A modern gate of simple but good design.

Quite in character with the house.

 MAKING FENCES
WALLS AND HEDGES

By W. H. BUTTERFIELD

NEW YORK
McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY
1914
COPYllIGBT, 1014,, •T
McBRIDE, NAST &. CO.

Published May, 1014o

 CONTENTS

PAGE
INTRODUCTION , . . . . . . 7

FENCES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION • • 9

,GATES , . . . . . . • 22

\VIRE FENCES , . . . . • 25

IaoN FENCES , . . . . • 26
TREILLAGE , . . . . • 28

\VALLS (STONE) , . . . . .• 81

\VALL GARDENS ,• . . . . .• 39

\VALLS OF Two OR 11oRE MATERIALS • 44

CONCRETE. , . . . . . . 49

CosT , . . . . . . . . 51

HEDGES , . . . . . . . . 55
PLANTING , . . . . . . 57

PRUNING , . . . . . . 58
VARIETIES , . . . . . . 61

2091630
THE ILLUSTRATIONS

A l\fom:RN GATE OF Goon DESIGN

Fronti,piece
FACING
PAGE

A COLONIAL EXAMPLE OF FENCE . • 10

EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICAN !RON

FENCE, . . . . . . . . . 26

A DRY STONE WALL . . . . . 82

A RUBBLE ,VALL . . . . . . . 88

STRAIGHTFORWARD BRICK \VALL . . 42

A Goon CONCRETE WALL . . . . 50

ARBORVIT.£ HEDGE . . . . . . . 58
 INTRODUCTION

U NDOUBTEDLY the first use of

·fences and walls was for protection,
primarily against the mighty beasts that
threatened our earliest ancestors and later
to secure the crops and domesticated ani­
mals. They helped to stop the encroach­
ing forests and jungles, acted as wind
breaks to delicate plants or to habitations
and finally served as boundaries to prop­
erty controlled by the family or com­
munity. As the home became an institu­
tion and men gathered in favorable loca-.
tions for mutual protection and social in­
tercourse, the fence acted as a screen 01
barrier to the private life about the house.
All walls and fences, no matter what their
use, can be made ornamental and their
proper use, however simple, but employed
with feeling and discernment for the arc�i­
tecture of the house and for the nature of
the land, stamps the property at once with
a personal touch.
7
8 Introducti°on
An important use of fences and walls,
more appreciated in Europe than here,
is support for vines, fruit trees and other
crawling plants. In England it is quite
necessary to ripen some fruits, such as
peaches, against walls. The additional
sunshine and the heat radiated from the
wall are responsible for the complete ripen­
ing of the fruit in a cool, damp climate.
As in all other matters of designing,
that is designing accessories for the house,
the same principles apply for these fea­
tures. Appropriateness of style with the
house, relation of color and proportion,
surface texture and the like ; all these are
important considerations. They are the
connecting links between the purely na t­
ural features of the grounds or garden
and the conventional and artificial fea­
tures of the building. They are the shad­
ings of expression between the formality
of the house and the formality of the gar­
den or the informality of the grounds.
 I
FENCES AND THEIR CONSTRUC-
TION

I F the line of boundary, whether a

fence, a wall or a hedge is placed at
the border of your property with that of
some one else, it is we1l to consult the law
as to what constitutes a "legal fence."
The various States have their own laws.
They govern the height and the material
and proclaim usually that each party to
a boundary shall maintain his half, con­
sequently you have no control over the
portion ,�hich does not face your land.
If you wish complete control of the fence
or wall, it must be entirely on your prop­
erty. The above points might be kept in
mind when determining the form you·r
boundary line is to take.
Fences are usually of wood, iron, wire
or their combinations. The commonest
form of fence, pure and simple, is of wood.
This is very natural as wood is our easiest
9
IO Fences, JFalls and Hedges
worked material and comes in convenient
shapes and sizes. Early forms of wood
fences are the snake, split rail and stump.
Later came the dressed rail and the board
and picket fence and such elaborate types
as are seen on large formal places, where
lattice work, balustraded fences, hoop
fences and many with combinations of the
above, occur.
The best we can say about the snake
fence is that it is picturesque, which is
another horribly misused word. Yet when
used to border an old pasture or encircle
a wood lot, the snake fence fits into its sur­
roundings so well that we are apt to for­
give it its faults, for it surely has some.
It is not a permanent type and as it is
only used for economy and speed of con­
struction it can be dismissed from the re­
mainder of these pages.
The more usual forms of wood fences
are board and picket. They are simple
in construction, the members consisting
of boards or pickets secured to horizontal
members which are in turn supported by
uprights in the ground. The most im­
portant member is the upright. The
A Colonial example. The lines of the fence and of the house are in per£ ect har­
mony. The vertical lines of the trees add no small part to the composition.
 Fences and Construction 1I
others are easier to renew and cheaper to
procure, therefore care is taken to use
wood that is least affected by contact with
earth. Of the common woods for this pur­
pose, locust and chestnut are the best.
The more seasoned the wood is the better
and to insure longer life the ends in the
ground can be treated, in fact all wood
coming in contact with the earth should
be treated for preservation. Charring
is one way. The end is held over a fire
until it is well blackened - both the tip
and the sides to a point above grade.
Other methods of preservation are peeling
and seasoning and painting.
Surface brush painting, while not dur­
able, is often resorted to and consists in
applying white-wash, petroleum, tar ere­
sate and coal tar creosote. Creosote is
the best when put on hot in two or more
coats. Paint the tops as well as the butts.
As the brush work does not enter far into
the wood, better results are obtained
by dipping the ends into the liquid, this
however takes more material but less la­
bor.
Impregnate· with creosote by heating the
12 Fences, TFalls and Hedges
wood and allowing it to cool in the mix­
ture. Have the temperature of the wood
over �00 ° F. so that the air and water
will be expanded and forced out and when
cooling begins, the vacuum which occurs
sucks in the creosote.
·whatever method is employed, carry
the treatment above the ground line as
at this point the surface is exposed to
more frequent conditions of dryness and
dampness. It is due to these constant
changes that wet-rot sets in. Notice any
wooden post that is decaying and you will
see just at the ground line a deeper area
of corrosion. Grade the earth away from
the post. Water should not be allowed to
stand or collect on or near any woodwork,
therefore it is well to bevel the tops of the
posts and rails so that rain will quickly
run off. Posts of old fences sometimes
were set on large stones level with the
ground, and secured to them by iron dow­
els.
The posts are best when set three feet
in the ground and eight. or ten feet apart.
The quickest, cheapest form is to nail the
rails to the posts and the _pickets or boards
 Fences and Construction 13
to the rails. Of course galvanized nails
should be used. A better way is to let
the rails into the posts, either at the sides
or through the center and bolt them, while
a still better way is to continue by cutting
out holes in the rails and passing the ends
of the pickets through them. Then when
all are nailed you. have a stouter fence.
However, in this case it is not quite as
easy to renew a broken picket or a split
rail. For a cheap fence four by four inch
posts, two by four rails and pickets seven­
eighths of an inch square two inches a part
may be used but it is much better to have
the posts at least six by six and the pickets
one inch or one and one-eighth inches
square. At times when a lightness and
grace of design is desired the smaller size
pickets are nsed.
An interesting fence is often made by
using boards of random widths placed ver­
tically to the rails. Tl1ese boards vary
from three to six inches in width and often
the tops are cut in uneven lines or follow
a curve from post to post as shown in
Fig. 1.
There is a form of tight board fence
14 Fences, IPalls and Hedges
that is occasionally used and one that does
not allow the joints between the boards to

