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Essential Calculus-based Physics Study Guide Workbook
Volume 2: Electricity and Magnetism
Learn Physics with Calculus Step-by-Step
Chris McMullen, Ph.D.

Physics Instructor
Northwestern State University of Louisiana
Copyright © 2017 Chris McMullen, Ph.D.
www.monkeyphysicsblog.wordpress.com
www.improveyourmathfluency.com
www.chrismcmullen.wordpress.com
Zishka Publishing
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-941691-11-3
Textbooks > Science > Physics

Study Guides > Workbooks> Science
CONTENTS
Introduction 5
Chapter 1 – Coulomb’s Law 7
Chapter 2 – Electric Field 15
Chapter 3 – Superposition of Electric Fields 23
Chapter 4 – Electric Field Mapping 41
Chapter 5 – Electrostatic Equilibrium 55
Chapter 6 – Integration Essentials 65
Chapter 7 – Electric Field Integrals 91
Chapter 8 – Gauss’s Law 113
Chapter 9 – Electric Potential 149
Chapter 10 – Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field 165
Chapter 11 – Equivalent Capacitance 171
Chapter 12 – Parallel-plate and Other Capacitors 185
Chapter 13 – Equivalent Resistance 195
Chapter 14 – Circuits with Symmetry 209
Chapter 15 – Kirchhoff’s Rules 219
Chapter 16 – More Resistance Equations 231
Chapter 17 – Logarithms and Exponentials 245
Chapter 18 – RC Circuits 251
Chapter 19 – Scalar and Vector Products 259
Chapter 20 – Bar Magnets 265
Chapter 21 – Right-hand Rule for Magnetic Force 269
Chapter 22 – Right-hand Rule for Magnetic Field 279
Chapter 23 – Combining the Two Right-hand Rules 287
Chapter 24 – Magnetic Force 293
Chapter 25 – Magnetic Field 305
Chapter 26 – The Law of Biot-Savart 321
Chapter 27 – Ampère’s Law 345
Chapter 28 – Lenz’s Law 363
Chapter 29 – Faraday’s Law 377
Chapter 30 – Inductance 395
Chapter 31 – AC Circuits 409
Chapter 32 – Maxwell’s Equations 439
Hints, Intermediate Answers, and Explanations 451
EXPECTATIONS
Prerequisites:
• As this is the second volume of the series, the student should already have studied
the material from first-semester physics, including uniform acceleration, vector
addition, applications of Newton’s second law, conservation of energy, Hooke’s law,
and rotation.
• The student should have learned basic calculus skills, including how to find the
derivative of a polynomial or trig function and how to integrate over a polynomial or
trig function. This book reviews essential integration skills in Chapter 6.
• The student should know some basic algebra skills, including how to combine like
terms, how to isolate an unknown, how to solve the quadratic equation, and how to
apply the method of substitution. Needed algebra skills were reviewed in Volume 1.
• The student should have prior exposure to trigonometry. Essential trigonometry
skills were reviewed in Volume 1.
Use:
• This book is intended to serve as a supplement for students who are attending
physics lectures, reading a physics textbook, or reviewing physics fundamentals.
• The goal is to help students quickly find the most essential material.
Concepts:
• Each chapter reviews relevant definitions, concepts, laws, or equations needed to
understand how to solve the problems.
• This book does not provide a comprehensive review of every concept from physics,
but does cover most physics concepts that are involved in solving problems.
Strategies:
• Each chapter describes the problem-solving strategy needed to solve the problems
at the end of the chapter.
• This book covers the kinds of fundamental problems which are commonly found in
standard physics textbooks.
Help:
• Every chapter includes representative examples with step-by-step solutions and
explanations. These examples should serve as a guide to help students solve similar
problems at the end of each chapter.
• Each problem includes the main answer(s) on the same page as the question. At the
back of the book, you can find hints, intermediate answers, directions to help walk
you through the steps of each solution, and explanations regarding common issues
that students encounter when solving the problems. It’s very much like having your
own physics tutor at the back of the book to help you solve each problem.
INTRODUCTION
The goal of this study guide workbook is to provide practice and help carrying out essential
problem-solving strategies that are standard in electricity and magnetism. The aim here is
not to overwhelm the student with comprehensive coverage of every type of problem, but
to focus on the main strategies and techniques with which most physics students struggle.
This workbook is not intended to serve as a substitute for lectures or for a textbook,
but is rather intended to serve as a valuable supplement. Each chapter includes a concise
review of the essential information, a handy outline of the problem-solving strategies, and
examples which show step-by-step how to carry out the procedure. This is not intended to
teach the material, but is designed to serve as a time-saving review for students who have
already been exposed to the material in class or in a textbook. Students who would like
more examples or a more thorough introduction to the material should review their lecture
notes or read their textbooks.
Every exercise in this study guide workbook applies the same strategy which is solved
step-by-step in at least one example within the chapter. Study the examples and then
follow them closely in order to complete the exercises. Many of the exercises are broken
down into parts to help guide the student through the exercises. Each exercise tabulates
the corresponding answers on the same page. Students can find additional help in the hints
section at the back of the book, which provides hints, answers to intermediate steps,
directions to walk students through every solution, and explanations regarding issues that
students commonly ask about.
Every problem in this book can be solved without the aid of a calculator. You may use
a calculator if you wish, though it is a valuable skill to be able to perform basic math
without relying on a calculator.
The mathematics and physics concepts are not two
completely separate entities. The equations speak the
concepts. Let the equations guide your reasoning.
— Chris McMullen, Ph.D.

1 COULOMB’S LAW
Relevant Terminology
Electric charge – a fundamental property of a particle that causes the particle to experience
a force in the presence of an electric field. (An electrically neutral particle has no charge
and thus experiences no force in the presence of an electric field.)
Electric force – the push or pull that one charged particle exerts on another. Oppositely
charged particles attract, whereas like charges (both positive or both negative) repel.
Coulomb’s constant – the constant of proportionality in Coulomb’s law (see below).
Coulomb’s Law
According to Coulomb’s law, any two objects with charge attract or repel one another with
an electrical force that is directly proportional to each charge and inversely proportional to
the square of the separation between the two charges:
|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 |
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅 2
The absolute values around each charge indicate that the magnitude of the force is positive.
Note the subscript on 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 : It’s 𝐹𝐹 sub 𝑒𝑒 (not 𝐹𝐹 times 𝑒𝑒). The subscript serves to distinguish
electric force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ) from other kinds of forces, such as gravitational force (𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 ). The
proportionality constant in Coulomb’s law is called Coulomb’s constant (𝑘𝑘):
9
N∙m2 9
N∙m2
𝑘𝑘 = 8.99 × 10 ≈ 9.0 × 10
C2 C2
N∙m2
In this book, we will round Coulomb’s constant to 9.0 × 109 such that the problems
C2
may be solved without using a calculator. (This rounding is good to 1 part in 900.)
Symbols and SI Units
Symbol Name SI Units

𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 electric force N
𝑞𝑞 charge C
𝑅𝑅 separation m
N∙m2 kg∙m3
𝑘𝑘 Coulomb’s constant or
C2 C2 ∙s2
7
Chapter 1 – Coulomb’s Law
Notes Regarding Units
The SI units of Coulomb’s constant (𝑘𝑘) follow by solving for 𝑘𝑘 in Coulomb’s law:
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 2
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
N∙m2 𝐹𝐹 𝑅𝑅 2
The SI units of 𝑘𝑘 equal because these are the SI units of 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞 . This follows since the SI
C2 1 2
unit of electric force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ) is the Newton (N), the SI unit of charge (𝑞𝑞) is the Coulomb (C),
and the SI unit of separation (𝑅𝑅) is the meter (m). Recall from first-semester physics that a
Newton is equivalent to:
kg∙m
1N= 1 2
s
N∙m2 kg∙m3
Plugging this into , the SI units of 𝑘𝑘 can alternatively be expressed as .
C2 C2 ∙s2
Essential Concepts
The matter around us is composed of different types of atoms. Each atom consists of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus, surrounded by electrons.
• Protons have positive electric charge.
• Neutrons are electrically neutral.
• Electrons have negative electric charge.
Whether two charges attract or repel depends on their relative signs:
• Opposite charges attract. For example, electrons are attracted to protons.
• Like charges repel. For example, two electrons repel. Similarly, two protons repel.
The charge of an object depends on how many protons and electrons it has:
• If the object has more protons than electrons (meaning that the object has lost
electrons), the object has positive charge.
• If the object has more electrons than protons (meaning that the object has gained
electrons), the object has negative charge.
• If the object has the same number of protons as electrons, the object is electrically
neutral. Its net charge is zero.
(Atoms tend to gain or lose valence electrons from their outer shells. It’s not easy to gain
or lose protons since they are tightly bound inside the nucleus of the atom. One way for
objects to become electrically charged is through rubbing, such as rubbing glass with fur.)
Some materials tend to be good conductors of electricity; others are good insulators.
• Charges flow readily through a conductor. Most metals are good conductors.
• Charges tend not to flow through an insulator. Glass and wood are good insulators.
When two charged objects touch (or are connected by a conductor), charge can be
transferred from one object to the other. See the second example in this chapter.
8
e
pnnp e
e nn
p np
Metric Prefixes
Since a Coulomb (C) is a very large amount of charge, we often use the following metric
prefixes when working with electric charge.
Prefix Name Power of 10

m milli 10−3
µ micro 10−6
n nano 10−9
p pico 10−12
Note: The symbol µ is the lowercase Greek letter mu. When it is used as a metric prefix, it
is called micro. For example, 32 µC is called 32 microCoulombs.
Algebra with Powers
It may be helpful to recall the following rules of algebra relating to powers:

𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏 −𝑎𝑎
1 1
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 , = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 = , = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 −𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 0 = 1 , (𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 )𝑏𝑏 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 , (𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥)𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏
9
Coulomb’s Law Strategy
How you solve a problem involving Coulomb’s depends on which kind of problem it is:
• In this chapter, we will focus on the simplest problems, which involve two charged
objects attracting or repelling one another. For simple problems like these, plug the
known values into the following equation and solve for the unknown quantity.
|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 |
𝑅𝑅 2
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝑅𝑅
Look at the units and wording to determine which symbols you know.
o A value in Coulombs (C) is electric charge, 𝑞𝑞.
o A value in meters (m) is likely related to the separation, 𝑅𝑅.
o A value in N is a force, such as electric force, 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 .
N∙m2
o You should know Coulomb’s constant: 𝑘𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 C2
.
If two charged objects touch or are connected by a conductor, in a fraction of a
second the excess charge will redistribute and the system will attain static
equilibrium. The two charges will then be equal: The new charge, 𝑞𝑞, will equal
𝑞𝑞1 +𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞 2
𝑞𝑞 = . Coulomb’s law then reduces to 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅2 .
2
• If a problem gives you three or more charges, apply the technique of vector addition,
as illustrated in Chapter 3.
• If a problem involves other forces, like tension in a cord, apply Newton’s second law,
• If a problem involves an electric field, 𝐸𝐸, (not to be confused with electric force, 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ,
or electric charge, 𝑞𝑞), see Chapter 2, 3, or 5, depending on the nature of the problem.
Inverse-square Laws
Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of gravity are examples of inverse-square laws: Each of
1
these laws features a factor of 𝑅𝑅2. (Newton’s law of gravity was discussed in Volume 1.)
|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 | 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
2
, 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝐺𝐺
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 2
Coulomb’s law has a similar structure to Newton’s law of gravity: Both force laws involve a
1
proportionality constant, a product of sources (|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 | or 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 ), and 𝑅𝑅2.
10
Elementary Charge
Protons have a charge equal to 1.60 × 10−19 C (to three significant figures). We call this
elementary charge and give it the symbol 𝑒𝑒. Electrons have the same charge, except for
being negative. Thus, protons have charge +𝑒𝑒, while electrons have charge −𝑒𝑒. When a
macroscopic object is charged, its charge will be a multiple of 𝑒𝑒, since all objects are made
up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. If you need to use the charge of a proton or electron
to solve a problem, use the value of 𝑒𝑒 below.
Elementary Charge
𝑒𝑒 = 1.60 × 10−19 C
Example: A small strand of monkey fur has a net charge of 4.0 µC while a small piece of
glass has a net charge of −5.0 µC. The strand of fur is 3.0 m from the piece of glass. What is
the electric force between the monkey fur and the piece of glass?
Make a list of the known quantities:

• The strand of fur has a charge of 𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 µC.
• The piece of glass has a charge of 𝑞𝑞2 = −5.0 µC.
• The separation between them is 𝑅𝑅 = 3.0 m.
N∙m2
• Coulomb’s constant is 𝑘𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 .
C2
Convert the charges from microCoulombs (µC) to Coulombs (C). Recall that the metric
prefix micro (µ) stands for one millionth: µ = 10−6.
𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 µC = 4.0 × 10−6 C
𝑞𝑞2 = −5.0 µC = −5.0 × 10−6 C
Plug these values into Coulomb’s law. It’s convenient to suppress units until the end in
order to avoid clutter. Note that the absolute value of −5 is +5.
|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 | 9
|4 × 10−6 ||−5 × 10−6 | 9
(4 × 10−6 )(5 × 10−6 )
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘 = (9 × 10 ) = (9 × 10 )
𝑅𝑅 2 (3)2 (3)2
If not using a calculator, it’s convenient to separate the powers:
(9)(4)(5)
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = × 109 10−6 10−6 = 20 × 10−3 = 0.020 N
(3)2
Note that 109 10−6 10−6 = 109−6−6 = 109−12 = 10−3 according to the rule 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚+𝑖𝑖 .
The answer is 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 0.020 N, which could also be expressed as 20 × 10−3 N, 2.0 × 10−2 N, or
20 mN (meaning milliNewtons, where the prefix milli, m, stands for 10−3).
11
Example: A metal banana-shaped earring has a net charge of −3.0 µC while a metal
monkey-shaped earring has a net charge of 7.0 µC. The two earrings are brought together,
touching one another for a few seconds, after which the earrings are placed 6.0 m apart.
What is the electric force between the earrings when they are placed 6.0 m apart?
The “trick” to this problem is to realize that charge is transferred from one object to the
other when they touch. The excess charge splits evenly between the two earrings. The
excess charge (or the net charge) equals 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = −3.0 µC + 7.0 µC = 4.0µC. Half of this
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜 4.0 µC
charge will reside on each earring after contact is made: 𝑞𝑞 = = = 2.0 µC. You
2 2
could obtain the same answer via the following formula:
𝑞𝑞1 + 𝑞𝑞2 −3.0 µC + 7.0 µC 4.0 µC
𝑞𝑞 = = = = 2.0 µC
2 2 2
Convert the charge from microCoulombs (µC) to Coulombs (C). Recall that the metric
prefix micro (µ) stands for one millionth: µ = 10−6.
𝑞𝑞 = 2.0 µC = 2.0 × 10−6 C
Set the two charges equal to one another in Coulomb’s law.
𝑞𝑞 2 (2 × 10−6 )2 (2)2 (10−6 )2 (2)2 (10−12 )
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘 2 = (9 × 109 ) = (9 × 109)
= (9 × 109)
𝑅𝑅 (6)2 (6)2 (6)2
Note that (2 × 10−6 )2 = (2)2 (10−6 )2 according to the rule (𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦)2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 and note that
(10−6 )2 = 10−12 according to the rule (𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 )𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 . If not using a calculator, it’s
convenient to separate the powers:
(9)(2)2
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = × 109 10−12 = 1.0 × 10−3 N
(6)2
Note that 109 10−12 = 109−12 = 10−3 according to the rule 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 −𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−𝑖𝑖 . The answer is
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 0.0010 N, which could also be expressed as 1.0 × 10−3 N or 1.0 mN (meaning
milliNewtons, where the prefix milli, m, stands for 10−3).
12
1. A coin with a monkey’s face has a net charge of −8.0 µC while a coin with a monkey’s tail
has a net charge of −3.0 µC. The coins are separated by 2.0 m. What is the electric force
between the two coins? Is the force attractive or repulsive?
2. A small glass rod and a small strand of monkey fur are each electrically neutral initially.
When a monkey rubs the glass rod with the monkey fur, a charge of 800 nC is transferred
between them. The monkey places the strand of fur 20 cm from the glass rod. What is the
electric force between the fur and the rod? Is the force attractive or repulsive?
Want help? Check the hints section at the back of the book.
Answers: 0.054 N (repulsive), 0.144 N (attractive)
13
3. A metal banana-shaped earring has a net charge of −2.0 µC while a metal apple-shaped
earring has a net charge of 8.0 µC. The earrings are 3.0 m apart.
(A) What is the electric force between the two earrings? Is it attractive or repulsive?
(B) The two earrings are brought together, touching one another for a few seconds, after
which the earrings are once again placed 3.0 m apart. What is the electric force between
the two earrings now? Is it attractive or repulsive?
Answers: 0.016 N (attractive), 0.0090 N (repulsive)
14
2 ELECTRIC FIELD
Relevant Terminology
Electric charge – a fundamental property of a particle that causes the particle to experience
a force in the presence of an electric field. (An electrically neutral particle has no charge
and thus experiences no force in the presence of an electric field.)
Electric force – the push or pull that one charged particle exerts on another. Oppositely
charged particles attract, whereas like charges (both positive or both negative) repel.
Electric field – force per unit charge.
Electric Field Equations
�⃗𝑒𝑒 ) equals charge (𝑞𝑞) times electric field (E

Electric force (F �⃗). This equation is always true,
but is only useful when you wish to relate electric force to electric field.
�⃗𝑒𝑒 = 𝑞𝑞E
F �⃗
If you want to find the electric field created by a single pointlike charge, use the following
equation, where 𝑅𝑅 is the distance from the pointlike charge. The absolute values represent
that the magnitude (𝐸𝐸) of the electric field vector (E �⃗) is always positive.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
𝐸𝐸 = 2
𝑅𝑅
To find the electric field created by a system of pointlike charges, see the strategy outlined
in Chapter 3. To find the electric field created by a continuous distribution of charge (such
as a plate or sphere with charge on it), see Chapters 7-8.
Symbol Name SI Units

𝐸𝐸 electric field N/C or V/m
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 electric force N
𝑞𝑞 charge C
𝑅𝑅 distance from the charge m

