitled ‘99% into the impact of human beings on the environ-
Backcountry’. This portrayed a modern ment and to foster a greater appreciation of our
Greenland, where girls in traditional costumes natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism pro-
ride scooters, the message resonating with how grammes include those that minimise the nega-
locals saw themselves. tive aspects of conventional tourism on the
UNWTO predicts that there will be 1.8 billion environment and enhance the cultural integrity of
arrivals globally by 2030, and that growth of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating
international tourism arrivals in emerging econo- environmental and cultural factors, an integral
mies will grow at double the pace of developed part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling,
nations. Developed nations will see arrivals from energy efficiency, water conservation and cre-
emerging economies fuelling their growth; but as ation of economic opportunities for local com-
knowledge of adventure tourism options in these munities. For these reasons, ecotourism often
destinations is currently limited, there is a need to appeals to advocates of environmental and social
invest in building their markets—and this is cur- responsibility. It has three central principles: it is
rently happening. non-consumptive/non-extractive, it creates an
ecological conscience and it holds ecocentric
values and ethics in relation to nature. Lane
1.5 Ecotourism (2013) outlines the related types of niche tour-
ism. He defines adventure tourism as physical
Much of ecotourism is commercial outdoor rec- outdoor activities such as snorkelling, diving or
reation, and this has been discussed in much skydiving, where operators may not necessarily
detail by Buckley (2004, 2006, 2010). Ecotourism be operating in a sustainable manner or provid-
is a form of tourism that involves visiting fragile, ing education. Cultural tourism relates to the dis-
pristine and relatively undisturbed natural areas, covery of the cultural heritage of the destination,
intended as a low-impact and often small-scale such as learning from a local artist, and the focus
alternative to standard commercial mass tourism. is not on nature or wildlife. Green tourism applies
It is defined as responsible travel to natural areas to any tourism activity or facility operating in an
that conserves the environment, sustains the environmentally friendly way, incorporating
well- being of the local people, and involves renewable energy use or composting. Lodges
interpretation and education (TIES 2015, www. may be owned by a large corporation or lack a
ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotour- focus on conservation and education. Nature
ism-principles-revision). Its purpose may be to tourism is where wildlife is viewed in its natural
educate the traveller, to provide funds for eco- habitat, such as from jungle lodges in the Amazon
logical conservation, to directly benefit the eco- or cruise-only ships in Antarctica. These trips
nomic development and political empowerment may not have an educational component and are
1.6 Other Popular Forms of Tourism that Share Characteristics with Adventure Tourism 7
not necessarily environmentally sustainable or conservation and community development in the

responsible. Responsible tourism is where the areas being developed’ (Christ et al. 2003, p. 5).
minimisation of environmental degradation of Conservation tourism is commercial tourism
the destination is a priority, but there may be no that makes a net positive contribution to the con-
focus on the environment and no economic ben- tinuing survival of threatened plant or animal
efit to the host destination. Finally, sustainable species, and while there are a variety of ways in
tourism does not deplete resources and allows for which tourism can make positive contributions to
smaller numbers of tourists to experience nature conservation, the key issue is to calculate net out-
so as not to disturb natural patterns. There may comes after subtracting the negative impacts. A
not be a focus on the preservation of the natural broader definition of conservation tourism is
habitat or any economic benefit to the host tourism that delivers experiences that support the
destination. protection of natural and cultural resources
However, the term ecotourism, like sustain- through impact (creating financial incentives for
able tourism, is considered by many to be an oxy- conservation). influence (educating travellers,
moron. Like most forms of tourism, ecotourism communities and other stakeholders on the value
generally depends on air transportation, and this of protecting the integrity of nature and culture)
long-distance travel has significant environmen- and investment (driving financial support for
tal impacts and contributes to global climate conservation from the travel sector and
change (Simmons and Becken 2004). travellers).
Additionally the overall effect of sustainable Responsible tourism is tourism that creates
tourism is probably negative, as ecotourism phil- better places in which people can live and visit.
anthropic aspirations can mask commercial and Responsible tourism can take place in any envi-
immediate self-interest. Here we can see consid- ronment, and many cities have adopted responsi-
erable overlap and misconceptions relating to the ble tourism policies. It can also be defined as
terms adventure tourism, ecotourism, nature- responsible travel to natural areas that conserves
based tourism and sustainable tourism. the environment and sustains the well-being of
The differences between adventure tourism local people (Christ et al. 2003).
and mass tourism are clear, but the differences Community-based tourism is defined by the
between adventure tourism and other types of Mountain Institute and Regional Community
tourism can be more nuanced. There follow defi- Forestry Training Center as a visitor–host interac-
nitions of other popular types of tourism that tion that has meaningful participation for both,
share characteristics with adventure tourism, and that generates economic and conservation
such as minimising negative impacts and increas- benefits for local communities and environments.
ing local benefits. Volunteer tourism is the practice of individu-
als going on a working holiday, volunteering
their labour for worthy causes. It includes work
1.6 ther Popular Forms
O that is not paid and is sometimes also called
of Tourism that Share Voluntourism.
Characteristics SAVE tourism encompasses scientific, aca-
with Adventure Tourism demic, volunteer and educational tourism, as
defined by the SAVE Travel Alliance. SAVE
Sustainable tourism is tourism that takes full tourism may include remunerated work.
account of its current and future economic, social Another definition of ecotourism, from the
and environmental impacts, addressing the needs International Ecotourism Society, is purposeful
of visitors, the industry, the environment and host travel to natural areas to understand the culture
communities. Sustainable tourism ‘seeks to mini- and natural history of the environment, taking
mize the negative footprint of tourism develop- care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem,
ments and at the same time contribute to while producing economic opportunities that
make the conservation of natural resources ben- a US$263 billion global market. In 2014, tour
eficial to local people. Alternatively, ecotourism operators noted that the top four trends in adven-
is travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncon- ture tourism were the softening of adventure
taminated natural areas with the specific objec- travel, customisation of trip experiences, multi-
tive of studying, admiring and enjoying the generational groups and cultural experiences. In
scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well other words, the trends indicate the broadening of
as any existing cultural manifestations (both past adventure as a choice of travel by the larger mar-
and present) found in these areas (Ceballos- ket. This data came from more than 300 compa-
Lascurain 1996). nies in sixty-nine countries. Governments
Geotourism is defined as tourism that sus- acknowledge this trend as well. Before 2007,
tains or enhances the geographical character of a 52% of tourism boards surveyed (ninety-one in
place: its environment, culture, aesthetics, heri- total) noted that they did not recognise adventure
tage and the well-being of its residents. tourism as a stand-alone sector in their destina-
Nature-based tourism is the segment in the tion. That number sharply decreased to a mere
tourism market in which people travel with the 8% in 2011 out of the same group of tourism
primary purpose of visiting a natural destination boards/ministries.
(Kuenzin and McNeeley 2008).
Nature tourism is travel to unspoiled places
to experience and enjoy nature (Christ et al. 1.7 Concluding Remarks
2003).
Wildlife tourism is based on encounters with The main aim of this book is to discuss how a
non-domesticated (non-human) animals in either wide range of recreational adventure activities
the animals’ natural environment or in captivity. can have an impact on the environment and how
It includes activities historically classified as the activities are associated with an important
‘non-consumptive’ as well as those that involve and growing branch of the tourist industry, adven-
killing or capturing animals (Higginbottom ture tourism. Environmental impacts are identi-
2004). Swarbrooke et al. (2003) provide a fied and possible management and education
detailed chapter on this topic as one aspect of approaches to minimise these impacts are dis-
adventure tourism. cussed in a series of chapters from various world
There are also some obscure forms of adven- regions, ranging from the polar Antarctic, through
ture tourism, including disaster and ghetto tour- the Arctic islands of Svalbard, Iceland, Greenland
ism, spiritual tourism and even ethno-tourism, and the Franz Josef Land archipelago to the
where indigenous peoples are observed. The lat- North American Arctic region of Alaska, the
ter is controversial because it can bring indige- Canadian Arctic and the Russian continental
nous peoples into contact with diseases to which Arctic, which includes the Kamchatka peninsula.
they have no immunity, and there is always the Adventure tourism in the world’s high mountain
possible degradation or destruction of a unique regions is considered in relation to the Himalayas,
culture or language. the Andes and some of the East African mountain
It is important to note that none of these types ranges, whilst we complete our world survey by
of tourism, which can be included in a broad dis- including a chapter on Australia and New Zealand
cussion of adventure tourism, is mutually exclu- and on Scotland. These are world regions that are
sive, and definitions can be overlapping. These important in the adventure tourism industry, and
‘brands’ all have a specific or even niche market where the authors have research experience and
value, because they resonate with a particular have travelled extensively. This detailed regional
segment of consumers. approach to the environmental impacts of adven-
Adventure tourism used to be a relatively ture tourism on a world scale is a major and up-
fringe or small niche of the overall tourism sec- to-date contribution to the literature. For example,
tor, but today it has become more mainstream as in Swarbrooke et al. (2003) there is only a brief
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Wallingford/Oxfordshire/Cambridge, MA: CABI MA: CABI Publishing, chapter 2.
Publishing. Swarbrooke, J., Beard, C., Leckie, S., & Pomfret, G.
Buckley, R. (2010). Adventure tourism management (268pp). (2003). Adventure tourism. The new frontier (354pp).
Abingdon: Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Buckley, R. (2012). Rush as a key motivation in skilled Wicker, J. (2017). What is adventure tourism? https://
adventure tourism: Resolving the risk recreation para- headrushtech.com/blogs/what-is-adventure-tourism
dox. Tourism Management, 33, 961–970. World Tourism Organization. (2014). AM reports vol-
Buckley, R., Pickering, C., & Weaver, D. B. (Eds.). ume nine-global report on adventure tourism (88pp).
(2003). Nature-based tourism, environment and land Madrid: UNWTO.
Adventure Tourism in Antarctica
2
represented prohibitive conditions and major