Uneven boards of random widths from three to

::;ix inches, if the tops are cut in uneven lines,
make an attractive fence

open up (see Fig. �). The boards, while

set vertically, are lapped in the same way
as siding or clap boards on the walls of a

�-� �-
----
---
Boards less than one· inch in thickness,
fastened vertically to the rails and
lapped as are clapboards, make a
satisfactory tight fence

house and they are nailed where they lap

so that each board is held firmly to the
 Fences and Construction 15
next and to the mil. Use for these,
boards not less than one inch in thickness.
If you have a broad expanse that you
do not care to have broken by the line of
a fence, a sunken fence can be used which
is merely an ordinary fence set in a hollow.
This depression or little valley should have
sides steep enough to shut off a view of
the fence, but at the same time not so steep
but --verdure will grow. {See Fig. 3.)

A fence set in a hollow is concealed where an un-

broken, expanse is desirable

It is e,·ident that unless this form is used

where this is good natural drainage this
valley would become at times a river or
possibly a swamp.
The fences spoken of above are simple
both in design and in construction yet it is
surprising what pleasing and charming ef­
fects result from a careful study of the
relation of one member to another, that
is to say, their proportion. The spacing
of the pickets or boards has also much to
16 Fences, 117a/ls and Hedges
do with the final appearance. In general
where slender members are used ( as pick­
ets) the distance between 01· the void
should be somewhat larger than the width
of the vertical piece, while in the case of
boards, the void, if made less than the
board itself, gives a solidity appropriate
to this particular type.
You will find occasionally in some coun­
try districts a peculiar type of fence, or
rather a giant hedge, which has been
formed by cutting and bending young
trees. This bending is done near the
1
ground and trees have been selected or
planted to form the line desired for the
boundary. As the trees grow the main
trunks a few f�et above ground are hori­
zontal and the brnnches grow up vertically
from them while vines and bushes use the
trees thus deformed for supports, the
whole making an almost impenetrable
mass and an effective barrier. The in­
quisitive rambler has marveled when com­
ing across a pasture or field to see, stand­
ing out alone and grotesquely what might
have been a noble and upright member of
the forest, but now crippled and crushed,
 Fences and Construction . 17
an object of derision and humorous
wonderment. Long ago that tree, now a
pathetic sight, was part of a "live fence"
in which many of his brothers were mal­
treated in the same fashion. The rest be­
ing cleared away, as the land was used for
other purposes, he, by some chance or
whim, was left a mournful relict of a long
forgotten boundary.
\Vhen we come to fences of a more
decorative character an almost unlimited
number of forms are encountered. The
first step beyond the common picket and
board fence is one· where pickets are still
used but the post is treated more elab­
orat;ely; usually with architectural mem­
bers: That is it has a base, shaft and cap.
If classical in spirit, the accepted classical
moldings are used to form these members.
The shaft may have plain sides or panels;
the top often terminates in a finial such
as a vase, urn, ball or pineapple.
. Next the rails are deYeloped by having
moldings and the pickets become square
balusters or are even turned on a lathe.
The whole fence then becomes purely ar­
chitectural and is treated in the same way,
18 Fences, IPalls and Hedges
both as to design and construction as any
other architectural feature. As this type
is formal to the last degree, it is better
used in close proximity to the house, or
if in the garden it should have some rela­
tion to the main features, such as casinos,
pergolas, retaining walls and the like.
Some of the best modern English and
German wood fences are as good as any
done before them. \Vhether acting as
fences in the usual form or as screens, ar­
bors or backgrounds for planting, they
are most appropriate for their setting and
never seem out of place or style. (Figs.
4 and 5.)
The more complicated the fence is in
design, the more complicated it is in con­
struction. This is self evident. The
more parts, the more care necessary in con­
necting them and the larger the parts, the
more members to be assembled.
When a post becomes over five inches
square and has panels and molding it
is built up of different pieces, which
should be, if possible, tongued and
grooved into one another and have the
joints set in white lead. Hard wood
 Fences and Construction 19

Lattice fences are particularly eft'ective as a back­

ground for plan ting

Such English and German designs of wood fences

as this are particularly effective
20 Fences, Walls and Hedges

The fence post over fi.v� inch'es

square needs to be carefully con­
structed of dlfferent pieces. This
plan shows good construction
 Fences 'and Construction 21

splines are an additional security at mi­

tres to keep them from opening up. Rails
if over 4 x 4 inches should also be built
up. Clear white pine is by all odds, the
best wood for exterior work not in contact
with the ground. But it is expensive.
Cypress and cedar are used and in the
West, redwood. (Fig. 6.)
Fences of any height should be well
braced. To brace lengthwise is compara-

tively simple but get a brace at right

angle.s to the fence is not usually possible
and it is apt to look ugly and to take up
space that interferes with other features.
(Fig. 7.) It is therefore quite necessary
to thoroughly secure the uprights in the
ground. Bracing is important near gate-
22 Fences, Walls and Hedges
ways as at these places a greater strain is
borne.
GATES