N∙m2 kg∙m3
C2 C2 ∙s2
15
Chapter 2 – Electric Field
Notes Regarding Units
The SI units of electric field (𝐸𝐸) follow by solving for 𝐸𝐸 in the equation �F⃗𝑒𝑒 = 𝑞𝑞E
�⃗:
�⃗
F
�E⃗ = 𝑒𝑒
𝑞𝑞
N
The SI units of 𝐸𝐸 equal C
because force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ) is measured in Newtons (N) and charge (𝑞𝑞) is
kg∙m
measured in Coulombs (C). Since a Newton is equivalent to 1 N = 1 s2
, the SI units of
kg∙m
electric field could be expressed as C∙s2
. In Chapter 10, we will learn that the electric field
∆𝑉𝑉
between two parallel plates equals 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑖𝑖
, where potential difference (∆𝑉𝑉) is measured in
Volts (V) and the distance between the plates (𝑑𝑑) is measured in meters (m). Therefore,
V N
yet another way to express electric field is m. It’s convenient to use C
for the units of
V
electric field when working with force, and to use m
for the units of electric field when
working with electric potential.
Essential Concepts
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
Every charged particle creates an electric field around it. The formula 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
expresses
that the electric field is stronger in the region of space close to the charged particle and gets
weaker farther away from the particle (that is, as the distance 𝑅𝑅 increases, electric field
1
decreases by a factor of 𝑅𝑅2).
When there are two or more charged particles, each charge creates its own electric field,
and the net electric field is found through vector addition (as we will see in Chapter 3).
Electric field has different values at different locations in space (just like gravitational field
is stronger near earth’s surface and noticeably weaker if you go halfway to the moon).
Once you know the value of the electric field at a given point in space, if a charged particle
is placed at that same point (that is, the point where you know the value of the electric
�⃗𝑒𝑒 = 𝑞𝑞E
field), then you can use the equation F �⃗ to determine what force would be exerted on
that charged particle. We call such a particle a test charge.
The direction of the electric field is based on the concept of a test charge. To determine the
direction of the electric field at a particular point, imagine placing a positive test charge at
that point. The direction of the electric field is the same as the direction of the electric force
that would be exerted on that positive test charge.
16
Electric Field Strategy
How you solve a problem involving electric field depends on which kind of problem it is:
• If you want to find the electric field created by a single pointlike charge, use the
following equation.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
𝐸𝐸 = 2
𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 is the distance from the pointlike charge to the point where the problem asks you
to find the electric field. If the problem gives you the coordinates (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) of the
charge and the coordinates (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) of the point where you need to find the electric
field, apply the distance formula to find 𝑅𝑅.
𝑅𝑅 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2
• If you need to relate the magnitude of the electric field (𝐸𝐸) to the magnitude of the
electric force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ), use the following equation. The absolute values are present
because the magnitudes (𝐸𝐸 and 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ) of the vectors must be positive.
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞|𝐸𝐸
• If a problem gives you three or more charges, apply the technique of vector addition,
• If a problem involves other forces, like tension in a cord, apply Newton’s second law,
• If a problem involves finding the electric field created by a continuous distribution
of charge (such as a plate or cylinder), see Chapters 7-8.
Important Distinctions
The first step toward mastering electric field problems is to study the terminology: You
need to be able to distinguish between electric charge (𝑞𝑞), electric field (𝐸𝐸), and electric
force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ). Read the problems carefully, memorize which symbol is used for each quantity,
and look at the units to help distinguish between them:
• The SI unit of electric charge (𝑞𝑞) is the Coulomb (C).
N V
• The SI units of electric field (𝐸𝐸) can be expressed as C or m.
• The SI unit of electric force (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 ) is the Newton (N).
The second step is to learn which equations to use in which context.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
• Use the equation 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
when you want to find the electric field created by a
pointlike charge at a particular point in space.
• Use the equation 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞|𝐸𝐸 to find the force that would be exerted on a pointlike
charge in the presence of an (external) electric field.
It may be helpful to remember that a pointlike charge doesn’t exert a force on itself. The
electric field created by one charge can, however, exert a force on a different charge.
17
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field
Consider the two pointlike charges illustrated below. The left charge, 𝑞𝑞1 , creates an electric
field everywhere in space, including the location of the right charge, 𝑞𝑞2 . We could use the
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 |
formula 𝐸𝐸1 = 𝑅𝑅 2
to find the magnitude of 𝑞𝑞1 ’s electric field at the location of 𝑞𝑞2 . We could
then find the electric force exerted on 𝑞𝑞2 using the equation 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞2 |𝐸𝐸1 . If we combine
these two equations together, we get Coulomb’s law, as shown below.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 | |𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 |
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞2 |𝐸𝐸1 = |𝑞𝑞2 | � 2 � = 𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 2
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 |
Similarly, we could use the formula 𝐸𝐸2 = 𝑅𝑅 2
to find the magnitude of 𝑞𝑞2 ’s electric field at
the location of 𝑞𝑞1 , and then we could then find the electric force exerted on 𝑞𝑞1 using the
|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞2 |
equation 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞1 |𝐸𝐸2. We would obtain the same result, 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅 2
. This should come as
no surprise, since Newton’s third law of motion states that the force that 𝑞𝑞1 exerts on 𝑞𝑞2 is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that 𝑞𝑞2 exerts on 𝑞𝑞1 .
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝑅𝑅
Example: A monkey’s earring has a net charge of −400 µC. The earring is in the presence
of an external electric field with a magnitude of 5,000 N/C. What is the magnitude of the
electric force exerted on the earring?
Make a list of the known quantities and the desired unknown:

• The earring has a charge of 𝑞𝑞 = −400 µC = −400 × 10−6 C = −4.0 × 10−4 C. Recall
that the metric prefix micro (µ) stands for 10−6 . Note that 100 × 10−6 = 10−4 .
• The electric field has a magnitude of 𝐸𝐸 = 5,000 N/C.
• We are looking for the magnitude of the electric force, 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 .
Based on the list above, we should use the following equation.
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞|𝐸𝐸 = |−4.0 × 10−4 | × 5000 = (4.0 × 10−4 ) × 5000 = 20,000 × 10−4 = 2.0 N
The magnitude of a vector is always positive (that’s why we took the absolute value of the
charge). The electric force exerted on the earring is 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 2.0 N.
Note that we used the equation 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞|𝐸𝐸 because we were finding the force exerted on a
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
charge in the presence of an external electric field. We didn’t use the equation 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
because the problem didn’t require us to find an electric field created by the charge. (The
problem didn’t state what created the electric field, and it doesn’t matter as it isn’t relevant
to solving the problem.)
18
Example: A small strand of monkey fur has a net charge of 50 µC. (A) Find the magnitude
of the electric field a distance of 3.0 m from the strand of fur. (B) If a small strand of lemur
fur with a net charge of 20 µC is placed 3.0 m from the strand of monkey fur, what force will
be exerted on the strand of lemur fur?
(A) Make a list of the known quantities and the desired unknown:
• The strand of fur has a charge of 𝑞𝑞 = 50 µC = 50 × 10−6 C = 5.0 × 10−5 C. Recall
that the metric prefix micro (µ) stands for 10−6 . Note that 10 × 10−6 = 10−5 .
• We wish to find the electric field at a distance of 𝑅𝑅 = 3.0 m from the strand of fur.
N∙m2
• We also know that Coulomb’s constant is 𝑘𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 C2
.
Based on the list above, we should use the following equation.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞| (9 × 109 )|5 × 10−5 | (9)(5)
𝐸𝐸 = 2 = = × 109 10−5 = 5.0 × 104 N/C
𝑅𝑅 (3)2 (3)2
Note that 109 10−5 = 109−5 = 104 according to the rule 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 −𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−𝑖𝑖 . The answer is
𝐸𝐸 = 5.0 × 104 N/C, which could also be expressed as 50,000 N/C.
(B) Use the result from part (A) with the following equation.
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = |𝑞𝑞2 |𝐸𝐸 = |20 × 10−6 | × 5.0 × 104 = 100 × 10−2 = 1.0 N
The electric force exerted on the strand of lemur fur is 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 1.0 N.
Example: A gorilla-shaped earring, shown as a dot () below, with a charge of 600 µC lies
at the origin. What is the magnitude of the electric field at the point (3.0 m, 4.0 m), which is
marked as a star () below?
𝑦𝑦
3.0 m
4.0 m
600 µC
𝑥𝑥
First, we need to find the distance between the charge and the point where we’re trying to
find the electric field. Apply the distance formula.
𝑅𝑅 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2 = �(3 − 0)2 + (4 − 0)2 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5.0 m
Next, use the equation for the electric field created by a pointlike object.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞| (9 × 109 )|600 × 10−6 |
𝐸𝐸 = 2 = = 2.16 × 105 N/C
𝑅𝑅 (5)2
Note that 109 10−6 = 109−6 = 103 and 103 102 = 105 according to the rule 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚+𝑖𝑖 .
The answer is 𝐸𝐸 = 2.16 × 105 N/C, which could also be expressed as 216,000 N/C.
19
4. A small furball from a monkey has a net charge of −300 µC. The furball is in the
presence of an external electric field with a magnitude of 80,000 N/C. What is the
magnitude of the electric force exerted on the furball?
5. A gorilla’s earring has a net charge of 800 µC. Find the magnitude of the electric field a
distance of 2.0 m from the earring.
Answers: 24 N, 1.8 × 106 N/C
20
6. A monkey’s earring experiences an electric force of 12 N in the presence of an external

electric field of 30,000 N/C. The electric force is opposite to the electric field. What is the
net charge of the earring?
7. A small strand of monkey fur has a net charge of 80 µC. Where does the electric field
created by the strand of fur equal 20,000 N/C?
Answers: −400 µC, 6.0 m
21
8. A pear-shaped earring, shown as a dot () below, with a charge of 30 µC lies at the point
(3.0 m, 6.0 m).
(−5.0 m, 12.0 m) 𝑦𝑦
(3.0 m, 6.0 m)
30 µC
𝑥𝑥
(A) What is the magnitude of the electric field at the point (−5.0 m, 12.0 m), which is
marked as a star () above?
(B) If a small strand of chimpanzee fur with a net charge of 500 µC is placed at the point
(−5.0 m, 12.0 m), marked with a star (), what force will be exerted on the strand of fur?
Answers: 2700 N/C, 1.35 N
22
3 SUPERPOSITION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