Chapter Summary constraints for human activity (Lamers et al.
An outline of the characteristics of Antarctic 2008). Nevertheless, the Antarctic tourism indus-
tourism is given, including the growth in the try first began to overcome these limitations in
number of tourists. The types of tourism are the late 1950s, when operators from Chile and
defined and described as (a) cruise ship tour- Argentina took around 500 paying passengers to
ism, with industry self-regulation, (b) adven- the South Shetland Islands by means of a naval
ture tourism, (c) land- based commercial transportation ship. In 1969, cruise ships began
tourism, (d) last chance tourism, (e) wildlife visiting the waters. Between 1977 and 1980,
tourism, (f) unique environment tourism and commercial airlines out of New Zealand and
(g) luxury tourism. The environmental Australia conducted low-level ‘flightseeing’
impacts of Antarctic tourism are described in tours, taking some 11,000 tourists over the area
general, and specifically their effect on pen- in forty-four flights (Spennemann 2007). Scenic
guins; whale behavioural modification (noise flights (known as ‘overflights’) to Antarctica had
and collisions); seals; invasion of non-indige- begun in the 1950s, but peaked in popularity dur-
nous organisms; and ship accidents and visitor ing the 1970s. During such trips, passengers view
impacts on historic and archaeological sites. the Antarctic landscape from the air, but the
There is discussion of how Antarctic tourism planes do not land. Over 10,000 tourists had
is managed: the role of the International experienced such flights by the 1979–1980 sea-
Association of Antarctica Tour Operators son. The operation of overflights ceased in 1979
(IAATO), governance and regulations, the when Air New Zealand Flight TE901 crashed
Antarctic Treaty System, the Madrid Protocol, into Mount Erebus, killing all 257 passengers
the Polar Code, difficulties in reaching agree- (Liggett et al. 2011). Qantas began offering over-
ment in a consensus-based system, lack of a flights again during the 1994–1995 season, and
gatekeeper mechanism and visitor rights. today there is one additional overflight operator
from Chile. Overflights account for only a small
fraction of modern Antarctic tourism.
The late 1980s marked the beginning of the
2.1 Introduction modern Antarctic tourism industry, with the
introduction of ship-based expedition-style tours,
Antarctica’s remote location, extreme climatic including equipment and mechanisms to enable
conditions, and the presence of land and sea ice tourists to physically alight on land, which
and rugged topography (Fig. 2.1) have always remains the prominent form of travel there.
© The Author(s) 2020 11

D. Huddart, T. Stott, Adventure Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4_2
12 2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica
Fig. 2.1 Antarctica from NASA’s Blue Marble dataset. Source: Blue Marble dataset, https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/
view_cat.php?category1D=1484. (Photo: Dave Pape)
2.2 Definition of Antarctic