The gates themselves should be espe­

cially strong and the construction here is
more elaborate, as frequently the gate is
the principal feature of the whole. It is
the point of interest of the general design.
The braces are to be worked in as part
of the composition. They should not look
like independent members, but should tie
in with the general arrangement. Equal
size rectangular parts intersecting may be
halved together, although care must be
taken not to weaken a structural part.
Corner gates are bad for they put an un­
even strain on the fence.
Remember that a gate acts as a lever
and exerts a strain on its support pro­
portionate to its length. In wide gates
various devices are resorted to to establish
an equilibrium so that all the weight is not
borne by the lower hinge or fastening.
Braces and balances serve for this purpose.
The braced gate is shown in Fig. 8, the
brace being kept low enough not to mar
 Fences and Construction 2-3
the appearance or to produce a clumsy ef­
fect. The balanced gate is structurally
better for it can be made to be absolutely
counter-balanced and divide the load
equally. The weight is generally a box

A simple type of braced gate easily constructed

filled with stone and the member holding

it may be a section of a tree trunk which
is pivoted on the top of the post to which
the gate is hinged. (See Fig. 9.)
If the braced and balanced gates are not
appropriate for your fence, ones with con­
cave tops may be substituted as they work
24 Fences, Walls and Hedges

A box filled with stones is a common means of

balancing the weight of a wide gate
on the same principle as those that are
braced. (See Fig. 10.)

A concave top is a substitute for bracing that is

attractive in appearance
Gate hinges may be cast or wrought iron
strap hinges for the informal gates and
 Fences and Construction 25
regular pin butts for elaborate ones. A
latch should be provided either of wood,
to be old fashioned, or of iron. Turn­
stiles are quaint adjuncts to fences in old
time gardens. They are seen more in
England than here but are often useful in
connection with a large gateway for vehi­
cles.
WIRE FENCES

I dare say for general ·utility and length

of service the wire fence with iron posts
gives the best results for the amount of
money expended. They are quickly
erected and need but a few repairs. How­
ever, the possibilities, artistically, are
limited. The posts are set in iron anchors
which require little digging and spiral
wires, with a flat cross section, are run be­
tween. The greatest objection to this
fence is that it is easily climbed and con­
sequently, not only allows the ingress of
intruders, but causes the wires to be broken
or pulled out from the fastenings at the
post, which consist of wire elliptical rings
passing around the horizontal wire and
t�rough a hole in the flange of the post,
26 Fences., IFalls and Hedges
whose cross section is in the form of a
T. To avoid climbing barb wire and high
non-climbing mesh are used.
Another serviceable form of wire fence,
but one utterly devoid of decorative qual­
ities, is composed of concrete posts and
horizontal wires. The posts are molded
with holes for the wires to pass through
and are reenforced with steel rods. Rail­
roads use this extensively along their right­
of-ways. Instead of the holes }n the posts,
staples may be set in the concrete before
it sets and the wires passed through these.
If a wire mesh is used instead of horizon­
tal wires some interest may be effected by
the weaving of the wire or by the propor­
tioning of the meshes.
The best wire for a fence is one that is
of hard steel but not of spring steel grade.
It should be able to stand considerable
abuse and hard wear yet at the same time
be easily. spliced. Top and bottom wires
to hold fabric between are best of carbon
steel.
IRON FENCES
The all iron fence, whether cast or
wrought is an expensive proposition com-
An early 19th century American iron fence set on a stone base course.
 Fences and Construction 27
pared with the fences previously discussed.
Iron fences are usually elaborate and re­
quire special molds and castings if an
original design is used, but many fairly
good designs are supplied from stock by
the manufacturers and these, of course,
are cheaper than the ones specially pre­
pared. Iron in connection with brick or
stone is effective. The color of wrought
or cast iron with masonry is always pleas­
ing. :Masonry piers with iron between is
a common form. Take care, however,
that if the design of the iron work is formal
the pier should be formal and vice versa.
Wrought iron has a better texture and
color than cast iron but costs more.
In general iron and wire fences should
have their posts so secured that they may
not be lifted from the ground by frost.
If the iron is set in conc;rete bases it is
liable to rust quicker. Use cast iron
anchor bases and select a fence that can
be put together by ordinary tools.
The best manufacturers' catalogues
give excellent information about iron and
wire fences and show diagrams for their
setting and assembling.
28 Fences, Walls and Hedges

TREILLAGE
Let us say a few words for trellis-work
inasmuch as it is a first cousin to the fence.
I do not speak of the ordinary lattice
which clings to walls, rears itself between
porch columns or spreads over rear door­
ways and out buildings. Rather do I
mean the putting together of posts, rails
and other delicate wood members, includ­
ing the above lattice, to form a distinct
architectural design which may serve for
various purposes such as statue niches,
summer houses, arbors or supports to
pergolas and screens.
One of the first requisites in the design­
ing is that the framework while being
strong must, at the same time, carry out
gracefully the lines of the structure.
Angles may be strengthened by iron
stays. If not securely fastened heavier
wood must be used which would probably
injure the effect of the design. The frame
forms the organic lines of the pattern.
For the filling in do not have too many
curved lines but depend upon these to ac­
centuate a point of interest, such as an
 Fences and Construction 29
oval in the center of a square or rectan­
gular space. (See Fig. 11.) The pieces
as they meet, for strength's sake are not
halved together but are let over one an­
other. The better effect is when from
the side usually viewed the vertical

A treillage fence is graceful, but its framework

must be strong and few curves used

members are seen to pass over the

horizontal ones. Secure these by nails
or wooden pins. For trellis work the
English use oak, teak and other hard
woods, but we here, shall probably be
obliged to employ the same woods as for
our fences.
30 Fences, Walls and Hedges
Since " treillage " requires the best of
carpenter work it would be wise to confide
the designing to one accustomed to using
architectural forms and the making to one
who is used to carrying them out.
 II.