Essential Concepts
When two or more charges create two or more electric fields, the net electric field can be
found through the principle of superposition. What this means is to add the electric field
vectors together using the strategy of vector addition. Similarly, when there are three or
more charges and you want to find the net electric force exerted on one of the charges, the
net force can be found using vector addition.
Superposition Equations
Depending on the question, either find the magnitude of the electric field created by each
charge at a specified point or find the magnitude of the electric force exerted on a specified
charge by each of the other charges.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 | 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 | 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞3 |
𝐸𝐸1 = 2 , 𝐸𝐸2 = 2 , 𝐸𝐸3 = 2 ⋯
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞| 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 ||𝑞𝑞| 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞3 ||𝑞𝑞|
𝐹𝐹1 = 2 , 𝐹𝐹2 = 2 , 𝐹𝐹3 = ⋯
Use the distance formula to determine each of the 𝑅𝑅’s.
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2
Apply trigonometry to find the direction of each electric field or electric force vector.
∆𝑦𝑦
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = tan−1 � �
∆𝑥𝑥
Add the electric field or electric force vectors together using the vector addition strategy.
Either use 𝐸𝐸’s or 𝐹𝐹’s, depending on what the questions asks for. Apply trig to determine the
components of the given vectors.
𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 , 𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ⋯
𝐹𝐹1𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐹𝐹1𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐹𝐹2𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 , 𝐹𝐹2𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ⋯
Combine the respective components together to find the components of the resultant
vector. Either use 𝐸𝐸’s or 𝐹𝐹’s (not both).
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 , 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹1𝑑𝑑 + 𝐹𝐹2𝑑𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 , 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹2𝑦𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦
Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the magnitude of the net electric field or net electric
force. Use an inverse tangent to determine the direction of the resultant vector.
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸 = �𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦2 , 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 = tan−1 � �
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = �𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 , 𝜃𝜃𝐹𝐹 = tan−1 � �
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑
23
Chapter 3 – Superposition of Electric Fields
Symbol Name Units

𝐸𝐸 magnitude of electric field N/C or V/m
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 magnitude of electric force N
𝜃𝜃 �⃗ or F
direction of E �⃗𝑒𝑒 °
𝑞𝑞 charge C
𝑅𝑅 distance from the charge m
𝑑𝑑 distance between two charges m

N∙m2 kg∙m3
C2 C2 ∙s2
Important Distinction
There are two similar kinds of superposition problems:

• One kind gives you two or more pointlike charges and asks you to find the net
electric field at a particular point in space (usually where there is no charge).
• The other kind gives you three or more pointlike charges and asks you to find the
net electric force exerted on one of the charges.
When you are finding electric field, work with 𝐸𝐸’s. When you are finding electric force,
work with 𝐹𝐹’s. Note that the equation for the electric field created by a pointlike charge has
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
a single charge, 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
, whereas the equation for the electric force exerted on one charge
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞|
by another has a pair of charges, 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅 2
. Use the absolute value of the charge in the
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞| 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞|
formulas 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
and 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅 2
, since the magnitude of a vector is always positive. The
sign of the charge instead factors into the direction of the vector (see the first step of the
strategy on the next page).
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞|
With electric field, you work with one charge at a time: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅 2
. With electric force, you
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞|
work with pairs of charges: 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅 2
.
If you need to find net electric force, you could first find the net electric field at the location
of the specified charge, and once you’re finished you could apply the equation F �⃗𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞E
�⃗𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 .
In this case, 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = |𝑞𝑞|𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 and 𝜃𝜃𝐹𝐹 = 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 if 𝑞𝑞 > 0 whereas 𝜃𝜃𝐹𝐹 = 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 + 180° if 𝑞𝑞 < 0.
24
Superposition Strategy
Either of the two kinds of problems described below are solved with a similar strategy.
• Given two or more pointlike charges, find the net electric field at a specified point.
• Given three or more pointlike charges, find the net electric force on one charge.
To find the net electric field, work with 𝐸𝐸’s. To find the net electric force, work with 𝐹𝐹’s.
1. Begin by drawing a sketch of the individual electric fields created by each charge at
the specified point or the electric forces exerted on the specified charge.
• For electric field, imagine a positive “test” charge at the specified point and
draw arrows based on how the positive “test” charge would be pushed by
each of the given charges. Label these E �⃗1, �E⃗2 , etc.
• For electric force, consider whether each of the charges attracts or repels the
specified charge. Opposite charges attract, whereas like charges repel. Label
these �F⃗1 , �F⃗2 , etc.
2. Use the distance formula to determine the distance from each charge to the point
specified (for electric field) or to the specified charge (for electric force).
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = �∆𝑥𝑥 2 + ∆𝑦𝑦 2
3. Apply trig to determine the direction of each vector counterclockwise from the +𝑥𝑥-
axis. First, get the reference angle using the rise (∆𝑦𝑦) and run (∆𝑥𝑥) with the formula
below. Then use geometry to find the angle counterclockwise from the +𝑥𝑥-axis.
∆𝑦𝑦
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = tan−1 � �
∆𝑥𝑥
4. Either find the magnitude of the electric field created by each pointlike charge at the
specified point or find the magnitude of the electric force exerted by each of the
other charges on the specified charge.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 | 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 | 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞3 |
𝐸𝐸1 = 2 , 𝐸𝐸2 = 2 , 𝐸𝐸3 = 2 ⋯
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 ||𝑞𝑞| 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 ||𝑞𝑞| 𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞3 ||𝑞𝑞|
𝐹𝐹1 = , 𝐹𝐹2 = , 𝐹𝐹3 = ⋯
5. Apply trig to determine the components of the given vectors.
𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 , 𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ⋯
𝐹𝐹1𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐹𝐹1𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝐹𝐹2𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 , 𝐹𝐹2𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ⋯
6. Add the respective components together to find the components of the resultant.
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 , 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹1𝑑𝑑 + 𝐹𝐹2𝑑𝑑 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 , 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹2𝑦𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑦𝑦
7. Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the magnitude of the resultant vector. Use an
inverse tangent to determine the direction of the resultant vector.
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸 = �𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦2 , 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 = tan−1 � � or 𝐹𝐹 = �𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 , 𝜃𝜃𝐹𝐹 = tan−1 � �
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑
25
Example: A strand of monkey fur with a charge of 4.0 µC lies at the point (√3 m, 1.0 m). A
strand of gorilla fur with a charge of −16.0 µC lies at the point (−√3 m, 1.0 m). What is the
magnitude of the net electric field at the point (√3 m, −1.0 m)?
𝑦𝑦
−16.0 µC +4.0 µC
(−√3 m, 1.0 m) (√3 m, 1.0 m)
𝑥𝑥
(√3 m, −1.0 m)
Begin by sketching the electric field vectors created by each of the charges. In order to do
this, imagine a positive “test” charge at the point (√3 m, −1.0 m), marked by a star above.
We call the monkey fur charge 1 (𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 µC) and the gorilla fur charge 2 (𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 µC).
• A positive “test” charge at (√3 m, −1.0 m) would be repelled by 𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 µC. Thus,
we draw E�⃗1 directly away from 𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 µC (straight down).
• A positive “test” charge at (√3 m, −1.0 m) would be attracted to 𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 µC.
Thus, we draw �E⃗2 towards 𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 µC (up and to the left).
−16.0
16 µC +4.0 µC
𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞1
�⃗2
𝐄𝐄
�⃗1
𝐄𝐄
Find the distance between each charge (shown as a dot above) and the point (shown as a
star) where we’re trying to find the net electric field. Apply the distance formula.
𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞1
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅2
2
𝑅𝑅1 = �∆𝑥𝑥12 + ∆𝑦𝑦12 = ��√3 − √3� + (−1 − 1)2 = �02 + (−2)2 = √4 = 2.0 m
2 2
𝑅𝑅2 = �∆𝑥𝑥22 + ∆𝑦𝑦22 = ��√3 − �−√3�� + (−1 − 1)2 = ��2√3� + (−2)2 = √16 = 4.0 m
Note that √12 = �(4)(3) = √4√3 = 2√3. In the diagram above, 𝑞𝑞1 is 2.0 m above the star
(that’s why 𝑅𝑅1 = 2.0 m), while 𝑅𝑅2 is the hypotenuse of the right triangle. Since the top side
is 2√3 m wide and the right side is 2.0 m high, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to find
2
the hypotenuse: ��2√3� + 22 = √12 + 4 = √16 = 4.0 m. That’s why 𝑅𝑅2 = 4.0 m.
26
Next, find the direction of E �⃗1 and E

�⃗2 . Since �E⃗1 points straight down, 𝜃𝜃1 = 270°. (Recall
from trig that 0° points along +𝑥𝑥, 90° points along +𝑦𝑦, 180° points along −𝑥𝑥, and 270°
points along −𝑦𝑦.) The angle 𝜃𝜃2 points in Quadrant II (up and to the left). To determine the
precise angle, first find the reference angle from the right triangle. The reference angle is
the smallest angle with the positive or negative 𝑥𝑥-axis.
𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞1
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑
�⃗2
𝐄𝐄
�⃗1
𝐄𝐄
Apply trig to determine the reference angle, using the rise (∆𝑦𝑦) and the run (∆𝑥𝑥).
∆𝑦𝑦 2 1 √3
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = tan−1 � � = tan−1 � � = tan−1 � � = tan−1 � � = 30°
∆𝑥𝑥 2√3 √3 3
1 1 √3 √3
Note that = = since √3√3 = 3. Relate the reference angle to 𝜃𝜃2 using geometry.
√3 √3 √3 3
In Quadrant II, the angle counterclockwise from the +𝑥𝑥-axis equals 180° minus the
reference angle. (Recall that trig basics were reviewed in Volume 1 of this series.)
𝜃𝜃2
�⃗2
𝐄𝐄
𝑞𝑞2 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑
𝜃𝜃2 = 180° − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 180° − 30° = 150°

