Analysis of Composite Laminates Theories and Their Applications 1St Edition Dinghe Li Full Chapter PDF

Analysis of Composite Laminates:
Theories and Their Applications 1st

Edition Dinghe Li
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/analysis-of-composite-laminates-theories-and-their-a
pplications-1st-edition-dinghe-li/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Theories of development : concepts and applications 6th

Edition William Crain
https://ebookmass.com/product/theories-of-development-concepts-
and-applications-6th-edition-william-crain/
Applied Analysis of Composite Media: Analytical and

Computational Approaches Dryga■
https://ebookmass.com/product/applied-analysis-of-composite-
media-analytical-and-computational-approaches-drygas/
Damage Modeling of Composite Structures: Strength,

Fracture, and Finite Element Analysis 1st Edition
Pengfei Liu
https://ebookmass.com/product/damage-modeling-of-composite-
structures-strength-fracture-and-finite-element-analysis-1st-
edition-pengfei-liu/
Applied Analysis of Composite Media: Analytical and

Computational Approaches Piotr Drygas
https://ebookmass.com/product/applied-analysis-of-composite-
media-analytical-and-computational-approaches-piotr-drygas/
Metal Oxide-Based Nanofibers and Their Applications
Esposito V.
https://ebookmass.com/product/metal-oxide-based-nanofibers-and-
their-applications-esposito-v/
Inorganic and composite fibers: production, properties,

and applications Kyosev
https://ebookmass.com/product/inorganic-and-composite-fibers-
production-properties-and-applications-kyosev/
Dynamics of Molecular Excitons: Theories and

Applications (Nanophotonics) 1st Edition Seogjoo J.
Jang
https://ebookmass.com/product/dynamics-of-molecular-excitons-
theories-and-applications-nanophotonics-1st-edition-seogjoo-j-
jang/
Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications 6th

Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/theories-of-development-concepts-
and-applications-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/
Fascinating Fluoropolymers and Their Applications 1st

Edition Ameduri Bruno. (Ed.)
https://ebookmass.com/product/fascinating-fluoropolymers-and-
their-applications-1st-edition-ameduri-bruno-ed/
ANALYSIS OF
COMPOSITE LAMINATES
ANALYSIS OF
COMPOSITE LAMINATES
Theories and Their Applications
DINGHE LI
College of Aeronautical Engineering
Civil Aviation University of China
Tianjin, China
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2022 China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book.
This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or
sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center
and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they
should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-90804-7
For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Glyn Jones
Editorial Project Manager: Naomi Robertson
Production Project Manager: Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi
Designer: Greg Harris
Typeset by VTeX
Dedication
I have many people to thank. I am grateful to Professor Xiong Zhang for academic guid-
ance during my doctoral study at Tsinghua University and his constructive suggestions
about this book, which aided me in writing the text. I also appreciate Professor Jianxin
Xu and Professor Guanghui Qing for the academic guidance in my early research at
the Civil Aviation University of China. I am grateful to Professor Yan Liu and Profes-
sor Xinming Qiu for their academic guidance during my doctoral study at Tsinghua
University. I wish to thank the members of my research group on computational com-
posite mechanics at the Civil Aviation University of China. I received valuable assistance
from my M.A. students including Ruipeng Wang, Feng Zhang, Jiuyue Yang, Dong Xu,
Zhengguang Xiao, Wukui Shan, Liangyi Li, Zhengming Wang, Shuo Ma, and Zhaoxin
Yun. I express my deepest appreciation to Zhengming Wang for her assistance in editing
the text. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude and apologies to my family, Li Zhang
and Yinguang Li, for enduring this past year when much of my time and energy should
have been devoted to them rather than to this book.
v
Contents
Biography xv
Preface xvii
Acronyms xix
1. Composite analysis overview 1