WALLS

STONE WALLS

T HE original wall was of stones

gathered from the surrounding land
and piled unevenly to form a barrier.
This is a dry wall and even to-day there
are more dry stone walls than any other
kind.
A dry wall is the easiest of the n1asonry
walls to build. Large flat stones are
selected for the base and are laid somewhat
below grade. On these come the regular
wall stones. Select stones that have a
natural bearing surface, for of course the
more rounded the stones are, the more
liable they are to roll down or become
dislodged. The quickest wall to build is
where no special regard is given to regu­
larity or to height; consequently great
care is unnecessary in choosing the stones
or fitting them to their places. A better
31
32 Fences, Walls and Hedges
wall is obtained when a fairly true surface
is kept and the stones fitted to their places
even if it is necessary to break some pieces
or trim them with a stone hammer. If
the stones come in lengths greater than
their depths, or are fairly rectangular a
more pleasing appearance is the result.
This is true of any stone wall for the im­
pression is one of permanency, while
rounded 'stones, especially cobbles, give the
feeling that they rpay at any moment roll
from their places and in truth they would
in many cases, if it were not for mortar
holding them together. The spaces be­
tween the large stones are filled with
smaller ones, but it is best to keep those
more for the interior of the wall than for
the outer faces. It is not well to make a
dry wall less than two feet in thickness.
This at the top, for a small batter or in­
clination toward the center helps the stabil­
ity. This thickness is for a wall of 3 ft.
or less in height. For every 6 in. addi­
tional height the width should be increased
4 in. All stones of a strata character
should by all means be laid on their nat­
ural beds. They are not then so liable to
A dry stone wall showing the stones laid on
their natural bed and having their horizontal
dimensions much in excess of their vertical di­
mensions; a good characteristic.
 IPalls 33
!Cale. • The famous, or infamous brown
stone fronts of New York are good ex­
amples of this for the stone was set op­
posite to its natural bed in the quarry and
the consequence is that all over town you
will see the brown stone scaling away.
The reason that the masons laid· them as
they did was to secure a surface that
would take a smoother finish.
The top of a dry wall may be finished
level, with the stones as they come or have
a coping. The coping can be of broad
:flat stones laid dry covering the entire
width of the top or they may be set in
ceIIlent mortar, the interstices being well
slushed up with the mortar.
The neatest example of a dry stone wall
to the author's knowledge borders the line
of the new Catskill aqueduct not far from
New York City. The stones have been
split in long lengths and have been care­
fully fitted. The faces are true with no
projecting· stones and the spaces between
the larger stones are filled with smaller
ones, which almost exactly fit their posi­
tion. The coping is of rough cut stone
in long slabs covering the entire width and
34 Fences, Walls and Hedges
these slabs are held together by cement
mo.rtar.
The life of any stone wall or pier is in­
creased if it is carried below the frost line
which should be from 3 to 4 feet. But
this is too expensive in proportion to the
cost of a dry wall. In a wall of cut stone
laid up in mortar it is more necessary as
any settlement or heaving will show cracks
in a wall of this character.
The texture of the rough, natural sur­
faces of the stones in ·a dry wall gives it
its principal charm. Stones selected with
a covering of moss, stones having varia­
tions of color and occasionally a huge rock
taking up the space of several smaller
ones, add to the wall's interest. Place
these large rocks at the bottom. They
give stability.
The final effect of a stone wall depends
much upon the arrangement of the stones ;
the proportion of large to small ones. If
the stones are of all the same or nearly
the same size the result is sure to be mo­
notonous. Have plenty of long stones.
Get a vertical feeling occasionally by put­
ting in a few st.ones that are considerably
 Walls 35
higher than they are wide. See that the
stones are carefully fitted to their posi­
tion.
A wall set in cement mortar is naturally
more permanent. Each stone is then held
firmly to its neighbor and the whole be­
comes almost a monolith. Especially is
this true when all crevices are well filled up
with the mortar. There are several ways
in which a wall of this kind may be laid up.
The joints between the stones are often
filled with the mortar flush to the outer
surfaces of the stones. By this method
truer and more even faces are secured.
Sometimes the joints are raked out.
That is the mortar does not come out to
the surface but stops anywhere from one
half to two inches back. If it is carried
in deep enough the effect of a dry wall is
the result. In a very thick wall, say three
feet or over, mortar is only necessary in
the center and this also has the appearance
of a dry wall. The method of laying is
determined largely upon the nature of the
stones and kind of surface wished for. If
the stones have rounding faces, it is a sav­
ing in mortar not to make µ, flush finish for
36 Fences, Walls and Hedges
as some stones are bound to project be­
yond others it would be necessary to bring
the mortar to the outer faces of these.
But .this would probably cover up many
of the stones that did not project. How­
ever some charming walls have been built
where about 50%· of the surface showed
stone and the other half was cement. The
appearance here and there of a stone con­
trasting with the cement makes an interest­
ing color effect.
This brings us to the question of color,
an extremely important consideration in
any wall. Most field stones are gray in
color which if assembled together without
some relief would prove uninteresting.
To avoid this, search for stones that are
either darker or lighter than the general
run and by placing them judiciously the
needed sparkle and contrast is acquired.
If the joints are not so deep but that the
mortar shows, then another chance for
contrast is obtained. If the mortar
should happen to be, when dry, the same
or nearly the same color as the stone it
may be lightened by adding a small per­
centage of lime putty, not over 10%, or
 Walls 37
a. white cement can be substituted for the
gray. In any case use a Portland cement.
To produce a black or dark gray joint,
mix lamp black with the mortar. Ex­
perimenting with a small amount will give
you the proportion. A beautiful wall,
very light in color, has been obtained by
using enough mortar to make a flush or
very nearly flush wall and then washing
the entire surface with a rather thin mix­
ture of white cement and sand. To get
a color even lighter, white sand is used in­
stead of ordinary sand.
In masonry terminology, the walls de­
scribed above would be called rubble.
(See Fig. 12. ), Rubble is the simplest and
least formal type ; the stones are irregular
in all dimensions and are laid up as they
come with as little breaking and splitting
as possible. If the stones are laid in
courses the wall is design ated as "coursed
rubble." After rubble comes random
ashlar. Technically an ashlar is a veneer
of stone that is used to cover and give fin­
ish to a rougher wall behind. This back­
ing wall may be of rubble or of brick. A
" broken ashlar " is where the stones, while
38 Fences, Walls and Hedges
having the exposed faces dressed and
trued, are of unequal sizes, though rec­
tangular in shape. (See Fig. rn.)
" Coursed ashlar " is where any course is
of the same height for its entire length.
A wall of this kind is a big step toward
the formal. It is much more expensive to