Tourism What makes Antarctica a particular con-
cern is that there is no regulation of tourism
at present, except self-regulation by mem-
Hall (1992) defined Antarctic tourism as all bers of the International Association of
existing human activities other than those Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Due
directly involved in scientific research and mainly to its remoteness and to technologi-
the normal operations of government bases. cal difficulties in relation to access,
An Antarctic tourist could be defined as a Antarctica has been a relative latecomer in
person who travels to Antarctica for a pur- having to consider the impacts of tourism
pose other than to work there, but Haase on the continent. However, as tourist num-
(2008) suggested that Antarctic tourism was bers have increased over the years, so too
‘all human activities either mainly pursuing have concerns about the impacts on the
recreational and/or educational purposes or continent and their management.
unequivocally catering for those who engage
in recreational and/or educational activities in
the Antarctic Treaty area south to 60° S Lat.’.
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism 13
Fig. 2.2 Ocean Endeavour in Paradise Harbour, a wide embayment behind Lemaire and Byde Islands, indenting the
west coast of Graham Land. (Photo: Copyright M. J. Hambrey)
Since the inception of the IAATO in 1991, since 1989. About fifty of these sites have received
records of tour itineraries and site visits have more than 100 visitors in any one season and
been continually maintained. In recent years about the same number have been visited just
these expeditions have largely been conducted once. A cursory examination of the tour data indi-
using vessels carrying from six to 500 passengers cates that visits are concentrated at fewer than
(Fig. 2.2). The ships sail primarily to the Antarctic thirty-five sites. Fewer than ten sites receive
Peninsula region. Some itineraries also include around 10,000 visitors each season. The Peninsula
South Georgia and the Falkland Islands. These is an appealing destination as it is close to South
voyages generally depart from Ushuaia America, has a relatively mild climate and little
(Argentina), Port Stanley (Falkland Islands) and, sea ice, hosts multiple scientific stations and con-
to a lesser extent, from Punta Arenas (Chile), tains a diverse array of wildlife and scenery
Buenos Aires (Argentina) or Puerto Madryn (Farreny et al. 2011). From 2003–2009, the
(Argentina). Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP)’s
By far the most visited area of Antarctica is the tourism study noted that the top twenty most vis-
Antarctic Peninsula (see Fig. 2.4A for the main ited Antarctic landing sites were all in the Antarctic
locations in Antarctica and major bases). Molenaar Peninsula (2012). Activity is highly concentrated:
(2005) puts the figure at 95%. According to among these top twenty sites, 54% of visitor land-
IAATO records (IAATO website), approximately ings occurred at just seven of them. The top five
200 sites, including twenty research stations, have visited sites were: Whalers Bay, Port Lockroy,
been visited in the Antarctic Peninsula region Half Moon Island, Neko Harbor and Cuverville
Fig. 2.3 (a) Overall change in vessel traffic from Island, (6) Petermann Island, (7) Brown Station,
the 1993–1994 season to the 2012–2013 season, (8) Jougla Point, (9) Danco Island, (10) Brown
and (b) overall change in vessel traffic from the Bluff, (11) Vernadsky Station, (12) Telefon Bay,
2008–2009 season to the 2012–2013 season (the (13) Barrientos Island, Aitcho Islands, (14) Orne
five seasons following the Lynch et al. 2010 analy- Harbour, (15) Yankee Harbour, (16) Mikkelsen
sis). For orientation, the top twenty-five most pop- Harbour, (17) Damoy Point/Dorian Bay, (18)
ular landing sites (in the 2013–2014 season) are Paradise Bay, (19) Pléneau Island, (20) Hannah
indicated by numbers (in order of rank): (1) Neko Point, (21) Port Charcot, (22) Great Wall Station,
Harbour, (2) Cuverville Island, (3) Goudier Island, (23) Yalour Islands, (24) Waterboat Point/Gonzalez
(4) Half Moon Island, (5) Whalers Bay, Deception Videla Station, (25) Bellingshausen Station
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism 15
Fig. 2.4 (A) Emperor penguins, the only animals to Gentoo penguin. (From: www.dreamstime.com/publ-
breed on Antarctica. (Author: Guiseppe Zibordi, NOAA domain-image-frees) (D) Adélie penguins and tourist
Corps Collection). (B) Adélie penguin. (Photo: Penny Zodiac at Bourdin Island. (Photo: Copyright M. J.
Scott (PDP) http://publicdomainphotography.com). (C) Hambrey)
Fig. 2.4 (continued)
Island, each of which averaged more than 10,000 desire to visit as a tourist, to see the wildlife and
visitors per season during 2003–2009. In contrast, dramatic scenery, and to experience (arguably)
the most heavily visited site in the Ross Sea, Cape Earth’s last remaining wilderness (Bowerman
Royds, averaged 320 tourists per season from 2012). Modern Antarctic ecotourism has
2005–2011. It appears that tourists have visited increased rapidly since its beginning in the
over 300 sites since records began, and 100–200 1960s. Between 1992 and 2002, the annual
sites are visited regularly each season (Tin et al. number of tourists more than doubled. In the
2008), which may serve to destroy the very wil- Antarctic summer of 2000–2001, approximately
derness that many tourists to Antarctica are hop- 12,250 people walked on the Antarctic conti-
ing to experience. However, Naveen and Lynch nent, and in 2006 this number reached 35,000.
(2011) have produced a detailed documentation of The 2007–2008 season showed huge growth
sites visited by tourists to assist in the implemen- and marked the busiest season to date, with
tation of the 1991 Protocol on Environmental 46,265 reported tourists visiting Antarctica.
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which is an Actual numbers of visitors may be higher, as
excellent compendium for the start of manage- reported numbers come from members of
ment by tour companies of their visitors and by IAATO only. The reported numbers decreased
the countries that administer these locations. after that season, concurrent with the global
financial crisis and the ban on heavy fuel car-
riage by ships in Antarctic waters, impacting the
2.3 Growing Numbers 2011–2012 season, but numbers have been ris-
ing again since. Of the estimated 44,000
In recent decades, tourism has increased signifi- Antarctic tourists in the 2016–2017 season,
cantly in Antarctica. It is no longer only science 12,400 were expected to be involved in site
and exploration that draw people to visit, but a landings.
2.4 A Summary of IAATO Member Antarctic Tourism Trends 17
Each person landing on Antarctica has some Most tourism is ship-based, but in recent years
form of impact on the environment, such as the new market segments have come online, such as
inadvertent dispersal of seeds of non-native, or airborne and land-based tourism. The Antarctic
alien, species, disruption to wildlife and foot- Treaty System (ATS) and the Antarctic Treaty
prints. The number of tourists in the Antarctic Consultative Parties (ATCPs) formally regulate
Treaty area is estimated at three times the num- tourism, and the 1991 Environmental Protocol,
ber of National Antarctic Program (NAP) per- known as the Madrid Protocol, provides the regu-
sonnel during the 2016–2017 summer season. latory framework for human activities in the
There is some degree of overlap between tourist region, including tourism. ATCP decisions are
activity and personnel involved in NAPs, such implemented through national legislation of flag
as scientists taking part in recreational activities states. IAATO handles day-to-day management
while on the continent. In turn, some NAPs sup- of tourism, working alongside the ATCPs and
port the tourist industry through the accommo- other organisations. Maritime law also guides
dation of tourists and the establishment of some activity, given the ship-based nature of the
tourist facilities, visitor centres and souvenir majority of tourism (Jabour 2014).
shops on the Antarctic continent (Bastmeijer The main Antarctic tourist markets, histori-
et al. 2008). All forms of transport into the cally found in North America, Europe and
Antarctic Treaty area also impact the environ- Australia, are evolving as well. Not surprisingly,
ment and have the potential to cause catastro- considering the costs involved in Antarctic tour-
phe. The majority of travel for tourism is by ism, these regions represent some of the wealthi-
ship, which has a significantly lower carbon est countries in the world. It is believed that
footprint than air travel. Antarctic tour companies will continue to merge
One recent study suggests a conservative or may be taken over/bought out by larger travel
projection of growth to 120,000–160,000 visi- companies which have access to more extensive
tors to Antarctica annually by 2060 (Woehler resources for marketing Antarctic itineraries
et al. 2014). Considering the historical increase (Lamers et al. 2008). Demand for global tourism
in Antarctic tourism, recovery to nearly double products is already expanding considerably in
the previous peak over the next fifty years seems China, Russia, India and other growing econo-
a reasonable forecast. An increase in the number mies, and this trend is expected to continue. The
of vessels travelling to the area is also likely, 2013–2014 season saw an increase in the number
particularly large vessels, as well as increased of Chinese visitors, making up a total of 9% of all
numbers of tourist flights, to more areas, and visitors, while ten years prior, this population
over greater periods of time each year (Woehler represented only 0.2% of all visitors. This puts
et al. 2014). Thus, demand for Antarctic tourism China just behind the USA (33%) and Australia
is expected to increase in the coming years. This (11%), and ahead of Germany (8%) and the UK
is anticipated in traditional markets especially, (8%) (IAATO 2014).