Find the magnitude of the electric field created by each pointlike charge at the specified
point. First convert the charges from µC to C: 𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 × 10−6 C and 𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 × 10−6 C.
Use the values 𝑅𝑅1 = 2.0 m and 𝑅𝑅2 = 4.0 m, which we found previously.
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞1 | (9 × 109 )|4 × 10−6 | (9)(4)
𝐸𝐸1 = 2 = = × 109 10−6 = 9.0 × 103 N/C
𝑅𝑅1 (2)2 (2)2
𝑘𝑘|𝑞𝑞2 | (9 × 109 )|−16 × 10−6 | (9)(16)
𝐸𝐸2 = 2 = 2
= 2
× 109 10−6 = 9.0 × 103 N/C
𝑅𝑅2 (4) (4)
Note that 10 10−6 = 109−6 = 103 according to the rule 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 −𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−𝑖𝑖 . Also note that the
9
minus sign from 𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 × 10−6 C vanished with the absolute values (because the
magnitude of the electric field vector can’t be negative). Following is a summary of what
we know thus far.
• 𝑞𝑞1 = 4.0 × 10−6 C, 𝑅𝑅1 = 2.0 m, 𝜃𝜃1 = 270°, and 𝐸𝐸1 = 9.0 × 103 N/C.
• 𝑞𝑞2 = −16.0 × 10−6 C, 𝑅𝑅2 = 4.0 m, 𝜃𝜃2 = 150°, and 𝐸𝐸2 = 9.0 × 103 N/C.
27
We are now prepared to add the electric field vectors. We will use the magnitudes and
directions (𝐸𝐸1 = 9.0 × 103 N/C, 𝐸𝐸2 = 9.0 × 103 N/C, 𝜃𝜃1 = 270°, and 𝜃𝜃2 = 150°) of the two
electric field vectors to determine the magnitude and direction (𝐸𝐸 and 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 ) of the resultant
vector. The first step of vector addition is to find the components of the given vectors.
𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 = (9 × 103 ) cos(270°) = (9 × 103 )(0) = 0
𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 = (9 × 103 ) sin(270°) = (9 × 103 )(−1) = −9.0 × 103 N/C
√3 9√3
𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 = (9 × 103 ) cos(150°) = (9 × 103 ) �− �=− × 103 N/C
2 2
1 9
𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 = (9 × 103 ) sin(150°) = (9 × 103 ) � � = × 103 N/C
2 2
The second step of vector addition is to add the respective components together.
9√3 9√3
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑑𝑑 = 0 + �− × 103 � = − × 103 N/C
2 2
9 9
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐸𝐸2𝑦𝑦 = −9 × 103 + × 103 = − × 103 N/C
2 2
The final step of vector addition is to apply the Pythagorean theorem and inverse tangent
to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
2 2
9√3 9 9 2
𝐸𝐸 = �𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦2 = ��− × 103 � + �− × 103 � = � × 103 � ��−√3� + (−1)2
2 2 2
9
We factored out �2 × 103 � to make the arithmetic simpler. The minus signs disappear since
they are squared. For example, (−1)2 = +1.
9 9 9
𝐸𝐸 = � × 103 � √3 + 1 = � × 103 � √4 = � × 103 � (2) = 9.0 × 103 N/C
2 2 2
9
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 − × 103 1 √3
−1
𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 = tan � � = tan �−1 2 � = tan−1 � � = tan−1 � �
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 9√3 3 √3 3
− × 10
2
9 3
Note that − 2 × 10 cancels out (divide both the numerator and denominator by this). Also
1 1 √3 √3
note that = = since √3√3 = 3. The reference angle for the answer is 30° since
√3 √3 √3 3
√3
tan 30° = 3. However, this isn’t the answer because the answer doesn’t lie in Quadrant I.
Since 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 < 0 and 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 < 0 (find these values above), the answer lies in Quadrant III. Apply
trig to determine 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 from the reference angle: In Quadrant III, add 180° to the reference
angle.
𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 = 180° + 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 180° + 30° = 210°
The final answer is that the magnitude of the net electric field at the specified point equals
𝐸𝐸 = 9.0 × 103 N/C and its direction is 𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 = 210°.
28
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Her rig was as unique as her hull. She had six masts, of which
only the second carried square sails, all the others being fore and aft
rigged, and her one funnel was placed between the second and third
masts. Five of her masts were stepped on turntables on deck so that
they could be lowered and offer less resistance when going against
a head wind. The lines of the ship were very fine, especially about
the entrance from the forefoot. There was little of the “cod’s head
and mackerel tail” style of build about her. She was admitted to be
rather full amidships, for the accommodation of the engine, but was
thought to approach as near the figure of least resistance as
possible. The hull had a slight sheer and the vessel realised the
expectation that she would be what sailors call “a dry ship.”
After getting out of the dock at last she left for London, where she
arrived in January 1845 after a stormy voyage which tested her
thoroughly. She remained five months at Blackwall, being visited by
the Queen and Prince Albert, and left in June of that year with about
eighty passengers for Liverpool, calling at a number of ports en
route. She left the Mersey for New York on July 26 with from forty-
five to sixty passengers (accounts differ) and about 600 tons of
cargo. The voyage lasted 14 days 21 hours, and her average speed
was nine and a half knots, but the engines were only worked at
about 600 horse-power. New York was disappointed with her, as her
six low masts contrasted unfavourably with the tall graceful masts of
the American ships. She made the return journey in a day less.
On a subsequent voyage she broke one of the blades of her
propeller, but as she made between ten and eleven knots, using both
propeller and sail, it was decided when she was docked for repairs
that her new propeller should have four blades only. In September
1846 she ran on the rocks in Dundrum Bay on the coast of Ireland,
and was not refloated until August 1847. Thanks to her strong
construction she was able to withstand a winter’s storms and a
stranding of eleven months.
After being brought to Liverpool, she lay for some time at the North
Docks and, as the Great Western Steamship Company thought the
repairs would be too costly, she was purchased by Messrs. Gibbs,
Bright and Co., formerly agents for the company, and they decided to
refit her. The rolling plates attached to the sides of the hull were
removed. An oak keel was bolted through upon the iron plates which
had done duty for a keel when she was first built, to prevent rolling.
Her bottom for about 150 feet had to be entirely renewed. The bows
and stern were strengthened by double angle-iron framing secured
by three tiers of iron stringers 2 feet 3 inches wide and five-eighths of
an inch thick. Ten new keelsons were placed in the ship running her
entire length, half as deep again as those formerly used. The various
alterations resulted in the cargo capacity being increased by about
1000 tons, partly through the space saved by new boilers and partly
through the construction of a deck-house 300 feet long and 7 feet 6
inches high. New bulwarks were erected higher than the previous
ones. The number of masts was now reduced to four.[86] Two of the
lower masts were iron cylinders and the two centre masts were ship-
rigged, carrying royals. The fore and jigger were fore and aft rigged,
but whereas the topsail of the foremast was shaped like a lugsail that
of the jigger was carried on a gaff, according to a contemporary
picture. The old engines were of 1000 nominal horse-power, but it is
a question if they ever worked over 600 horse-power; the new
engines were nominally 500 horse-power. Her new pair of oscillating
engines were by John Penn and Son, engineers, Greenwich, and
had cylinders 82¹⁄₂ inches diameter and 6 feet stroke. By the use of
cog-wheels the screw shaft made three revolutions to one of the
engine.
[86] According to a description and picture in the Illustrated London
News she had five masts, the first, fourth, and fifth masts being
fore and aft rigged, but the fifth mast is probably an incorrect
addition to the picture. If she had five masts the number must soon
have been reduced.
The screw was three-bladed, 15 feet 6 inches diameter, and 19

feet pitch. There were six boilers, and her bunkers held 700 tons,
and other accommodation enabled her to stow 510 tons more. To
lessen the vibration experienced from the screw and machinery,
eight new wrought-iron beams were placed transversely through the
vessel, locking her sides together. The bases on which the
machinery rested were made stronger, and she was further
strengthened by massive iron entablature beams to the engines,
buttressed by a framing of teak wood, each piece being 20 inches
wide and 3 feet deep, running on either side of the engines
transversely and diagonally to the sides of the ship. This solid timber
extended 17 feet 6 inches on each side of the engine. The whole of
this framing was bolted together and to the sides of the ship by
wrought-iron bolts. The new arrangement of the boilers gave her a
lessened coal consumption.
Little more need be said about this steamer. She made one
voyage afterwards to New York and back, and being then acquired
by Messrs. Antony Gibbs and Sons was placed in the Australian
trade at the time of the gold fever, and continued a regular voyage
between England and Australia for many years. She was afterwards
patched up afresh and had her engines removed, but was then such
a failure that though she got as far as the Falkland Islands, leaking
badly, she was abandoned to the underwriters, and is now
ingloriously ending her days as a coal hulk.
CHAPTER IX
DEVELOPMENT OF IRON SHIPBUILDING
fter the launching of the Great Britain in 1845, steam-