Two methods of laying

stone for fences

build over the rubble wall and takes more

skill in the building.
A long wall may not only be
strengthened but interest added thereto if
piers or buttresses are employed. No
specific directions can be given for the
A rubble wall laid up in cement mortar with flush joints and surfaces. The wall is
in character with the house beyond.
 Walls 39
shape, size or spacing of these features for
they depend entirely upon the use of the
wall, its position, height, etc. The general
principles of proportion apply as in all
other matters of design.
The height of formality in a stone wall
is where the stone is cut and laid exactly
as for the walls of a building. That is
to. say, they may be dressed with any of
the surfaces familiar to the stone mason;
the joints may be narrow or rusticated;
architectural forms may be used and the
specifications for such walls would read
the same as for the walls of any stone
building.
WALL GARDENS

An unusual variety of wall is one where

planting is done directly upon the wall
itself. This is called a Wall Garden.
The wall in this case is more or less
informal and is laid up dry and the crevices
are packed with soil for the nourishment
of the plants. The stones in the wall are
so set that they will drain off all super­
fluous water. The best wall for this pur­
pose is a retaining wall, not over five feet
40 Fences, Walls and Hedges
in height. A retaining wall having solid
earth on one side affords better advan­
tages for the growing of plants than one
where each side is a " garden," for natu­
rally in the latter case, the storage space
for plant food is limited. Better results
are obtained when the face of the wall·
slopes back from the perpendicular.
Further details of a ,vall Garden and
directions for planting, etc., may be found
in another book of this series entitled
" Making a Rock Garden " by H. S.
Adams.
BRICK WALLS

Perhaps there is no building material

better than good, hard burned bricks.
They have had the test of time such as no
other material made by man has had.
They have wonderful variation of color,
.a pleasing range of surface textures and
when laid up in cement mortar a perma­
nency that not even stone can exceed.
Coming in regular sizes, a wall of them
may be of any thickness provided the di­
mension is a multiple of four, the depth in
inches of the average brick.
 Walls 41
The thinnest possible wall of brick is
four inches, one brick deep. ( See Fig.
13.) This, if built straight, would have
little strength laterally and therefore a
four inch wall is run zig-zag like a snake
fence or br9ken up into short runs by
other methods. If each run is not too
long and the height is low, say not over
five feet, a fairly strong. wall is construct­
ed. The serpentine fence at the Uni-

The zigzag brick wall can be built one brick deep.

Less space is used if piers are placed at inter­
vals

versity of Virginia, designed by Thomas

Jefferson, is an interesting example.
This zig-zagging however takes up ground
space so strength may be secured by us­
ing piers at 6 to 10 foot intervals. If
carried below the frost line greater safety
is the result, for a wall so thin has little
weight and is easily heaved out of place.
Some walls are built with two thick­
nesses of brick and an air space between�
( See Fig. 14.) The two shells are held
'42 Fences, Walls and Hedges
together with bonds which may be brick
laid the long-ways across or may be of
metal, special metal bonds coming for this
purpose. Hollow walls on account of the
air space retain heat longer than solid
walls while they require �5% less brick
than the latter.
If we find that a wall, for its length,
height and position, should require twelve
inches of thickness, it would not always

The commonest methods of bricklaying and fin­

ishing the mortar joints. At the left is a sec­
tion of a properly built hollow wall

be necessary to make the entire length so

deep. By putting in piers at say eight or
ten foo� intervals and making them sixteen
inches or more' square, the wall could be
reduced to . eight inches. These piers
stiffen the wall, act as buttresses and help
give lateral strength. If the piers are of
great height, ten feet or over, a bond stone,
which is a stone four or more inches thick
running through the entire pier, helps tie
A straightforward brick wall. s�me of the
joints are raked and some are flush. The
top course of brick is laid with headers on
end and covered with cement,
 Walls ·'43
the whole together, this bond stone may
be placed as near the center of the pier as
the design will permit.
The top of a brick wall is capped with
stone, terra-cotta, cement or brick set on
edge. The stone and terra-cotta coping
are more lasting. The old expedient to
exclude trespassers, of imbedding broken
glass and bottles in cement, is still occa­
sionally seen.
Like stone the brick should be set in
Portland cement mortar and the same di­
rections for color apply as above. The
joints can be flush or raked out.
The method of placing the bricks in the
wall is called the bonding. The usual
forms are common or American bond, Eng­
lish bond and Flemish bond. ( See Fig
14.) The illustrations show the yarieties
and also that through bricks at intervals
are necessary to the strength. The com­
mon bond takes less brick than the other
two as only every sixth or seventh course
is laid headers. The headers are the ends
of the bricks exposed while the stretchers
are bricks laid the long or natural way.
,vonderful decorative effects are pro-
 44 Fences, Walls and Hedges
, duced by the bonding and by various
methods of placing the bricks in the wall.
Bricks placed on edge, flatwise, laid her-
1ring bone and with continuous joints are
some of the ways to procure these effects.