as a result of growing media attention, greater
affluence, increased spare time, urbanisation,
ageing populations, and the growing global 2.4 Summary of IAATO
A
interest in ecotourism and adventure tourism Member Antarctic Tourism
(Lonely Planet 2013). The popularity of the Trends
region can be seen in the more mainstream
travel media, which is likely to contribute to The total number of tourists in the Antarctic
even greater interest. Lonely Planet listed Treaty area has followed an overall increasing
Antarctica as number two of the ten best desti- trend driven mainly by a recent sharp increase in
nations for travel in 2014. Referred to as the ship-to-shore landings. With more people present
adventure of a lifetime, Lonely Planet describes in the area, the sense of remoteness could be
Antarctica as a pristine continent with abundant compromised. Due to a lack of studies carried out
wildlife and majestic landscapes. on the impacts of landings, their cumulative
effects, such as the introduction of invasive spe- the tourists visiting the Antarctic Treaty area are
cies via mechanisms such as ship fouling and doing so because they care about the environment
wastewater discharge, and the continued distur- (Vereda 2016), so they would likely choose opera-
bance to penguin nesting sites, are not fully quan- tors endorsed by IAATO for their safe, low-impact
tified. The need for data on these impacts will and environmental sustainability measures.
become more important as we face the possibility
of increased numbers, especially in high traffic
areas such as the Antarctic Peninsula (Haase 2.5 Types of Tourism
et al. 2009). It would be appropriate for tour
operators to be levied to provide funding for 2.5.1 Cruise Ship Tourism
research to be carried out, providing data and the
analysis of that data, on the impact of their indus- Currently the cruise ship industry is managed
try on the Antarctic Treaty area. through the ATS, non-governmental organisa-
Looking over a longer term at the number of tions (NGOs) (self-regulation), guidelines, vari-
passenger landings, there has been an overall ous treaties and a series of international laws
increase from 1995 in the past twenty years, (Bauer and Dowling 2006). There is a difference
although there was a decline between 1999 and of opinion within the academic community on
2003, and again between 2007 and 2010, the latter whether the Antarctic cruise ship industry is
being the result of the economic recession and a working well not only to meet the needs of the
ban on heavy fuel use by the International Maritime cruise ship operators and their clients, but for the
Organization (IMO). The potential for further greater wellbeing of the continent as a whole and
increase is limited by IAATO regulations in terms the rest of the world, and whether it is being man-
of the number of landings per site, the sites used aged sustainably for future generations. It appears
and the protocol that must be followed when visit- from the literature reviewed that this difference
ing sites designated as Antarctic Specially of opinion depends on what discipline the writers
Protected Areas (ASPAs) and/or Antarctic come from. As a broad generalisation, it appears
Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs). The growth that the tourism/science-based authors, such as
in tourist numbers and in the variety of their activi- Liggett et al. (2011) and Bauer and Dowling
ties raises concerns of potential overuse and (2006), believe strongly in self-regulation,
increases the threat of impact on wildlife, the natu- namely by the IAATO, and have confidence in
ral environment and even cultural heritage. the self-imposed management of Antarctica
Since 2004, 98.8% of Antarctic tourists have through the ATS. Although they acknowledge
travelled to the area via ship (IAATO 2017). The that more regulations will be required in the
trend of increasing numbers of operators in the future, there is not much discussion about the
market has the potential to create tension in the cur- realities of which laws are working or not work-
rent IAATO member system. Haase et al. (2009) ing and the validity of these laws within the inter-
discussed a recent case in which a group of opera- national community.
tors with ships of carrying capacity greater than In contrast, Molenaar (2005) and Wright
500 wanted to become members of IAATO. Initially, (2008), who are more legally or politically moti-
IAATO declined the request, but then reversed its vated, appear to think that it is only as a result of
decision after the operators threatened to create luck, or a lack of evidence to the contrary, that the
their own self-organised group. IAATO felt it was region remains largely free of the negative
more important to maintain a united membership impacts of tourism. These authors are often criti-
to prevent becoming fractured over less important cal of other authors, preferring to plan for the
issues. There is always the potential for operators expected disaster than wait for it to happen and
to work outside of any regulating body, but it is clean up the mess afterwards. There are also a
hoped that market demands for safety and sustain- growing number of knowledgeable authors who
ability would not support such ventures. Many of are taking a more moderate approach in their
2.5 Types of Tourism 19
writing, such as Haase et al. (2009), who are of once the fee for the flag has been paid. It is also
the opinion that a middle road between the laxity the case that in this context of self-regulation, all
of self-regulation and strictly codified regulation parties must trust the morals and truthfulness of
needs to be found as the best answer to the sover- the cruise ship operators when told that there
eignty issue. have been no significant incidents or accidents in
Wright (2008) highlights the seriousness of the Southern Ocean.
legal issues arising from the Antarctic cruise Vessels registered with flags of convenience
industry and points out that most of the interna- states account for more than 50% of all tourism
tional treaties, regulations and laws that are appli- vessels visiting Antarctica. Flags of convenience
cable to the sea are not applicable to Antarctic countries are notorious for their lack of interest in
waters. This is because the region does not fit the enforcing international conventions obligations
definition of areas governed by such treaties, reg- upon oceangoing commercial ships. Critics feel
ulations and laws since it does not fall under the these nations are not only reluctant to discipline
jurisdiction of a single sovereign state. This is major contributors to their economies; but even
compounded by sovereignty disputes and the more alarming, they simply may not have the
very real fact that many of the world’s states do resources to effectively enforce regulations or
not recognise sovereignty claims by other states. even punish polluters (Wright 2008). It would
States that do not recognise Antarctic claims to seem an appropriate time to ask whether an oper-
sovereignty treat the Antarctic waters as part of ator that is flying a flag of convenience should be
the high seas. This creates further legal complexi- considered as trustworthy as an operator that has
ties. Molenaar (2005) also shares Wright’s con- a flag from a country which actively involves
cerns in this area. Wright (2008) further highlights itself in matters in the Southern Ocean and
that despite sovereignty claims, much of the Antarctica. Molenaar (2005) highlights that in
Southern Ocean is beyond any of the claimant legal terms this situation is in many ways similar
states’ jurisdiction. Included in this are the land to that of the law of the high seas, whose regime
and maritime zones beyond the coastal state relies on the freedom of the high seas and the
jurisdiction of Africa, Australia and South primacy of flag state jurisdiction. He believes that
America, and claims on the Antarctic continent. regulation of human activities in Antarctica and
This is in addition to the areas adjacent to its surrounding waters is weakened by the
unclaimed portions of the Antarctic continent. In absence of undisputed sovereignty over the
these areas the flag state of a cruise ship has Antarctic continent.
exclusive jurisdiction (Wright 2008). She also The issue at the core of all these authors’ con-
highlights that when a commercial cruise ship cerns is that of legal liability when there is an
navigates international waters, it must be regis- accident in Antarctica. The issue of liability in the
tered with a country and have that state confer Antarctic Treaty System has been debated for
nationality on the ship. While on the high seas, years and has not as yet been comprehensively
the flag state retains exclusive legislative and addressed, further highlighting the inability of
enforcement jurisdiction. the ATS to regulate these very serious issues and
The cruise industry tends to flag its ships with respond in a timely manner?
states allowing open registries, called ‘flags of
convenience’ (Wright 2008). These are usually 2.5.1.1 Industry Self-Regulation
flagged in developing third world countries. Industry self-regulation has played an important
Non-US flag registries dominate the cruise regis- role in the management of the Antarctic cruise
try, as US laws are considered to be some of the industry to date. Recognising the potential envi-
most restrictive and punitive in the world. This ronmental impacts that increasing rate of tourism
causes further concern as states that issue cruise could cause, seven private tour operators joined
ships with a ‘flag of convenience’ often have no together in 1991 to form the International
further interest in the activities of the operator(s) Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. There
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Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 3, February, 1836
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Title: The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 3, February,

