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PROCLUS

Proclus of Lycia (412–485) was one of the greatest philosophers of

antiquity, producing the most systematic version of late Neoplatonic
thought. He exercised enormous influence on Byzantine, Medieval,
Renaissance and German Classical philosophy, ranking among the
top five of ancient philosophers in terms of the number of preserved
works. Despite this he is rarely studied now, the enormous intricacy of
his system making the reading of his treatises difficult for beginners.
This book provides the first comprehensive introduction to all the
basic areas of Proclus’ thought. It carefully guides the reader through
his metaphysics, theology, epistemology, and theory of evil, as well
as his sophisticated philosophy of religion. It also sets Proclus in
the historical, social and religious context of late antiquity, offering a
synthetic account that will appeal to historians and students of ancient
religion.

r a d e k ch l u p is a lecturer at the Institute for Philosophy and

Religious Studies at the Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague.
He specializes in Greek philosophy and religion as well as in general
methodology for the study of religion.

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PROCLUS
An Introduction

RADEK CHLUP

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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Chlup, Radek, 1972–
Proclus : an introduction / Radek Chlup.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and indexes.
isbn 978-0-521-76148-2 (hardback)
1. Proclus, ca. 410–485. I. Title.
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Contents

List of figures page vii

Acknowledgements viii
Editions and abbreviations of ancient works x
Note on translations used xvi

Introduction 1
1 Historical background 9
1.1 Neoplatonism and the Platonic tradition 9
1.2 Plotinus versus late Neoplatonism 16
1.2.1 Penchant for subtle classifications 18
1.2.2 Impenetrable boundaries between levels of reality 21
1.2.3 Turn towards religion 30
1.3 Proclus and Athenian Neoplatonism 32
1.3.1 From Iamblichus to Proclus 32
1.3.2 Proclus’ writings 37
1.3.3 The final days of Neoplatonism 44

2 Proclus’ metaphysics 47
2.1 The One and the Good as the beginning and end of all things 48
2.1.1 Positive presence of the One and the Good in all things 50
2.1.2 Negative theology 54
2.2 The cycle of procession and reversion 62
2.2.1 Why does the One create lower levels? 62
2.2.2 Procession and reversion 64
2.2.3 Self-constituted levels 69
2.2.4 Limit and the Unlimited 76
2.3 Grades of causality 83
2.3.1 All things are in all things 83
2.3.2 Being – Life – Intellect 92
2.4 Levels of participation 99
2.4.1 Participating – participated – unparticipated 99
2.4.2 Participation and the relation between levels of reality 101
2.4.3 Degrees of participation 105

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vi Contents
3 Proclus’ polytheistic theology 112
3.1 Henads 112
3.2 Lower gods and the hierarchy of henads 119
3.3 Vertical chains 127

4 Epistemology 137
4.1 The Soul as a discursive image of Intellect 138
4.2 Projection and recollection 144
4.3 Opinion as unreflected projection 148
4.4 Mathematics and dialectic 151
4.5 Beyond discursivity 158

5 Ways of unification 163

5.1 The one in soul 163
5.2 Theurgy 168
5.2.1 External theurgy 169
5.2.2 Levels of internal theurgy 173

6 Inspired poetry and its symbols 185

6.1 In defence of mythical obscenity 185
6.2 Philosophy as symbolic exegesis 193

7 Evil and theodicy 201

7.1 Proclus’ criticism of Plotinus 202
7.2 Evil as falling short of one’s nature 208
7.3 Evil as a distortion of vertical hierarchy 211
7.4 Evil in souls and in bodies 213
7.5 Evil as perversion of the Good 218
7.6 Why does evil exist? 219
7.7 Evil and providence: Proclus’ theodicy 224

8 Ethics 234
8.1 Virtues of the Neoplatonic sage 235
8.2 Action and contemplation 247

9 Worldview 255
9.1 Philosophy and religion in late antiquity 256
9.2 The inward turn: Plotinus and the ‘Friends of God’ 265
9.3 Iamblichean re-externalization 273