ship building was carried on with great activity,
though the change from wood to iron and from
paddles to the screw was gradual. Many wooden
vessels, both steamers and sailers, continued to be
built, as the prejudice against iron for ship
construction died slowly. The screw propellers were
at first simply auxiliary to sail. This was due to three causes: mistrust
of the propeller, the cost of continually running it, and the difficulty of
carrying sufficient coal.
Describing the gradual evolution of the steam-ship in its early
days, Mr. John Ward, a director in Messrs. Denny’s famous firm, in
his Presidential Address to the Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland, in 1907, said:
“The necessities of the screw propeller after its general adoption
demanded a much greater increase of engine revolution than
constructors in the early days, or for some years after, deemed it
prudent to adopt. Thus a great variety of design, including beam,
steeple, oscillating, and other forms of machines were used, all with
gearing between the engine and the propeller. But a few direct-acting
engines appeared very early, and gradually, as engineers gained
confidence, the latter type became universal, and assumed the form
of the inverted cylinder in the so-called steam-hammer engine which
was the universal type for mercantile purposes until the end of the
century.
“John Elder we may look upon as the father of multiple-expansion
engines. He, together with his partner Charles Randolph, was
trained in the marine school of Mr. Robert Napier, Vulcan Foundry,
Glasgow. In 1852 they commenced business, and by 1856 had
constructed several four-cylinder compound engines. Randolph,
Elder and Co. entered into a contract for a set of engines, the coal
for which, on trial, would not exceed 3 lb. per indicated horse-power
per hour. The trial ... worked out at 2¹⁹⁄₂₀ lb.” In regard to coal
consumption, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s boats Callao,
Lima, and Bogota, after being brought home from the Pacific coast to
be re-engined, all showed a consumption of from 2 to 2¹⁄₂ lb. (per
indicated horse-power) of best Welsh coal. The Bogota’s speed with
the old engines was 9·75 knots and the coal consumption not less
than 38 cwts. per hour. On her outward voyage with new engines
she “gave a mean speed of 10·47 knots with 19 cwts. of coal per
hour.” The steam-pressure was 22 lb. and the horse-power was
about 950 indicated.
“These early fathers seemed to see into the future. Walter N.
Neilson, in his Presidential Address (1859), refers to the ‘three grand
requirements (of marine engines) as—a safe and suitable boiler for
100 lb. and upwards; a good arrangement of engine to receive the
initial force of the steam without shock or liability to derangement,
and carry out expansion to the greatest practical limits; and, lastly,
an efficient surface condenser.
“John Elder was among the first to adopt the surface condenser
and the cylindrical boiler, and he thus in the ’fifties brought to a
successful issue these three grand requirements. We must go back
to these early days to realise what it meant to make a boiler which
would be safe for 100 lb.; steel plates of the present day weighing
tons were then represented by puddled iron plates weighing
hundredweights. This led John Elder to try a water-tube boiler,
practically the modern Yarrow boiler, also a spiral tube boiler, but
probably none of these was successful owing to the salt-water
difficulty, evaporators not being introduced till many years
afterwards.”
As the adaptability of iron for constructional purposes became
more generally recognised, it led to the proposal that steamers
should be built on the longitudinal principle instead of with an
ordinary keel and a series of transverse ribs. The use of iron also
enabled shipbuilders to increase the safety of their vessels
considerably by means of transverse bulkheads, the number of
these being increased until, even as early as 1838, the iron steamers
then being built for the Glasgow and Liverpool line were each divided
into five sections, any three of which were estimated to be sufficient
to keep the steamer afloat if the other two should become
waterlogged through collision. Several vessels were constructed on
modifications of the longitudinal system, the chief among them being
the Great Eastern. In 1853 James Hodgson of Liverpool issued a
circular on the advantages of iron sailing ships, in which he pointed
out not only the greater strength obtained by using iron but the
comparative cheapness of construction. The circular stated that a
wooden ship of 1000 tons would cost £16 10s. per ton, and an iron
ship £13 10s. per ton, both fitted for trade to the East. The wooden
ship would not carry more than 1500 tons, whereas an iron ship built
from the same external lines would carry 1800 tons, and this
difference at £5 per ton out and home, added to allowances for
insurance, depreciation, and interest, would make a difference in
favour of the iron ship of £2295.
The “Sarah Sands,” 1846.