1836
Author: Various
Release date: May 21, 2022 [eBook #68141]
Language: English
Original publication: United States: T. W. White, Publisher and

Proprietor, 1836
Credits: Ron Swanson
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER, VOL. II., NO. 3,
FEBRUARY, 1836 ***
THE
SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER:
DEVOTED TO
EVERY DEPARTMENT OF
LITERATURE AND THE FINE

ARTS.
Au gré de nos desirs bien plus qu'au gré des vents.

Crebillon's Electre.
As we will, and not as the winds will.
RICHMOND:
T. W. WHITE, PUBLISHER AND PROPRIETOR.
1835-6.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME II, NUMBER 3

SELECTION IN READING
SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY and Present Condition of Tripoli, with some
accounts of the other Barbary States (No. X): by R. G.
A LAY OF RUIN: by Miss Draper
BALLAD: by W. M. R.
THE GOURD OF JONAH
THE COUSIN OF THE MARRIED, and the Cousin of the Dead: from the
French
THE DUC DE L'OMELETTE: by Edgar A. Poe
THE ILIAD
RUSTIC COURTSHIP IN NEW ENGLAND
PALÆSTINE: by P.
MARTORELLI
LIVING ALONE: by T. Flint
THE VALLEY NIS: by E. A. Poe
NEW TESTAMENT
CASTELLANUS, or the Castle-Builder turned Farmer: by Nugator
SONG: by M. M.
LINES to Miss M——t W——s, of P. Edward
LIBERIAN LITERATURE
GIBBON AND FOX
STATIUS
LIONEL GRANBY, Chapter VIII: by Theta
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, of Jonathan P. Cushing
LINES on reaching the banks of the Mississippi at the junction of the

Ohio, 1st July, 1818: by H. R. S.
SKETCHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR: by M. L. W.
GREECE: by Eliza
READINGS WITH MY PENCIL, No. I: by J. F. O.
CRITICAL NOTICES
PAUL ULRIC, or the Adventures of an Enthusiast: by Morris
Mattson, Esq.
MARTIN'S GAZETTEER: by Joseph Martin
ROSE-HILL: by a Virginian
CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL
An Eulogy on the Life and Character of John Marshall: by
Horace Binney
A Discourse on the Life, &c. of John Marshall, L.L.D.: by Joseph
Story, L.L.D.
An Oration on the Life and Character of John Marshall: by
Edgar Snowden
THE CONFESSIONS OF EMILIA HARRINGTON: by Lambert A. Wilmer
THE AMERICAN IN ENGLAND by Lieutenant Slidell
CONTI THE DISCARDED: with Other Tales and Fancies: by Henry F.
Chorley
NOBLE DEEDS OF WOMAN
RIENZI, THE LAST OF THE TRIBUNES: by Edward Lytton Bulwer
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, considered with reference to
Natural Theology: by Peter Mark Roget, M.D.
CAREY'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY
AUTOGRAPHY
SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER.
VOL. II. RICHMOND, FEBRUARY, 1836. NO.

III.
T. W. WHITE, PROPRIETOR. FIVE DOLLARS PER ANNUM.
SELECTION IN READING.
Go to the Library of one of our Colleges; survey its five, or ten

thousand volumes. You are astonished, that human thought or
human industry could have produced such an accumulation of
quarto upon folio, of duodecimo upon octavo—of Science, Literature
—of History, Fiction—of Prose, and Poetry. But look into other
collections northward of us, and in each, of several, you find more
than forty thousand volumes! When you have wondered sufficiently
at these, turn your 'mind's eye' to Europe; and behold, libraries
containing each one hundred, or even one hundred and fifty
thousand books! Look around you, then, and see how many
hundreds every week is adding to the mass of tomes already in
existence. Glance at the book-sellers' catalogues—at their notices in
the gazette—at the monthly and quarterly "Lists of New
Publications," in Magazines and Reviews—at the countless host of
Reviews and Magazines themselves, and of newspapers, tracts,
pamphlets, speeches, addresses—effusions of ten thousand various
forms and merits—craving your attention and bewildering your
choice! Go forth into society: in one circle, politics—in another,
canalling, or railroad lore—in a third, some point touching the
Campaigns of Bonaparte, the Wars of the League, the American
Revolution, or the Conquests of Tamerlane—in a fourth, the beauties
of Greek and Roman literature—in a fifth, some topic in Chemistry or
Geology—in a sixth, Byron, Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth—in a
seventh, the fifty last novels—are discussed by their respective
coteries, each, as if that subject alone threw all others into the
shade. And if you are not so torpid as to be incapable of excitement
by sympathy with others, and by themes inherently interesting, or so
self-possessed as to curb and regulate discreetly, the curiosity and
proneness to imitation which will on such occasions be kindled in
any but a blockhead—you cannot, for your life, help wishing to be
familiar with each theme. You go home; and plunge headlong into a
dozen different studies. Your acquisitions are huddled chaotically into
your knowledge-box, so that you have a full, distinct idea, of no one
subject: you can never get hold of what you want, at the moment
when you need it; but must rummage over an immense pile of
trumpery, with a bare hope, after all, of finding the useful article you
want. You are a shallow smatterer.
If you would be otherwise, DARE to be ignorant of all books, and all