10 Epilogue: Proclus’ legacy 279

Bibliography 295
Index of passages quoted 312
General index 317

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Figures

1 Two cycles of procession and reversion page 70

2 Procession and reversion of self-constituted hypostases 72
3 Multiple layers of procession and reversion 84
4 Layers of soul 85
5 Grades of causality 86
6 Material world as mirroring the higher levels 89
7 The One and matter as causally interconnected 89
8 The structure of general intellect 96
9 General intellect in its self-reversion 96
10 Material world as mirroring the higher levels 98
11 Hierarchy of participation 103
12 Participation of human body in soul 108
13 Hierarchy of henads 121
14 Participation in the henads 123
15 Soul and its two cycles of procession and reversion 142

vii

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Acknowledgements

The present work could not have been written without the help of my
friends, colleagues and institutions. The first impulse which eventually led
to the production of this book was my year-long research stay in 1998/99
at The Dublin Centre for the Study of the Platonic Tradition, founded at
Trinity College by Professor John Dillon. Under his auspices I organized
a regular reading of Proclus’ Elements of Theology, which for the first time
gave me the opportunity to summarize Proclus’ system and search for ways
to introduce it to beginners. Ten years later Professor Dillon helped me to
find a publisher for the present book, and generously offered to provide
comments on about half of the manuscript as well as to help me improve
my English idiom.
It was not until 2006, though, that I actually returned to Proclus and
started to write this book. Originally, it was written in Czech as an intro-
duction to my translation of Proclus’ essay On the Objections of Plato against
Homer and the Art of Poetry, published in Prague in 2009. Already in 2007,
however, my good old friend Christoph Helmig (one of the original partici-
pants in my Dublin Proclus seminar) persuaded me to prepare an expanded
English version as well. Christoph supported me throughout: not only did
he give me excellent comments on several chapters (particularly on my
treatment of Proclus’ epistemology), but he also scanned for me numerous
articles unavailable in my country.
The preliminary Czech version of the book was read carefully by several
of my Prague friends. Particularly helpful were the comments provided by
Matyáš Havrda (who was the editor of the Czech book), Vojtěch Hladký
(who spent hours discussing various issues with me, and as an expert on
Michel Foucault inspired me to write the experimental account that is
now in chapter 9) and Filip Karfı́k (whose sharp criticism helped me to
completely reorganize the book in its English version).
Portions of the manuscript were read by various other international
scholars: Dirk Baltzly commented on my account of evil and ethics, Edward
viii

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Acknowledgements ix
Butler on my treatment of the henads and theurgy, Antonio Luis Costa
Vargas on the theurgy chapter, Jan Opsomer on the metaphysics chapter,
Robbert van den Berg on the sections on theurgy and poetry, and Peter
Brown on the worldview chapter. I would like to thank all of them. Finally,
my thanks must also go to my Cambridge University Press copy-editor,
Linda Woodward, who has read the whole manuscript carefully and helped
me to correct a number of mistakes.
The publication of this book has been supported by research grant
MSM0021620824 ‘Foundations of the Modern World as Reflected in Lit-
erature and Philosophy’ awarded to the Faculty of Arts, Charles University,
Prague, by the Czech Ministry of Education.

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Editions and abbreviations of ancient works

EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS OF PROCLUS’ TEXTS*

Chal. phil. Eclogæ de philosophia Chaldaica: in Oracles Chaldaı̈ques:

Avec un choix de commentaires anciens, texte établi et
traduit par Édouard des Places, troisième tirage revu
et corrigé par A. Segonds, Paris: Belles Lettres, 19963
[I refer to fragment number, page and line].
De dec. dub., Procli Diadochi tria opuscula (De providentia, libertate,
De prov., De mal. malo), latine Guilelmo de Moerbeka vertente et græce
ex Isaacii Sebastocratoris aliorumque scriptis collecta,
[edidit Helmut Boese], Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1960
[I refer to treatise, chapter and line].
Proclus: On the Existence of Evils, trans. by Jan Opsomer
and Carlos Steel, London: Duckworth, 2003.
Proclus: On Providence, trans. by Carlos Steel, London:
Duckworth, 2007.
De sacr. Catalogue des manuscrits alchimiques grecs, publié sous la
direction de Joseph Bidez . . . [et al.], tome vi, Bruxelles:
Lamertin, 1928, s. 148–51 [I refer to page and line].
‘Proclus: On the Priestly Art According to the Greeks’,
appendix in Brian Copenhaver, ‘Hermes Trismegistus,
Proclus, and the Question of a Philosophy of Magic
in the Renaissance,’ in I. Merkel and A. G. Debus
(eds.), Hermeticism and the Renaissance: Intellectual His-
tory and the Occult in Early Modern Europe, Washington:
Folger Shakespeare Library / London: Associated Uni-
versity Presses, 1988, 103–5 [Ficino’s Latin translation
is reprinted on pp. 106–8, the Greek text of Bidez on
pp. 108–10].
ET Proclus: The Elements of Theology, a revised text, with trans-
lation, introduction and commentary by E. R. Dodds,