What was true of sailing ships was equally true of steamers, and
Hodgson had shown this some years before the publication of his
circular, when he built the Sarah Sands.
The Sarah Sands afforded an excellent example of the strength of
iron ships if well and substantially built. She grounded on the
Woodside Bank in the Mersey when carrying 1000 tons dead weight,
and remained high and dry until the tide flowed again, during which
time she did not sustain the slightest damage. She experienced
several mishaps at one time and another, which demonstrated not
only the superior manner in which she was put together, but also the
superiority of iron ships over wooden ones, for it is difficult to
suppose that a wooden vessel would have withstood all these
casualties without sustaining serious damage. The Sarah Sands was
built in 1846 at Liverpool; she was 182 feet between perpendiculars,
33 feet beam, 32 feet deep, and of 1400 gross tonnage. Her engines
were of 300 indicated horse-power and were built by Messrs. Bury,
Curtice, and Kennedy of Liverpool. She had two oscillating cylinders
of 50 inches diameter and a stroke of 3 feet, working upwards to the
crank shaft, and a still greater novelty was the application of a direct
coupling between the crank shaft and the screw shaft. Her boilers
were of the wet-bottomed type, and had six furnaces besides return
tubes, the steam pressure being 9 lb. She was four-masted and
heavily canvassed, carrying courses, topsails, and topgallant sails on
the main and mizzen masts, while she was fore and aft rigged,
including topsails, on the fore and jigger masts; her head sails
included a large fore staysail and two immense jibs.
She made her first voyage from Liverpool to New York in January
1847, in connection with the Red Cross Line, and remained in this
service until the end of 1849, when she was transferred to the
American coastal route between Panama and San Francisco, being
probably the first iron screw vessel to go round South America. The
discovery of gold in Australia caused her to be sent to Sydney with a
crowded passenger list of gold-seekers, and she was thus the first
iron screw steamer to cross the Pacific to Australia; she afterwards
came back to Liverpool and was again placed on the New York
trade, and in 1854 was sent to Canada and was the first iron screw
steamer in that trade also. On her return passage she struck the
rocks in the St. Lawrence, near Belle Isle, and remained fast four
days and nights. When she returned to Liverpool it was found that
she had not started so much as a rivet, which says a good deal for
the strength of her construction. This was destined to have another
unnecessary proof, for as she left the graving dock she capsized
owing to her ballast having been removed and not replaced, but
again she was none the worse. Next she was employed as a
transport for troops to India in 1857, and caught fire in her saloon,
but as the hull was of iron the fire was subdued and she put into
Mauritius with the whole after-part burnt out. This ended her career
as a steamer, for she returned to England under sail and was
converted into a sailing ship, and in the following year met with a
disaster which even her tough frame could not withstand; she struck
on the rocks near Bombay and went to pieces.
In 1850 several boats were designed for mail service in any
weather for a run not exceeding sixty miles and on which sleeping
accommodation was not required. One of the best of the type was
Her Majesty, built and engined by Robinson and Russell in 1850 for
the Portsmouth and Ryde station. She was an iron paddle-steamer.
The engines had two oscillating cylinders 27 inches in diameter with
30 inches stroke, and made 58 revolutions per minute. Her tubular
boiler, 9·75 feet long, 11·25 feet wide, and 6 feet high, developed
steam at 20 lb. pressure. The heating surface was 1234 square feet.
Engines, boilers, and water weighed 30·5 tons. The paddles were
11·16 feet in diameter and each had nine fixed floats. There were
three masts and the sail area was 64 square yards. Her speed was
12·8 knots; displacement, 93 tons; length, 127 feet; extreme beam,
26 feet.
The steamer Crœsus, for the Australian trade, launched at Mare’s
yard, Blackwall, in June 1853, for the General Screw Shipping
Company, was the largest vessel yet built for the firm. She was of
2500 tons, with engines by Messrs. G. and J. Rennie, of 400 horse-
power.
Messrs. Maudslay, like Messrs. Penn and other eminent
engineers, had been in the habit of having the ships for which they
contracted built by other firms, while they themselves supplied the
engines. They decided to do their own shipbuilding, and accordingly
opened a yard at East Greenwich. The first vessel launched there
was the Lady Derby, of 530 tons gross, built for the General Iron
Screw-Collier Company.
Those were the days when Thames shipbuilding was at its zenith.
While trade was good, freights high, and shipowning was profitable,
shipowners did not mind paying high prices for their vessels; but as
the north-east coast, the Mersey, and the east and west coasts of
Scotland developed their iron shipbuilding facilities, and by reason of
their proximity to the coal and iron fields were able to obtain these
commodities at lower prices than the Thames shipbuilders could
secure them, they were able to underbid the Thames shipbuilders
and secure the industry, with the result that there is now but one
shipbuilding establishment of importance in the Thames equipped to
turn out a large warship or liner. Its competitors and neighbours of
half a century ago vanished one after another. Some have passed
out of existence, others have become merely repairing yards, and
two or three have gone elsewhere and prospered. The one survivor
is the Thames Iron Works and Shipbuilding Company, which, on the
site made historic by Mr. Penn’s enterprise, proudly endeavours to
hold its own and maintain the traditions of the river.
Mare’s shipbuilding yards on the shores of Bow Creek, near its
entrance to the Thames, started in a very small way, but within
seventeen years it extended until it was employing nearly 400 hands.
In 1845, a large portion of the Essex side of the yard was a marsh,
covered with water at high tide. By 1854 it was one of the principal
shipbuilding yards in the world. The wages of the workmen at
Blackwall averaged for eighteen months £5000 per week, and some
weeks it was £1600 more. The yards of Messrs. Green, Messrs.
Scott Russell, Messrs. Dudgeon, Messrs. Maudslay, Messrs.
Samuda, Messrs. Yarrow, and Messrs. Thorneycroft, to mention only
a few, besides a host of smaller builders, employed their thousands
of hands; but never a keel is laid there now. The banks of the river
which rang to the stroke of the shipwrights’ hammers are silent; the
slips are unoccupied or devoted to other uses, the furnaces are cold;
the machinery is sold or dismantled, and fragments of it may yet be
seen rusting ingloriously on the scrap-heap. Dawn now brings no
activity to the shipbuilding yards of the Thames, and dusk adds
nothing to their stagnation. Steam-ship repairing work is nearly all
that London river sees now. If, as sailors say, ships have spirits that
return to the yards where the vessels were built, when those ships
are lost or broken up, there must be many homeless phantoms
haunting the banks of the historic stream, seeking rest and finding
none, and perchance, as did certain of the ships they represent,
going down the river with the tide never to return: a ghostly fleet
bearing many mysteries which shall not be solved till the day when
the insatiable sea is called upon to surrender all it has taken captive.
The general superiority of iron screw steamers over those of wood
led to the introduction of a number of types designed to meet the
requirements of special trades.
James Hodgson, who, in addition to the Sarah Sands, built the
Antelope, the first iron screw steamer to leave Liverpool for the
Brazils, introduced the tubular type of iron vessels. The Carbon, a
vessel of this type, was built by him for the Eastern Archipelago
Company in 1855. In the construction of this boat he proposed to
dispense with the ordinary side frames altogether.
He stated in his synopsis that calculations of the strength of thirty
frames, in a ship that had answered exceedingly well, showed that a
partial bulkhead or frame projected from the side of the vessel to the
extent of only 20 inches was more than equal in strength to the thirty
frames, if it were supported on two bearings at a given distance and
weighted on the upper side in the middle. This frame, of 20 inches
deep, would carry more than the whole of the thirty frames, and
when the bulkhead was extended across to the other side of the ship
there would be a great preponderance of strength in favour of the
bulkhead. But, in dispensing with frames, it might, in some cases, be
necessary to increase the plating for the sides, to give some
additional strength. Since the strength of the materials increased as
the square of the thickness, the addition of one-eighth to five-eighths
of an inch plate increased the strength to resist a blow sideways, or
in a lateral direction, by nearly 50 per cent. The strength of the
vessel was further increased by placing the bulkhead in the widest
part of the ship, amidships, and by other bulkheads placed midway
between the midship bulkhead and the bow and stern, should it be
deemed advisable; and also by the interposition of stiffening plates.
Other strengthening means were also recommended. The vessel
would be, he contended, “capable of sustaining a considerable
pressure, either externally or internally, having round, swelling, or
convex sides, with a ridge or rib on the lower side which answers the
purpose of a keel.”
Vessels of this type were expected to be much more economical
to build, and no more expensive to run than those built on the
ordinary lines. It was disputed whether a tubular vessel being without
frames, floors, &c., would be strong enough for all purposes. An
accident to Mr. Hodgson’s tubular cargo vessel, The Carbon,
however, seemed to justify his contentions, for she stranded badly
when being launched, so that her stern was submerged at high
water. She was towed up the slip again, and refloated, and it was
found that only two plates required repairs. The Carbon was running
until quite recent years in the east coast coal trade to London.
Another important development in construction was due to Mr. J.
Scott Russell, who has been described, like Sir I. K. Brunel, as a
man before his time. Mr. Russell’s services to steam navigation in his
exposition of the wave-line theory of ship construction were of
incalculable benefit to the science. His object was to diminish the
resistance offered by the water to the passage of the ship, and the
modifications he made in the lines of the hull not only effected this to
a very remarkable degree, but also increased the seaworthiness and
speed of the vessels. He designed a number of small vessels
suitable for special trades or to meet particular requirements.
One introduced about 1855, for North Sea work, was an iron
screw steamer with a long parallel middle body which made a
capacious ship, the fore and after parts being designed in
accordance with his wave-line theory. Another of his cargo vessels,
having a greater length of parallel middle body and wave-line ends,
had the screw propeller abaft the rudder, which was entirely below
the propeller shaft, there being a loop in the rudder stock through
which the propeller shaft passed. A second vessel of this type, but
rather longer in proportion to its beam, was designed for the Baltic
trade, and had the peculiarity that its forecastle extended as far as
the midship deck-house.
The “City of Glasgow” (Inman Line, 1850).
The period from 1845 to 1880 is remarkable for the progress made
in steam-ship building prior to the general adoption of steel for the
construction of ocean vessels.
The early history of the Cunard Line has already been related.
Before the last wooden Cunarders were built, the Inman Line
appeared on the scene with a service of iron steamers with screw
propellers, the first being the City of Glasgow, launched in 1850 by
Tod and McGregor on the Clyde, for a transatlantic service they
themselves intended to establish with Glasgow as its headquarters.
The side-lever engine of the ordinary type was modified for this
vessel, as it was fitted with two beams working across the ship. The
cylinders were on one side of the ship, and on the other was a large
wheel which geared three to one with ordinary teeth into the
propeller-shaft pinion. Her machinery was placed low down in the
hold so as to leave her decks as free of encumbrances as possible.
She was a three-decked vessel of 1069 tons gross, 227 feet long
by 33 feet beam and 25 feet depth; and her engines of 350 horse-
power drove a two-bladed screw of 13 feet in diameter and 18 feet
pitch. She was designed to carry 52 passengers in the first class; 85
in the second class, and 400 in the steerage, and a crew of about
70. The hull was divided by five water-tight bulkheads into six
compartments, and as a further provision for the safety of her
passengers and crew she carried six lifeboats. Her fresh-water tanks
contained no less than 13,000 gallons. She was barque-rigged, of
almost yacht-like lines, and had a graceful clipper bow. The City of
Glasgow made a few voyages between Glasgow and New York in
the spring and summer of 1850.
Mr. William Inman of Liverpool had meanwhile been preparing for
the establishment of a line of steamers between Liverpool and
America. His idea was that modern iron vessels, equipped with
screw propellers, were bound to supersede paddle-wheel vessels,
and also that there was money to be made in the emigrant trade. His
decision to place fast steamers in this trade, however, was as much
philanthropic as commercial, for he was profoundly moved by the
reports of the sufferings and inconveniences experienced by
emigrants in sailing ships, no less than by the accounts of the fearful
mortality among them. The carrying of emigrants was, at that time,
confined to sailing ships, many of which were wholly unsuited to the
purpose. The steamer companies catered chiefly for those who
could afford to pay well. Mr. Inman determined to cater for the
emigrant traffic also, and for forty-two years the line bearing his
name was pre-eminent in this branch of the work of the Atlantic ferry.
Practically the only steamer which met the requirements he had in
mind was the City of Glasgow, and in the autumn of 1850 she was
acquired by the founders of the Inman Line.
“It was on December 10, 1850, that the Liverpool and Philadelphia
Steamship Company was established. Their agents were Messrs.
Richardson Bros. and Co., who had already a number of packet
ships of their own. They were the chief owners of the City of
Glasgow, and their junior partner was Mr. William Inman, who
managed the shipping department of the business.” This extract from
the “Official Guide” of the Inman and International Steamship
Company Ltd., published about 1888, is of interest in view of the
various accounts of the inception of the company which have been
made public. The first sailing of the City of Glasgow for her new
owners took place on December 17, 1850, from Liverpool for
Philadelphia. She was under the command of Captain Matthews,
who formerly had charge of the Great Western.
In June 1851, the City of Manchester, by the same builders and
also of iron, was purchased by the Inman organisation. She was of
2125 tons and carried “overhead” or “steeple” geared engines of 350
horse-power. Her cylinders and proportion of gearing, however, were
identical with those of the City of Glasgow.
In October 1851 the City of Pittsburg was built at Philadelphia and
was the first American-built screw-propelled steamer in the North
Atlantic service. The City of Philadelphia was delivered by Messrs.
Tod and McGregor in 1853, being of slightly greater tonnage than
her predecessor from the yard; but she was eclipsed by the City of
Baltimore ordered the same year, the dimensions of the last named
being: 326 feet in length, 39 feet breadth, 26 feet depth, 2472 tons
gross and 1774 net.
This vessel took the place of the City of Glasgow, which in March
1854 disappeared in mid-ocean with 480 souls on board. In
September of the same year the City of Philadelphia was wrecked
off Cape Race, but there was no loss of life.
“Inman’s iron screws,” as they were dubbed, were attracting
attention, and it was recognised as merely a question of time when
steamers of this type would prove successful rivals to the paddle-
boats.
Mr. Inman became sole managing director in October 1854, as the
result of the offer of the British Government to charter certain of the
steamers as transports during the Crimean War, the use of the
vessels for this purpose being disapproved by Messrs. Richardson,
who were Quakers. About this time the company purchased the
Kangaroo from the Pacific and Australasian Company, and ordered
the City of Washington from Messrs. Tod and McGregor. The
Kangaroo was 257 feet in length, 36 feet in breadth, 27 feet depth,
and had a gross tonnage of 1719 tons. The City of Washington was
358 feet in length, 40 feet in breadth, and 26 feet depth, with a gross
tonnage of 2870 tons.
The Crimean War saw a great demand by the Allies for transports,
and as the French Government offered better terms than the British
Government, the City of Manchester was chartered to the French,
and was followed by the City of Baltimore, and six months later,
when she had concluded her trial trips, by the City of Washington.
Upon the termination of their engagement as transports these
vessels returned to the Liverpool and Philadelphia service.
For some time Mr. Inman had been considering the advisability of
making New York his American port instead of Philadelphia, and
when the Kangaroo, with all her passengers on board, was frozen up
in the Delaware and her departure for Liverpool was delayed for five
weeks, he inaugurated, in December 1856, a monthly service to New
York with the City of Washington. Two months later the Inman
sailings were increased to fortnightly, the sailings in the alternate
weeks being undertaken by the Collins liners. This arrangement was
very short-lived, for in the same month the Collins Line service was
withdrawn. In 1857 also, the title of the organisation was changed to
“The Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia Steamship Company,” to
mark the extension of the service to New York.
In October 1857 Mr. Inman’s Company bought up the Glasgow
and New York Steamship Company, and placed two of the vessels,
the Edinburgh and the Glasgow, in the trade between Liverpool and
New York. By 1860 the demands upon the resources of the line were
such that the first City of New York was ordered from Tod and
McGregor. She was 336 feet in length, by 40 feet beam, and 28 feet
depth, and was of 2360 tons gross. Her engines were of the
horizontal, trunk type, and she was the first vessel of this line in
which engines of this design were installed.
The rivalry between the Inman and Cunard Lines was intense, and
neither company produced a steamer which the other did not seek to
surpass, but the Inman Company forged ahead both in the matter of
speed and passenger accommodation and became for a time the
premier company on the Atlantic. The White Star Line, however,
entered the “ferry” with vessels of a different type, and the
competition between the three great companies became keener than
ever. The first City of Paris was added to the fleet in 1866. Her
Cunard rival was the Russia. The City of Brussels, of 3081 tons,
began her sailings in October 1869. She was the last of the Inman
Line to be fitted with the long wooden deck-house which was a
conspicuous feature of so many ocean-going steamers. Her average
speed was between 14 and 15 knots, which was slightly increased
when she was re-engined in a few years’ time. In December 1869
she made the voyage from New York to Queenstown in 7 days 20
hours 33 minutes, a record which remained unbeaten until
September 1875, when the City of Berlin made the westward
passage in 7 days 18 hours and 2 minutes, and the homeward run in
7 days 15 hours 48 minutes. The City of Brussels was the first
vessel, apart from the Great Eastern, in the North Atlantic trade, in
which McFarlane Gray’s steam-steering gear was introduced.
The dangers inseparable from the North Atlantic traffic led to the
adoption by the company in 1870 of the “lanes” or routes across the
ocean as suggested by Lieut. Maury of the United States Navy, a
more southerly course being taken during the months from January
to August, to avoid the icebergs from the northern regions. The
Cunard and other steam-ship companies adopted the system about
the same time.
The City of Berlin was contracted for by Messrs. Caird and Co. in
1873, and when she was launched the Inman fleet counted up thirty-
one vessels with a total of 76,766 tons. The rivalry between the
builders of the great ocean-going liners, no less than between the
firms owning the ships and the officers of the ships themselves, was
very great, and Messrs. Caird were successful in their endeavour to
turn out a vessel which should be admitted to be the finest ocean-
going steamer afloat. The rapid acquisition of one first-class vessel
after another placed the Inman Company in the front rank. This
steamer was 489 feet long on the keel, and 513 feet over all, by 45
feet beam and 36 feet depth. Her speed was about 16 knots. She
was of 5491 tons gross and 3139 tons net. She had a pair of engines
of the inverted direct-acting compound type, with high- and low-
pressure cylinders, and of 1000 nominal horse-power, but on her trial
trip the indicated horse-power was 5200, and this was sometimes
exceeded in her voyages. Her low-pressure cylinder was 120 inches
in diameter, and the high-pressure was 72 inches. Her twelve boilers
were heated by thirty-six furnaces, the boilers being so arranged that
any number of them could be cut off.
It was pointed out by the Nautical Times that while the nominal
horse-power of the City of Bristol, added to the fleet in 1860, was as
one to ten as regards the gross tonnage, that of the splendid City of
Berlin, put on the line in March 1875, was as one to five and a half.
She could accommodate 400 passengers, of whom 200 were in the
saloon, 100 in the second cabin, and the remainder in the steerage,
and her crew numbered 150. Electricity as a means of lighting was
introduced into the transatlantic trade on this steamer in November
1879.
All the Inman vessels hitherto launched were ship-rigged, and all
had the graceful clipper bows for which the line was famous, the
Inman fleet being unequalled for beauty. At times, as they were
overhauled, they were barque-rigged, and one or two were given a
three-masted schooner rig.
The “City of Rome” (Inman Line, 1881).
In June 1881 the beautiful City of Rome was launched at Barrow