things, which you are not sure will repay your trouble in reading
them, or which are not parts of a pre-arranged course, laid down for
you by yourself, or by some judicious friend. DARE to disavow an
acquaintance with a fashionable novel, or even with a fashionable
science, if it fall not within your plan. Always reflect, when the claims
of a new book are pressed upon your notice,—that, if you have forty
years to employ in reading, and can read fifty pages a day, you will
be able, in those forty years, to accomplish only about SIXTEEN
HUNDRED VOLUMES, of 500 pages each. Yes—out of the millions of
tomes that litter the world, you can read, in twice the time that most,
even of the studious, employ in reading—only sixteen hundred
volumes! Surely, the motto of every one who reads for improvement,
ought to be "SELECT WELL!"
"It is a great, nay the greatest part of wisdom," says an old
philosopher, "to rest content with not knowing some things."1
1 ——"magna, immo, maxima, pars sapientiæ est, quædam æquo animo nescire
velle."
Dugald Stewart justly observes, that by confining our ambition to

pursue the truth with modesty and candor, and learning to value our
acquisitions only so far as they contribute to make us wiser and
happier, we may perhaps be obliged to sacrifice the temporary
admiration of the common dispensers of literary fame; but, we may
rest assured, it is thus only we can hope to make real progress in
knowledge, or to enrich the world with useful inventions.
"'It requires courage indeed' (as Helvetius has remarked,) 'to remain
ignorant of those useless subjects which are generally valued:' but it
is a courage necessary to men who either love the truth, or aspire to
establish a permanent reputation."2
2 Philosophy of the Human Mind, Vol. I.
SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY
AND PRESENT CONDITION OF TRIPOLI, WITH SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE

OTHER BARBARY STATES.
NO. X.—(Continued.)
To return to Algiers. The Dey having as he conceived, effectually

closed every avenue to reconciliation with France, actively prepared
to resist the attack which he had every reason to believe would soon
be made on him. The fortifications of his capital had been much
enlarged and strengthened since the bombardment by Lord Exmouth
in 1816; the arsenal was well provided with naval stores and
munitions of every description; the treasury was filled with specie,
men were not wanting, and provisions could be procured in
abundance from the interior. In this condition, he had no reason to
dread an attack from a naval force, nor the consequences of a
blockade however rigorously maintained. Against internal
commotions he also felt himself secure. From the commencement of
his reign, he had steadily though cautiously pursued the plan in
which so many of his predecessors had failed, of preventing the
enrolment of foreigners, and supplying their places by native troops;
in this he had so far succeeded, that the number of the former in
1827 was less than seven thousand, while he had more than sixteen
thousand Moorish soldiers, regularly disciplined and attached to his
system, by the strongest ties of interest. When the whole military
force of the country, consisted of a few foreigners, any one of whom
might be raised to the highest offices of the State at the will of the
remainder, it is not surprising that dissatisfaction and turbulence
should have constantly prevailed; for under such circumstances the
election of a new chief only caused a change in the ranks of the
malcontents, without diminishing their numbers or their violence.
That the alteration made by Hussein would contribute vastly to
ensure the stability of his power, it is unnecessary to demonstrate; it
had been often attempted by his predecessors and it is only
extraordinary that it had not been effected long before.
Having secured this important object, Hussein no longer took pains

to conceal his views with regard to rendering the Sovereignty
hereditary in his family; he had no son, but his eldest daughter was
married to Ibrahim, whom he raised to the office of Aga or
Commander of the troops and Minister of War, and who appears to
have been his intended successor; that officer having no children,
his nephew was married to the Dey's youngest daughter, who was
for that purpose divorced from her husband. It was also probably in
furtherance of the same ends, that Hussein maintained a degree of
state unusual in Algiers, manifesting in his intercourse with the
ministers and officers, that he was a Prince, and not the mere chief
of the Janizaries. In order to insure his personal safety he seldom
appeared in public, but remained within the walls of the Casauba,
surrounded by a chosen guard of Moors, sufficiently strong to defend
that fortress against any attack which could be expected.
The French appeared by no means disposed to drive Hussein to

extremities; their squadron generally consisted of two frigates, and
four or five smaller vessels, which hovered before the entrance to
the bay, but offered little or no impediment to the passage of vessels
either outwards or inwards. Within a few days after the declaration of
war, several Algerine cruisers quitted the harbor, and committed
great ravages upon the unprotected commerce of France, sending
their prizes into various ports of Barbary, and even of Spain. The
prisoners were generally spared and brought to Algiers, in
consequence of the Dey's humane or politic proclamation, that he
would give for each living Frenchman twice as much as for his head
alone. The inactivity and want of skill thus displayed by the
blockading squadron, at length encouraged Hussein to bolder
attempts. By great exertions, he had been enabled at the end of
September 1827, to have ready a frigate, two corvettes, two brigs
and six schooners in addition to the vessels at sea; this force
however not being sufficient either in size or in weight of metal, to
authorize a regular engagement with the heavy ships of the French,
his plan was to surprise some one of them at a distance from the
others, and endeavor to carry her by boarding. With this intention,
which was kept secret until the moment for carrying it into execution,
a number of soldiers accustomed to the sea having on the morning
of the 4th of October, been suddenly embarked in the vessels, they
set sail immediately and bore down upon the nearest French ship.
The movement was immediately perceived by the rest of the
squadron, and a general action, or at least a general discharge of
guns on both sides ensued; this having continued for some hours,
without any notable damage to either party, the Algerine Commander
found that it was impossible to board any of the French vessels as
they had the weather gauge of him, and in consequence he returned
with his whole force into port. This action is duly noticed in the
French papers; the commander of the squadron in his despatch,
compliments his officers highly for the success of their efforts in
preventing the Algerine flotilla from getting out of the harbor, and
assures the Minister of Marine, that nothing but the heaviness of the
sea prevented his destroying the greater part of them.
In the following spring, (1828) an offer was made by Admiral Collet

to renew the negotiations for peace; and after some difficulties,
Captain Bézart who commanded one of the French brigs, was
allowed to enter Algiers and communicate with the Sardinian Consul
on the subject. He subsequently had a conference with the Algerine
Minister of Foreign Affairs, the results of which induced the Admiral
to despatch him to Paris, in order to receive the instructions of their
Government.
The French government probably received with satisfaction, the

account that the Algerines were disposed to treat for peace. The
Martignac Ministry which had just come into power, were employing
every means to secure the tottering throne of Charles the Tenth
against the efforts of the Liberal party, and they were anxious for the
adjustment of a dispute, which occasioned an enormous addition to
the budget of expenses without any return whatever. Dignity, or
rather the fear of wounding the vanity of the nation, however forbade
their seeming to make any advances after the Dey's insulting
rejection of the demands first proposed to him. Great care was
therefore taken to avoid any appearance of direct communication
with the Algerine government; but the Admiral was instructed
unofficially to hint, that if the Dey would send an ambassador to
Paris, the differences between the two countries might be
accommodated.
With these instructions Bézart returned to the African coast. During