WALLS OF TWO OR MORE. MATERIALS

When we come to consider walls of two

or more materials we have a wealth of de­
sign s and combinations. There are stone
and brick, stone and wood, iron and stone
or iron and brick. Where wood or iron
is used with brick or stone, the former are
employed usually as fillers in between brick
or stone pieces and these would be spaced
the same distances apart as the posts in
wood or iron fences. A fence of wood
running between stone or brick piers of­
fers a style that combines the appearance
of masonry with the comparative cheap­
ness of a wood fence. And what charm­
ing design s are possible with this union!
The white of the painted wood and the
gray of the stone make a color scheme
that goes gloriously with flowers �r lawn,
reflects its�lf in a pool or stands out grace-
 Walls 45
fully from a background of shrubbery or
evergreens and fits into an old fashioned
garden like the hole in the doughnut, which,
you will admit is a perfect fit.
Brick and iron go particularly well to­
gether. Not only is this true as regards
color but they seem to have a certain af­
finity of texture which is harmonious and
satisfying.
In all designs architectural, and walls
of masonry arc to be considered as archi­
tecture, whether part of a building or
free-standing, there is a factor that is
hlghly important to the success of the de­
sign. It is the subtle relation of surface
to surface, texture to texture. This re­
lation is quite independent of form and
also of color in as far as color does not
affect texture.
Let us keep this in mind in combining
our materials for our walls and fences.
If stone and wood are to be used, we shall
not have our stone piers, with rough un­
dressed faces, rugged and bold, keeping
guard over a slender, delicate and formal
screen work of wood between. Rather
should we have stout palings, that are per-
46 Fences, Walls and Hedges
chance allowed to weather or at the most
receiving a stain more as a preservative
than as a finishing surface. But as we
smooth down our piers ; set the stones more
regularly, our wood becomes more formal
and perhaps playful and the surfaces
smoother and the angles sharply cut.
In the most trivial of building opera­
tions as in the mightiest, the foundations
are the first and one of the most impor­
tant considerations.
Very few walls are heavy enough of
themselves to cause the earth beneath to
give way or to be pushed out of place.
Even the poorest soils will bear from three­
quarters to a ton of superimposed weight
to the square foot. By this is meant nat­
ural soils, for of course, some kinds of
made land have little or no bearing power,
also quick-sands. If your wall is to be
so heavy that you fear for its stabil­
ity in consequence of poor ground, then
by all means call in an expert and take no
chances. While the wall may be in little
danger of settling from its own weight yet
such conditions might arise whereby the
 Walls 47
earth beneath is taken away, as by water,
and the wall just " naturally " drops.
An open tile pipe beneath the wall, if given
a pitch, helps to carry away moisture.
But this pipe must be able to lead some­
where away from the wall and empty or
else it will become merely a cistern and

The solid retaining wall needs a drain at the bot­

tom. Here are two satisfactory methods of
laying drain tiles

hold the water instead of discharging it.

If the wall is a retaining wall it is doubly
important that no water collects near
the bottom. The illustration shows the
method for draining this type of wall.
(See Fig. 15.)
48 Fences, Walls and Hedges
In place of the pipe a course of dry
stones, which allow water to percolate
through them, may be substituted. The
bottom of all permanent masonry walls
should extend below the frost line, which
will be from three to four feet below grade,
the farther north we are the deeper we
go, but four feet will be the ma�;mum.
To join wood and stone it is well to
have as little wood as possible imbedded in
the stone work on account of liability to
rot. This is more true of vertical pieces
of wood than horizontal ones, as they col­
lect water at the joints more readily.
Iron dowels and anchors are safe and
strong means of fastening. If iron is used
with stone it may be built into the stone
work or a hole drilled, the iron inserted
and the hole plugged with molten lead.
With brick it is better to build in the iron.
If balusters are brought down on stone or
concrete they are more lasting if held a
small fraction of. an inch above the stone
by an iron dowel, for the water cannot
then collect around the base .and rot the
wood.
 Walls 49