for the company, and sailed on her maiden voyage in the following
October. She was constructed of iron throughout, and was 560 feet
in length by 52¹⁄₂ beam and 37 feet depth, and was of 8144 tons
gross. This was the first of the company’s steamers to have three
funnels, and being placed between the main and mizzen masts at
regular spaces they served to add to the appearance of the vessel.
Her machinery marked another important innovation as, although the
engine was on the three-crank system, it had three high-pressure
cylinders of 46 inches diameter each, and three low-pressure
cylinders of 86 inches diameter each, arranged on the tandem
method, and the piston had a stroke of six feet. The eight boilers
worked up to 90 lb. pressure, with forty-eight furnaces so arranged
that a water-tight bulkhead was fitted fore and aft and formed the
coal bunkers, but this arrangement was modified afterwards. This
splendid vessel did not come up to expectations in the matter of
speed and was returned to the builders.
In 1875 the company was converted into the Inman Steamship
Company, Ltd. The City of Rome was the last steamer the founder of
the line ordered, and he died before her completion. No further
additions were made to the fleet of the Inman Company. After the
company and fleet were acquired by the International Navigation
Company in 1886, the new firm also bought the City of Chicago
while she was on the stocks for the Dominion Line. This vessel was
the only one under the Inman flag to have a straight stem. She ran
for several years, and was then lost on the south coast of Ireland.
The “City of Chicago.”
The “Persia” and “Scotia” (Cunard, 1856 and 1862).

The first iron steamer built by the Cunard Company was the
Persia, and she deserves more than a passing mention because of
the association with her of David Kirkaldy, Napier’s draughtsman, to
whom modern steel shipbuilding owes the discovery of the way to
toughen steel and remove its brittleness. Kirkaldy’s drawings of the
Persia are stated to have been the only steam-ship designs ever
exhibited at the Royal Academy. He was also the first on the Clyde
to give the question of trial performances the attention it deserved.
The first trial trips recorded by him, on the Larriston, on September
22 and October 18, 1852, were printed when the Admiralty asked for
particulars of the respective behaviour of a Smith’s and a Griffith’s
propeller. But he was not allowed to continue his researches in this
direction, and even the Persia left the Clyde without a single diagram
having been taken, for although Kirkaldy was in the engine-room
during the entire trial, he had not permission to record her
performances. He obtained data concerning many vessels “so as to
be able to deduce the variations of behaviour and relative economy,
and trace such to their respective origins, e.g., whether any variation
was due wholly or in part to the difference in the shape of the
vessels, in the propellers, in the engines, or in the boilers. The utility
of these investigations was signally demonstrated in the case of two
vessels, Lady Eglinton and Malvina ... the former proved a great
success on her trial trip, and the latter a comparative failure. He was
able to trace the cause of the failure and in great measure to rectify
it. He clearly foresaw that the time was surely approaching when his
employers would require to estimate for and construct vessels to
fixed requirements as to draught, speed, and economy of
working.”[87]
[87] “Illustrations of David Kirkaldy’s System of Mechanical
Testing,” by Wm. G. Kirkaldy.
The drawings of the Persia were made for his own pleasure, and
the first intimation of their existence was the announcement in the
papers that they had been admitted to the Academy. By Napier’s
instructions they were exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855
together with drawings of the steam-ships Europa, America, Niagara,
and Canada. Napier received a gold medal and the Legion of

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Essential Calculus based Physics

Study Guide Workbook Electricity and

100 Instructive Calculus based Physics Examples The

Understanding Physics for JEE Main and Advanced

College Physics Essentials Volume 1 Mechanics

DC Pandey Electricity Magnetism 2020th Edition Dc

Intermediate Algebra Skills Practice Workbook with

Electricity and Magnetism 1st Edition Dr Munir H Nayfeh

Electricity and Magnetism: New Formulation by

JEE Advanced Physics: Electrostatics and Current

Chris McMullen, Ph.D.

Copyright © 2017 Chris McMullen, Ph.D.

Textbooks > Science > Physics

— Chris McMullen, Ph.D.

Symbols and SI Units

Symbol Name SI Units

Notes Regarding Units

Prefix Name Power of 10

Algebra with Powers

It may be helpful to recall the following rules of algebra relating to powers:

Coulomb’s Law Strategy

Make a list of the known quantities:

Electric Field Equations

�⃗𝑒𝑒 ) equals charge (𝑞𝑞) times electric field (E

Symbols and SI Units

Symbol Name SI Units

𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 electric force N

𝑅𝑅 distance from the charge m

Notes Regarding Units

Electric Field Strategy

Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field

Make a list of the known quantities and the desired unknown:

6. A monkey’s earring experiences an electric force of 12 N in the presence of an external

3 SUPERPOSITION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

Symbols and SI Units

Symbol Name Units

𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 magnitude of electric force N

𝑅𝑅 distance from the charge m

𝑑𝑑 distance between two charges m

There are two similar kinds of superposition problems:

Next, find the direction of E �⃗1 and E

𝜃𝜃2 = 180° − 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 180° − 30° = 150°

The screw was three-bladed, 15 feet 6 inches diameter, and 19

fter the launching of the Great Britain in 1845, steam-

The “Sarah Sands,” 1846.

The “City of Rome” (Inman Line, 1881).

In June 1881 the beautiful City of Rome was launched at Barrow

The “Persia” and “Scotia” (Cunard, 1856 and 1862).

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