* I only list those editions and English translations which I have used. A complete list of editions and
translations is available at http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/dwmc/plato/proclus/proclused.html.

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Editions and abbreviations of ancient works xi

Oxford: Clarendon, 1963 (19331 ) [I refer to proposition
and line within it].
Hymni Proclus’ Hymns: Essays, Translations, Commentary, by R. M.
van den Berg, Leiden: Brill, 2001 [I refer to the number
of hymn and line within it].
In Alc. Proclus: Commentary on the First Alcibiades of Plato, critical
text and indices by L. G. Westerink, Amsterdam: North-
Holland, 1954 [I refer to section and line within it].
Proclus: Alcibiades I, trans. by William O’Neill, The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1965.
In Crat. Procli Diadochi in Platonis Cratylum commentaria, edidit
Georgius Pasquali, Leipzig: Teubner, 1908 [I refer to
section, followed by page and line].
Proclus: On Plato’s ‘Cratylus’, trans. by Brian Duvick,
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007.
In Eucl. Procli Diadochi in primum Euclidis elementorum librum
commentarii, ex recognitione Godofredi Friedlein,
Leipzig: Teubner, 1873 [I refer to page and line].
Proclus: A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s Elements,
trans. with introduction and notes by Glen Morrow,
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970.
In Parm. Procli in Platonis Parmenidem commentaria, Tomus i–iii,
edidit C. Steel, ultimam partem ex latino in graecum
vertit C. Steel, Oxford: Clarendon, 2007–9 [I refer to
the page of Cousin’s 1820s edition and line number of
the edition of Steel; for the end of book vii, which has
only been preserved in Moerbeke’s Latin translation,
I refer to book number (vii), the page of Steel’s 1985
Leuven edition and line number of his 2009 Oxford
edition, indicating in brackets the page and line of the
1953 London edition of Klibansky and Labowsky].
Proclus’ Commentary on Plato’s Parmenides, trans. by G. R.
Morrow and J. M. Dillon with introduction and notes
by J. M. Dillon, Princeton: Princeton Universty Press,
1987.
In Remp. Procli Diadochi in Platonis rem publicam commentarii,
edidit Guilelmus Kroll, 2 vols., Leipzig: Teubner, 1899–
1901 [I refer to volume, page and line].
In Tim. Procli Diadochi In Platonis Timaeum commentaria, edidit
Ernestus Diehl, vols. i–iii, Leipzig: Teubner, 1903–6
[I refer to volume, page and line].
Proclus: Commentary on Plato’s Timaeus, vol. 2, Book ii:
Proclus on the Causes of the Cosmos and its Creation, tr. by
David Runia and Michael Share, Cambridge University
Press, 2008.

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xii Editions and abbreviations of ancient works

PT Théologie platonicienne, texte établi et traduit par H. D.
Saffrey et L. G. Westerink, tome i–vi, Paris: Les Belles
Lettres, 1968–97 [I refer to book and chapter, followed
by page and line]

EDITIONS OF WORKS BY OTHER ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS

Alcinous Didasc. – Alcinoos, Enseignement des doctrines de Platon, intro-
duction, texte établi et commenté par John Whittaker et
traduit par Pierre Louis, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1990
[I refer to section].
Ammonius In De int. – In Aristotelis librum de interpretatione commentar-
ius, edidit A. Busse, (Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca
4.5), Berlin: Reimer, 1897 [I refer to page and line].
Atticus fr. – Fragments, texte établi et traduit par Édouard des Places,
Paris: Belles Lettres, 1977 [I refer to fragment numbers].
Calcidius In Tim. – Timaeus a Calcidio translatus commentarioque
instructus, (Plato Latinus 4), London, Warburg Institute,
1962 [I refer to section].
Chrysippus SVF – Stoicorum veterum fragmenta, vols. i–iii, ed. H. von
Arnim, Leipzig: Teubner, 1905–24 [I refer to volume and
fragment].
Corp. Herm. Corpus Hermeticum, texte établi par A. D. Nock et traduit par
A.-J. Festugière, Tome I–IV, 7e tirage revu et corrigé, Paris:
Les Belles Lettres, 1991–2 [I refer to treatise and section].
Damascius De princ. – Dubitationes et solutiones de primis principiis, ed.
C. É. Ruelle, vols. 1–2, Paris: Klincksieck, 1889 [I refer to
volume, page and line].
In Phaed. – In Phaedonem, ed. L.G. Westerink in The
Greek Commentaries on Plato’s Phaedo, vol. ii, Amsterdam:
North-Holland, 1977 [I refer to version, section and line].
Hist. phil. – The Philosophical History, text with translation
and notes by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Athens: Apamea Cul-
tural Association, 1999 [I refer to fragment numbers].
Dionysius Ep. – Epistulae, eds. G. Heil and A. M. Ritter, Berlin: De
Gruyter, 1991 [I refer to epistle number and section].
Hermias In Phaedr. – In Platonis Phaedrum scholia, edidit et apparatu
critico ornavit P. Couvreur, Paris: Bouillon, 1901 [I refer to
page and line].
Chald. Or. Oracles Chaldaı̈ques: Avec un choix de commentaires anciens,
texte établi et traduit par Édouard des Places, troisieme
tirage revu et corrigé par A. Segonds, Paris: Belles Lettres,
19963 [I refer to fragment numbers].

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Editions and abbreviations of ancient works xiii

Iamblichus De anima – Iamblichus, De anima, text, translation, and
commentary by John F. Finamore and John M. Dillon,
Leiden: Brill, 2002 [I refer to fragment numbers].
De com. math. – Iamblichi de communi mathematica scientia
liber, ed. U. Klein (post N. Festa), Leipzig: Teubner, 1891
[I refer to section and line].
De myst. – Les mystères d’Égypte, texte établi et traduit par
Édouard des Places, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1966 [I refer to
book and chapter, followed by page of Parthey’s old edition
and line number of the edition of des Places]. English
quotations taken from De mysteriis, trans. by Emma C.
Clarke, John M. Dillon and Jackson P. Hershbell, Atlanta:
Society of Biblical Literature, 2003.
Julian Ep. – Epistuale, in L’empereur Julien, Oeuvres complètes, ed.
J. Bidez, tome 1.2, Lettres et fragments, 2nd edn, Paris:
Les Belles Lettres, 1932 [I refer to letter number and side
pagination]
Marinus Vita Procli – Proclus ou Sur le bonheur, texte établi, traduit
et annoté par H. D. Saffrey et A.-Ph. Segonds, avec la
collaboration de Concetta Luna, Paris: Les Belles Lettres,
2001 [I refer to chapter and line]. English quotations taken
from ‘Proclus, or On Happiness’, in Neoplatonic Saints: The
Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by Their Students, trans. with
an introduction by M. J. Edwards, Liverpool University
Press, 2000.
Nemesius Nat. hom. – Nemesii Emeseni De natura hominis, ed. Moreno
Morani, Leipzig: Teubner, 1987 [I refer to section].
Numenius fr. – Fragments, texte établi et traduit par Édouard des Places,
Paris: Belles Lettres, 1973 [I refer to fragment numbers].
Olympiodorus In Gorg. – Olympiodori in Platonis Gorgiam commentaria, ed.
L. G. Westerink, Leipzig: Teubner, 1970 [I refer to section
and line].
In Phaed. – In Platonis Phaedonem commentaria, ed. L.G.
Westerink in The Greek Commentaries on Plato’s Phaedo,
vol. i, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976 [I refer to chapter,
section and line].
Plotinus Enn. – Plotini opera, eds. P. Henry and H.-R. Schwyzer, vols.
i–iii, Leiden: Brill, 1951, 1959, 1953 [I refer to Ennead and
treatise, followed by chapter and line within it]. English
quotations taken from The Enneads, tr. by A. H. Arm-
strong, vols. i–vii, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1966–88.
Porphyry De abst. – De l’abstinence, texte établi, traduit et annoté par
Jean Bouffartigue (tome i–ii) et par Michel Patillon et Alain
Ph. Segonds (tome iii), tome i–iii, Paris: Les Belles Lettres,