CONCRETE

Concrete combines well ;ith stone, brick,

wood or iron. Its simplest use is. for the
posts of a wood or iron fence; we have
already spoken of the wire fence with con­
crete. To elaborate, the spaces between
the posts may be 'filled in with a solid con­
crete wall and furthermore brick and stone
may be employed with the concrete for
this purpose.
One advantage of concrete is that the
average person may in a short time learn
to mix and set it. But don't persuade
yourself that concrete is an easy material
to handle. In the first place it is heavy,
weighing some 135 pounds per cubic foot;
it must be mixed thoroughly, which takes
hard manual labor, and besides it dirties
up, while wet, everything with which it
comes in contact. It would be wise be­
fore starting work to procure a good hand
book on concrete which gives careful di­
rections as to mixing, etc. As direc•
tions have been given in so many articles
and books concerning the methods of con-
50 Fences, Walls and Hedges
crete making, it is not necessary to repeat
them here.
To vary the color and texture, employ
different kinds of sand and cement. A
white Portland cement with white sand
gives a very light wall, almost white, but
the difficulty is that white sand which is
usually from the beach is not sharp and
consequently not as strong. Yellow sand
with gray cement make a brown or brown­
ish gray wall and gray sand and gray
cement give a decided gray when set. As
wood forms are used to hold the concrete
until hard, the surface and joints of the
boards are left imprinted upon the surface
of the concrete. To avoid this, take down
the forms before the set is too hard and
scrape with a stiff wire brush. Pebbles
mixed in with sand and cement show an
interesting surface texture after scrap­
ing.
While concrete has great crushing
strength and is able to resist great weights
placed upon it, in comparison it has little
tensile strength. It is well therefore to
provide this tensile strength by some other
material. Steel rods are usually employed
A good concrete wall. The surface texture is interesting for the concrete has not
been touched after removing the wood forms. The lines of the boards are quite
visible.
 Walls 51
for this. They are placed where the ten­
sile stress occurs. If a load is applied
to a concrete beam, the tendency to bend
causes the molecules in• the upper part of
the beam to be compressed and those in
the lower part to be pulled asunder. The
steel rod or rods placed below the center,
by their great tensile qualities, supply the
needed strength. Posts should have two
rods, placed vertically in diagonal corners
and walls can have either rods placed ver­
tically or a steel mesh running lengthwise
with the wall. If a wall is thick and not
high in proportion to its width this re­
enforcing is not necessary. Expansion
joints should be left in all continuous walls
and precise information about these is ob­
tained from the hand books.
COST
It is difficult to lay down definite figu res
for the cost of building walls and fences.
Material and labor vary from year to year
and from place to place. Therefore what
follows should be regarded as only approx­
imate although every precaution has been
taken to be accurate.
52 Fences, Walls and Hedges
Starting with fences, the simple form's
of picket fences cost in the section of
New York about $�.00 to $5.00 per
running yard. New England and the
South could build. them cheaper, say for
75 cents up per yard, due in the former
section to cheape1· labor and in some parts
cheaper material, and in the latter section
(the South) to both cheaper labor and
material. The ,vest in general is cheaper
than New York, especially in the lumber
regions. These figures are for fences of
considerable length and not for short runs.
As the fence becomes more complicated
in design the labor cost increases in a
greater ratio than the material cost and
the only exact way to determine these is
to get an estimate from a carpenter. It
would be necessary to have drawings of
the fence to get accurate figures.
• For wire and iron fences the safest way
is to go directly to the manufacturers for
their figures. Their catalogues give prices
and other information.
A fence 3 feet high of three wires strung
between locust or chestnut posts costs
from 90 cents to $1.00 per running yard.
 Walls 53
A fence five feet high cost $1.15 per run­
ning yard. If you have the posts grow­
ing, then outside of buying the wire and
the staples the cost consists of cutting and
setting. A man can drive 90 posts in a
day under ordinary conditions and he can
dig 30 holes. A man can drive from 25
to 200 iron posts in a day, depending on
the soil.
In rough masonry work we figure by the
perch of 16½ cubic feet. For a rough
dry wall a good average would be $4.00
the perch while for one laid up at random
in cement mortar a perch would be worth
about $5.00. Copings 4 x 21 inches if
rock face edges and tops, cost from $ .50
per lineal foot up ; if clean cut $1.00 or
more. These figures are for stone at hand,
if carting is necessary the price goes up
in proportion to the distance hauled.
,valls of common brick handburned with
ordinary bonds cost from $12.00 to $15.00
per thousand bricks. There are 15 bricks
to a square foot of 8-inch wall, 22½
bricks to a square foot of 12-inch wall,
30 bricks to a square foot of 16-inch wall,
and 7½ bricks for each additional thick-
54 Fences, Walls and Hedges
ness of wall. Face brick such as washed,
wire cut and tapestry brick bring the price
up 50 per cent. or more. Cut stone walls
can only be fixed by estimates when draw­
ings and specifications are supplied. Con­
crete mixed by hand in most sections runs
from $6.00 to $10.00 per cubic yard.
Remember in figuring the cubical contents
of a. wall to inc lude what is below grade
as well as what is above.
 III
HEDGES

H EDGES are capable of fitting any

scheme of planning and combine
with the beautiful some of the most ex­
cellent of practical features. These "live
fences " with the colors of nature have a
limitless range of shapes and sizes.
If dense, the hedge not only obstructs
the vision of the outsider but acts as a
windbreak. If less thick it still screens,
but at the same time allows a certain
amount of air to pass through. With the
average wall or fence, once in place,' a
change is not easy. Not so with the
hedge. It may be varied from year to
year, now thick, now thin, now high, now
low, until just the right shape and density
are acquired. It improves with time.
With hedges you have wonderful back­
grounds for garden accessories, long lines
of bright color if needed or screens to ob-
65
56 Fences, Walls and Hedges
jectionable features. They may be links
between the formal and the purely natural
and mark a dividing line with softness but
decision.
Yet even such a glorious creature as a
hedge has some disadvantages. It just
welcomes all sorts of woody and creepy
vines, among which the poison-ivy is a
leader. The only successful way out, is
to remove these intruders by hand when
they are small, or otherwise the task will
become a titanic one. Then there are the
insects, but these can be treated with the
same methods and amount of work as for
shrubs and trees. Cultivation is of ten
necessary and makes another act of labor
with pruning and spraying. Yes, a hedge
must have care while a brick or stone wall
once in place needs little further attention.
Do not get the ide·a that hedge growing
is a life long affair. It is true that box
and a few other varieties are very slow
growing but privet and laurel makes in two
or three years a very respectable appear­
ance and the majority of others very little
longer.
 Hedges 57
PLANTING
General Directions. Before planting is
started the soil must be properly prepared.
First thoroughly plow a width of six feet
and the length of the hedge and then cul­
tivate. Better .results are certain when
fertilizers are used and the area cropped
the year previous, especially if the soil is
poor or impoverished. A trench or fur-
row is run through the center of the cul­
tivated strip deep enough to take the
roots without bending, and after setting
growth is hastened by making the soil firm
with a rammer.
The young plants must be shortened
both top and root before planting and
must not be too old or large. It is true
that in transplanting hedge plants as well
as fruit trees the shock of transplanting
retards the growth when too far developed
so that 8: younger plant, which has not
gone far enough to be shocked, will over­
take and pass its older rival in a few years.
Two or three years old is about the right
age. A young hedge often has a wire
fence down the center as a reenfarcing un-
58 Fences, 1f7alls and Hedges
til it is strong enough to stand by itself
in the world.
A good general rule for the spacing of
the new plants is to have the distance be­
tween· two-thirds the height of the plants.
If you wish to have eventually a high
hedge, plant farther apart than for a low
hedge. To �elp increase the height from
the beginning plant on a low raised bank
whose flat top should be at least two feet
wide. Let this bank have turf.
Plant in single lines for formal efFects
and in double lines, the plants alternating,
for p·rotection and shelter.
Where a hedge is used as a background
for flowers a distance of two feet may well
be kept between the hed ge and the flowers
as the roots of the former would rob the
latter of much of their nourishment.