his absence Admiral Collet worn down with disease had retired to
Toulon where he shortly after died; Admiral Botherel de la
Bretonniere who succeeded to the command, on learning the views
of the Ministers, instantly wrote a letter to the Dey in the sense
enjoined by them, and despatched the Captain with it to Algiers. He
arrived there on the 11th of September 1828, but when it was known
that he only bore a communication from the Admiral, he was not
suffered to proceed farther than the landing place on the mole,
where he was required to await the answer. A Barbary Prince of a
more pliable character than Hussein, might probably have gratified
the French Ministers by sending an Ambassador to Paris, who would
have figured in the pages of the Moniteur as a supplicant for peace;
but the Dey was made of stubborn stuff. He had expected a direct
communication from the French government, and was indignant at
being addressed instead, by one of its officers not even an
authorized agent; moreover the letter contained a proposition that he
should take a humiliating step, without any assurance that it would
be attended with favorable results. Seeing at once through the whole
manœuvre of the French government, his reply was a peremptory
order to Bézart instantly to quit Algiers.
A few days after, the same proposition was conveyed more distinctly
to the Dey through the Sardinian Consul, with an assurance on the
part of the Admiral, that his Government no longer expected apology
or reparation, but wished merely to place affairs between the two
nations on their former footing. Hussein however remained firm in his
refusal to make any advances, only telling the Consul, that after
Peace had been signed at Algiers, he might perhaps to please the
Ministers, send them an Ambassador. The French Government
finding its recommendations thus treated, authorized the Sardinian
Consul to inform the Dey, that no farther overtures would be made
by it towards reconciliation, and that measures would be soon taken
to obtain complete satisfaction for the injury committed against
France. Hussein coolly answered, that he had men and ammunition
in abundance, and that he preferred the fortune of war to making or
seeming to make any apology.
The destruction of three Algerine feluccas of six guns each, was the
next event worthy of note in the history of the war. These vessels
were returning from a successful cruise and endeavoring to enter the
harbor of Algiers on the 1st of October 1828, when they were
discovered and chased into the adjacent Bay of Sidi Ferruch. The
prize was soon recaptured; the other vessels took refuge close to the
shore, under a small and ruinous battery mounting twelve guns,
where they were attacked by the whole of the blockading squadron.
After the first fire, the feluccas and the battery were abandoned;
boats were then sent by the Admiral to destroy the vessels, which
having been effected the fire was continued on the battery until it
was nearly demolished. The loss on the side of the Algerines is
believed to have been very small; the French had six men killed and
seventeen wounded, by the bursting of a gun on board the Admiral's
ship the Provence. This trifling affair was made the subject of a
special report by the Minister of the Marine to the King of France,
which may be found at length in the Moniteur of the 17th of October;
it was so far important, as it enabled His Majesty to say in his
Address to the Legislative Chambers in January following, that
—"most striking examples had already taught the Algerines, that it
was neither easy nor safe to brave the vigilance of his ships."
Another attempt on the part of the French to teach the Algerines

prudence, was not attended with equal success; for on the 19th of
June 1829, twenty-four of their men, who had landed in pursuit of the
crew of a stranded Algerine vessel, were surrounded by Arabs and
put to death. The heads of these unfortunate men were carried to
Algiers, where the Dey paid for them according to the tariff
established; they were however on the application of the Sardinian
Consul immediately delivered to him for burial.
The Government of France was by this time convinced of the futility

of the measures which had been for two years pursued with regard
to Algiers. The blockade had produced none of the results which
were anticipated; it had been maintained at an annual expense of
more than seven millions of francs, and although the number of
persons killed in action was small, yet many had fallen victims to the
diseases occasioned by the climate; in return the Dey appeared less
inclined than ever to agree to satisfactory terms of peace, and the
commerce of France in the Mediterranean had been severely injured
by his cruisers. The opposition had also taken advantage of the
circumstances, and the Ministry were frequently denounced in the
Legislature and in the public journals of Paris, for their vacillating and
dishonoring conduct in the affair.
Unable to resist these demonstrations of their own inefficiency, the

French Ministry prepared for more decisive operations, by
assembling troops in the Southern Departments of the Kingdom and
collecting vessels for their transportation. Before employing these
extreme measures however, they were induced to make one more
attempt at negotiation; the circumstances which led them thus to
recede from the determination expressed in the previous year, are
reported to have been the following.
The Dey had several times expressed to the Sardinian Consul, his
admiration of the form and sailings of a brig called the Alerte
belonging to the blockading squadron; something in his manner at
length induced the Consul to inform M. de la Bretonniere, that
possibly His Highness might be inclined to negotiate for peace, in the
manner desired by the French Government, if it were understood
that the brig would be presented to him after the signature of the
treaty. The Admiral eagerly accepted this overture as he considered
it, and authorized the Consul to say in general terms, that he had no
doubt the Government of France would willingly accede to the Dey's
wishes in this particular, if an arrangement of the difficulties between
the two countries could be effected. Hussein's reply was
encouraging, and the Admiral in consequence sailed for France to
receive in person the instructions of his Government. He found the
Ministers anxious to have the affair peaceably adjusted; they were
ready to treat with the Dey provided it could be made to appear that
he had himself proposed the negotiation, and were willing to promise
the brig in return for the mission of an Algerine Ambassador to Paris.
The Admiral was accordingly instructed to assure the Dey, that if he
would comply with this formality, peace would be immediately signed
and the brig would be presented to him; but in order that no proofs
might exist of the advances made by the French Ministry, the whole
negotiation at Algiers was to be conducted verbally, through an
interpreter chosen for the purpose from the School of Oriental
Languages at Paris.
With these instructions, and accompanied by M. Bianchi the

interpreter, M. de la Bretonniere returned to the Bay of Algiers. The
Sardinian Consul, who undertook to arrange the preliminaries of the
negotiation proposed to the Dey that it should be conducted in
conferences between His Highness and the French interpreter, who
had arrived at Algiers for the purpose on the 23d of July. This,
Hussein immediately refused to allow, and the Admiral was thrown
into the very dilemma which he wished to avoid; that is to say he was
obliged to write a letter, or to abandon the attempt at negotiation. In
order to avoid this difficulty a letter was written in the Turkish
language, proposing in very general terms the renewal of former
relations between the two Governments, but saying nothing either
about the Ambassador or the brig. Hussein in reply expressed his
satisfaction at the offer which had been made by the French Admiral,
whom he invited to come on shore and confer personally with
himself on the subject. M. de la Bretonniere accepted this invitation,
and accordingly entered the harbor on the 30th of September 1829,
in his flag ship the Provence of eighty guns, accompanied by the brig
which had been the proximate cause of the negotiation. He landed
on the following morning, and had a long conference with the Dey, of
which the particulars have not transpired. On the 3d of August they
had another conference, which lasted but a short time; on this
occasion it is said the Admiral insisted on the mission of an
ambassador as an act of reparation to France, at which the Dey
became so enraged, that he ordered him immediately to leave
Algiers; certain it is that the conference was suddenly broken up, and
the parties separated, each in a state of high excitement. M. de la
Bretonniere immediately embarked, and sailed with his ships out of
the harbor; on passing by the Mole the Provence received a shot
from the fort, and although the flag of truce was displayed at her
mast head, the firing was continued until she was beyond their
reach. The ship is said to have received eighty balls; her port holes
were however kept closed, for had she returned the fire, it is
probable that she would have been sunk. That this flagrant violation
of good faith was the result of the Dey's orders, no one in Algiers at
the time for a moment doubted; Hussein however pretended that it
arose from a mistake, and that he had only ordered a gun to be fired
in case the ship should approach too near to the batteries, as a
signal for her to keep off. He moreover dismissed from office the
Minister of Marine, on whom the responsibility of the act rested; in so
doing however, he only advanced one of his own ends, for the
vacancy was immediately filled by the appointment of his son-in-law
Ibrahim Kara-Dengirzli, the nephew of the Aga Ibrahim.
The feeble and distracted Ministry which authorized this negotiation,