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xiv Editions and abbreviations of ancient works

1977, 1979, 1995 [I refer to book, chapter and paragraph].
English quotations taken from On Abstinence from Killing
Animals, trans. G. Clark, Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
2000.
De regr. – De regressu animae in Joseph Bidez, Vie de Porphyre,
le philosophe néo-platonicien, avec les fragments des traités
Peri agalmaton et De regressu animae, Leipzig: Teubner,
1913 [I refer to fragment numbers].
Sent. – Sententiae ad intelligibilia ducentes, ed. E. Lamberz,
Leipzig: Teubner, 1975 [I refer to chapter, followed by page
and line].
Vita Plot, – Vita Plotini, in Plotini opera, ed. P. Henry and
H.-R. Schwyzer, vol. i, Leiden: Brill, 1951 [I refer to chapter
and line within it]. English quotations taken from On the
Life of Plotinus and the Order of His Books, trans. by A. H.
Armstrong in Plotinus, vol. i, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1966.
Sallustius De deis – Saloustios, Des dieux et du monde, ed. G. Rochefort,
Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1960 [I refer to chapter and sec-
tion].
Simplicius In Cat. – In Aristotelis categorias commentarium, edidit
K. Kalbfleisch, (Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca 8),
Berlin: Reimer, 1907 [I refer to page and line].
Ps.-Simplicius In De an. – In Aristotelis libros de anima commentaria, ed. M.
Hayduck, (Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca 11), Berlin:
Reimer, 1882 [I refer to page and line].
Syrianus: In Aristotelis metaphysica commentaria, edidit W. Kroll, (Com-
mentaria in Aristotelem Graeca 6.1), Berlin: Reimer, 1902
[I refer to page and line].

ABBREVIATIONS OF WORKS WITH STANDARD PAGINATION

Aristotle De an. = De anima
Eth. Nic. = Ethica Nicomachea
Met. = Metaphysica
Phys. = Physica
Pol. = Politica
Plato Alc. I = Alcibiades I
Apol. = Apologia Socratis
Gorg. = Gorgias
Phd. = Phaedo
Phdr. = Phaedrus
Phlb. = Philebus
Pol. = Politicus
Resp.= Respublica

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Editions and abbreviations of ancient works xv

Symp. = Symposium
Tht. = Theaetetus
Tim. = Timaeus
Plutarch De an. procr. = De animae procreatione
De Iside = De Iside et Osiride
De defectu = De defectu oraculorum

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Note on translations used

Not being a native speaker, I have tried to use existing English translations
of Neoplatonic works whenever possible. For Proclus’ Elements of Theology,
I have used the translation by E. R. Dodds; for his Parmenides Commentary
the translation by G. Morrow and J. Dillon (which I have adjusted to the
new edition of Steel); for the Cratylus Commentary the translation by B.
Duvick; for the Euclid Commentary the translation by G. Morrow; for On
the Existence of Evils the translation by J. Opsomer and C. Steel; for On
Providence the translation by C. Steel; for the Alcibiades Commentary the
translation by W. O’Neill; for De sacrificio the translation by B. Copenhaver.
For the Timaeus Commentary I have used the new Cambridge University
Press translation by D. Runia and M. Share, but only for book ii (vol. i
205–458 in the edition of Diehl). Translations from all other Proclus’ works
are mine. As for other authors, for Marinus’ Life of Proclus I have used the
translation by M. Edwards, for Iamblichus’ On the Mysteries the translation
by E. Clarke, J. Dillon and J. Hershbell, for Porphyry’s On Abstinence the
translation by G. Clark, and for Plotinus (as well as for Porphyry’s Life of
Plotinus) the translation by A. H. Armstrong.
While using these translations, however, I have not hesitated to modify
them whenever I have judged this to be necessary for the sake of clarity
or precision. In some cases, these modifications are actually quite radical
(particularly with Dodds’s slightly dated translation of the Elements). It
follows that the final responsibility for the accuracy and intelligibility of all
the translations is mine.

xvi

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