PRUNING

All deciduous growths may be pruned

at any time in the south, while in the north
mild weather in February and March is
selected by many gardeners fo.r this work.
The plants develop buds along the
branches and when part of a branch is cut
Arborvitre hedge. For dense, thick barriers this variety is unexcelled.
 Hedges 59
away the future growth is concentrated in
the remaining buds which improves the
shape and the health of the plant. But
good judgment is essential for this prun­
ing. Different plants require different
cuttings and the final shape desired has
much to do with where the cuts are to �
made. To secure a bushy effect, cut back
the ends of branches. To get long ver­
tical branches cut away those branches
which are not vertical or which interfere
with those that are. As a rule make the
cut just above and quite close to, a bud.
This will leave little wood projecting be­
yond after the bud has started growing.
Generally flowering hedges look best with
rounded outlines. Do not be afraid to
prune enough ; most beginners are. Shrub
hedges require pruning while evergreen
hedges are generally clipped with shears.
Remember that flowering shrubs pro­
duce their flowers in two ways - one class
from buds formed the previous season and
another class from buds appearing on the
wood the same season with the flowers.
Some of the first class are lilacs, honey­
suckles, privets, -dogwood, Japan, qui�ce,
6o Fences, Walls and Hedges
azaleas, mock oranges and dwarf horse­
chestnuts. If these are pruned in the
early spring all buds cut away are :flowers
lost. The best way is to prune severely
every three or four years and regulate
yearly as much as possible by late spring
cutting. With the second class pruning
may be as close as you wish in the early
spring or late winter for many varieties
will flower all the better if closely cut back.
Honey locust and osage orange may be
allowed to grow until they a1·e an inch
through near the ground and then cutting
them back almost to the ground. A
strong new growth is the result and after­
wards they may be trimmed yearly as for
other hedges.
Evergreens are best pruned in April.
By being clipped each year they become
very dense which is especially desirable for
the Norway spruce as it becomes very
open if allowed to grow. Most pines are
not happy when pruned, the white pine
being more tractable than the others ; al­
though if their natural forms of growth
are carefully considered much can be done
with them.
 Hedges
Cut back to some strong bud and as a
rule do not go back further than last
year's growth. Most hedges if left un­
clipt for several years are ruined beyond
remedy.
VARIETIES
We usually think of hedges as being
evergreen, box or privet, but in truth the
majority of hardy shrubs and some trees
make excellent hedges.
We shall divide the varieties into Decid­
uous and Evergreen. Following is a list
of the better known :flowering deciduous
kinds:-
Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thunber-
gii).
Holly-leafed Barberry (Berberis aqui­
folium ).
Cockspur Thorn (Cratregus Crus-galli).
Rose of Sharon, variety of (Hibiscus
Syriacus, Carneaplena ).
Osage Orange (Maclura aurantiaca).
Honey locust ( Gleditschia Triacan­
thos ).
European Hawthorne (Cratoegus Oxy­
acantha).
62 Fences, Walls and Hedges
Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus).
Lilac (Syringa Vulgaris).
Sweetbrier Rose.
Hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata).
EVERGREENS
Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa).
American arbor vitae (Thuja occiden-
talis).
Common Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis}.
Junipers ( Juniperus communis ).
Box.
EVERGREEN (Southern,)
Flex cassine.
Holly as far north as New Jersey.
Privet in a way is both deciduous and
evergreen.

SMALL LAWN HEDGES (Northern)

Honeysuckle.
Lilac.
Redbarked dogwood.

SOUTHERN
Chinese Privet; cape jasmine; Japan
evergreen; roses.
 Hedges
The Japanese Barberry grows four feet
high in a great variety of soils and will
stand the shade. It is hardy everywhere
with many twigs and thorns and if clipt
makes a dense and solid wall. It has
bright scarlet berries which last through
the winter. If the plants are sheared, set

� � :fu . El('�µ-
�,;��

cc:; cv � �·
��

The various forms of hedge trimming shown in

section and perspective

them 18 inches apart; if not, 24 to 30

inches.
The Holly-leafed Barberry stands to a
height of four feet and like the above
grows in any soil. Has good winter color
and blossoms in May with yellow flowers.
Set plants as for above.
The- Cockspur Thorn will go up to
twenty-five feet and while it will grow in
most any soil prefers a rich one. Blos­
soms in May and June with clusters of
white flowers something like apple blos-
64 Fences, Walls an'd Hedges
soms. Has long, sharp thorns. Set plants
24 to 30 inches apart and prune not later
than August first.
Vanety of Rose of Sharon. Grows
twelve feet high in any soil. The bush is
covered with single pink flowers in August
and September. Set plants 18 to �4
inches apart and prune after flowering.
Osage Orange. This is really a tree
but adapts itself wonderfully to a hedge.
Is spreading and picturesque with hand­
some orange-like foliage. Will not stand
the climate of our extreme northern states.
Honey Locust. Small globe-headed tree
with elegant foliage. With proper shear­
ing makes an excellent hedge.
European Hawthorn. Not recommend­
ed for United States as it has many fungus
enemies here. The varieijes are arbutus­
leaved, apple-leaved, pear-leaved, glossy­
leaved, parsley-leaved and many others.
They are of compact growth and will
stand any soil and situation. The flowers
are abundant and plentiful.
Buckthorn has small dark leaves and in­
conspicuous greenish white flowers. Makes
a good hedge.
 Hedges·
Lilac. Flowers purple and white.
There are several varieties having differ­
ent colors in the flowers and leaves. Some
varieties assume a tree like form.
Hydrangea. It .is hardy throughout
the country and very vigorous in growth.
The flowering is extremely gorgeous with
large pyramidal panicles of white flowers
that change to pink and last well into the
winter. The plant enjoys a deep rich soil
and moisture.
Norway Spruce. This tree is very
hardy and of free growth. It is well to
control it by clipping as it appears coarse
when grown too high. There are many
valuable varieties that vary in color and
all make fine hedges. Some grow into
pyramidal and conical forms naturally and
there are dwarf species.
Arbor Vitm is hardy with rapid growth
when conditions are favorable. Assumes
conical forms. Varieties range from som­
ber colors to golden and silver-hueJ ones.
Fine for contrasts. There are also dwarfs
of this family valuable for edgings or low
hedges.
Junipers. These are beautiful and re-
66 Fences, Walls and Hedges
liable hardy evergreens and have a great
range of adaptability, size and form.

A stile useful for crossing

a hedge. May be folded
up and removed.

THE END