had been dissolved ere the news of its result arrived in France; and
those who succeeded to power in that country, though possessing
energy and union of purpose, were for some time wholly occupied in
preparing to confront the liberal party at the ensuing session of the
Legislature. No decisive measures were therefore taken with regard
to Algiers during the remainder of 1829; the blockade was indeed
maintained, but with so little rigor as to be scarcely more than
nominal; the Algerine cruisers were spread over the western part of
the Mediterranean, and occasionally appeared before Marseilles,
while the French Admiral with the greater part of his ships remained
generally at Port Mahon.
Attempts were made at this period, to effect an adjustment of the

differences, by the Governments of Great Britain and Turkey, which
were the most interested in preventing any change in the political
condition of the Barbary States. When the British Government
received the news of Hussein's flagrant violation of good faith, in
firing upon the French Admiral, the Pelorus sloop of war was
despatched to Algiers, where her commander Captain Quin united
with the British Consul Mr. St. John, in endeavoring to prevail upon
the Dey to propose terms of peace. This effort proving vain, the
Pelorus sailed to Constantinople, where it was agreed between the
Ambassadors of France and England, that the Sultan should be
requested to interpose; to this the Turkish Government readily
assented, and Halil Effendi a venerable and respectable Turk, who
had long known Hussein and been much esteemed by him, was
ordered to proceed to Algiers, and to entreat or command the Dey
no longer to provoke the vengeance of his powerful enemies. Halil
arrived in the Pelorus on the 28th of November at Algiers, where he
was received with great kindness and affection by the Dey and by all
classes of the inhabitants. His arguments and entreaties soon
produced effects, from which the mediators augured the most
favorable consequences; for Hussein after some days of reflection
and consultation with his Ministers, agreed to propose to M. de la
Bretonniere the renewal of the negotiations, offering him every
assurance of honorable treatment in case he should come to Algiers,
and as an earnest of the sincerity of his intentions, promising the
surrender of all the French prisoners. The Pelorus sailed with these
proposals on the 10th of December for Mahon, where she was
detained nearly three months in expectation of the Admiral's reply; at
length M. de la Bretonniere declared, that as he was still bound by
the first instructions from his Government, he could admit of
negotiation on no other terms, than the mission of an Ambassador to
Paris to bear the explanations of the Dey. With this answer Captain
Quin returned to Algiers on the 1st of April 1830; but no arguments
could induce Hussein to adopt the measure proposed: "God is
Great!" said he, "Let the French come."
In the mean time the French Ministry had taken a most serious
determination. The insult offered by the Dey in firing upon M. de la
Bretonniere, was concealed from the public as completely as
possible; no mention of it was made in the Moniteur, yet it finally
became known, and the opposition press of Paris eagerly seized the
opportunity, to vilify the hated Ministry of Polignac for delaying to
avenge the insulted honor of France. In this condition of things it
became absolutely necessary for the Government to take some
decisive step towards a conclusion of the war, in order to relieve
itself from a heavy and increasing burthen of popular odium on this
account. To effect this purpose, two plans were proposed in the
Ministerial Council. Count de Bourmont the bold and active chief of
the War Department, was in favor of an expedition sent directly from
France, against the capital city of the offending Sovereign. Prince
Polignac the head of the Ministry, was doubtful of the propriety of

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Adventure Tourism: Environmental

Impacts and Management 1st ed. 2020

Dark Tourism in the American West 1st ed. 2020 Edition

Labour Policies, Language Use and the ‘New’ Economy:

Environmental Sustainability in a Time of Change 1st

Transformation of Sydney’s Industrial Historic

The Calculus Story: A Mathematical Adventure 1st

Marketing Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts and Cases

Food Waste Management: Solving the Wicked Problem 1st

Sustainability Management in Heritage and Tourism: The

ISBN 978-3-030-18622-7 ISBN 978-3-030-18623-4 (eBook)

Cover illustration: David Merron Photography/gettyimages

1 What Is Adventure Tourism?���������������������������������������������������������� 1

2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations������������������������������������������ 31

3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts���������� 207

8.6.3 Waste Issues������������������������������������������������������������������ 260

9.2.3 Ecuador ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 302

10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda������������������������������������������������������������ 338

11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching������������������ 396

13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Fig. 2.1 Antarctica���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12

Fig. 3.13B Dettifoss, the largest waterfall in Europe, located in

Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal������������������������������ 252

Fig. 9.10A The number of tourists visiting Aconcagua region during

Fig. 11.12B Swimmers enter the water with snorkels to ‘swim

Fig. 13.2 Global temperature anomaly based on the instrumental

Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure������ 4

Table 8.5 Annual Trekking and Mountaineering Numbers for Nepal

at least two of the following three elements:

© The Author(s) 2020 1

Tourism accounts for 30% of all services and one

not necessarily environmentally sustainable or conservation and community development in the

one-page discussion of the environmental management (Ecotourism series) (Vol. 1, 213pp).

represented prohibitive conditions and major

© The Author(s) 2020 11

2.2 Definition of Antarctic

Fig. 2.4 (continued)

Title: The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 3, February,

Release date: May 21, 2022 [eBook #68141]

Original publication: United States: T. W. White, Publisher and

Credits: Ron Swanson

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

LITERATURE AND THE FINE

Au gré de nos desirs bien plus qu'au gré des vents.

As we will, and not as the winds will.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II, NUMBER 3

A LAY OF RUIN: by Miss Draper

THE GOURD OF JONAH

THE DUC DE L'OMELETTE: by Edgar A. Poe

RUSTIC COURTSHIP IN NEW ENGLAND

LIVING ALONE: by T. Flint

THE VALLEY NIS: by E. A. Poe

CASTELLANUS, or the Castle-Builder turned Farmer: by Nugator

LINES to Miss M——t W——s, of P. Edward

GIBBON AND FOX

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, of Jonathan P. Cushing

LINES on reaching the banks of the Mississippi at the junction of the

SKETCHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR: by M. L. W.

READINGS WITH MY PENCIL, No. I: by J. F. O.

VOL. II. RICHMOND, FEBRUARY, 1836. NO.

1 What Is Adventure Tourism?�� 1

2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations�� 31

3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts�� 207

8.6.3 Waste Issues�� 260

9.2.3 Ecuador �� 302

10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda�� 338

11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching�� 396

13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Fig. 2.1 Antarctica�� 12

Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal�� 252

Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure�� 4

2.2 Definition of Antarctic