1.1. Introduction 1
1.1.1. History of composites 1
1.1.2. Applications of composites in aircrafts 3
1.2. Composite laminates 5
1.2.1. Definition and constituents 5
1.2.2. Plies 6
1.2.3. Laminates 7
1.3. Analysis schemes 9
1.3.1. Basic analysis schemes 9
1.3.2. Basic equations 11
1.3.3. Existing analysis theories 14
1.3.4. Challenges 16
1.3.5. Future developments 19
1.4. General Hooke’s law 20
1.4.1. Hyperelastic materials 20
1.4.2. Monoclinic materials 22
1.4.3. Orthotropic materials 22
1.4.4. Isotropic materials 24
1.4.5. Plane stress-reduced constitutive relations 24
1.4.6. Transformation of material coefficients 25
1.5. Energy principles 27
1.5.1. Virtual displacement principle 27
1.5.2. Hamilton’s principle 30
1.5.3. Mixed variational principles 31
References 33
2. Shear deformation theories 35

2.1. Introduction 35
2.2. Classical laminated plate theory 36
2.2.1. Displacement fields 36
2.2.2. Kinematic equation 38
2.2.3. Constitutive equations 42
2.2.4. Governing equations 45
2.3. First-order shear deformation theory 47
vii
viii Contents
2.3.2. Kinematic equation 48

2.3.3. Shear correction factors 50
2.4. High-order shear deformation theories 53
2.4.1. Second-order shear deformation theory 53
2.4.2. Third-order shear deformation theory 55
2.4.3. Higher-order shear deformation theories 58
2.5. Finite element formulations 58
2.5.1. CLPT 58
2.5.2. FSDT 63
2.5.3. TSDT 64
2.5.4. Numerical examples 68
References 70
3. State space theory 71

3.2. Hamiltonian canonical equation of laminated plates 72
3.2.1. Hamiltonian canonical equation of individual layer 72
3.2.2. Exact solution of simply support single layer plates 74
3.2.3. Hamiltonian canonical equation of laminated plates 77
3.3. H-R variational principle of laminated plates 79
3.3.1. H-R variational principle in rectangular coordinate system 79
3.3.2. H-R variational principle in cylindrical coordinate system 84
3.4. Finite element formulation of state space theory 87
3.4.1. Hamiltonian isoparametric element 87
3.4.3. Boundary conditions 91
3.4.4. Precise time-integration 92
3.4.5. Free vibration 93
3.5. Meshfree formulation of state space theory 95
3.5.1. Interpolation using radial basis functions 95
3.5.2. Radial basis functions 98
3.6. Bonding imperfection in composite laminates 101
3.6.1. Bonding imperfection 101
3.6.2. State space equation of bonding imperfection problems 102
References 109
4. Layerwise theories 111

4.2. Integrate layerwise methods 112
Contents ix
4.2.1. Generalized laminate plate theory 112

4.2.2. Layerwise FEM 113
4.2.3. Other ILWMs 113
4.3. Reddy’s layerwise theory 114
4.3.2. Euler equations 116
4.3.4. Finite formulations 121
4.4. Discrete layerwise theories 127
4.4.1. Development of DLWM 127
4.4.2. Displacement-based DLWM 128
4.4.3. Carrera’s unified formulation 132
4.4.4. Three-field variables DLWM 134
4.4.5. Multiparticle model of multilayered materials 135
References 136
5. Extended layerwise method 139

5.2. Extended layerwise method of laminated plates 140
5.2.1. Displacements fields 140
5.2.2. Description of transverse crack 145
5.2.3. Hamilton’s principle and Euler–Lagrange equations 148
5.2.5. Finite element formulations 152
5.2.6. Time integrations 155
5.3. Extended layerwise method of doubly-curved laminated shells 167
5.3.1. Geometric equations of laminated shells 167
5.3.2. Hamilton’s principle and Euler–Lagrange equations 170
5.3.5. Full extended layerwise method 179
5.4. Fracture analysis of composite laminates 188
5.4.1. Equivalent domain integral method 188
5.4.2. Interaction integral method of isotropic materials 190
5.4.3. Interaction integral method of orthotropic materials 191
5.4.4. Interaction integral method of dynamic problems 192
5.4.5. Local remeshing scheme 193
5.4.6. Maximum circumferential tensile stress criterion 195
5.4.7. VCCT based on XLWM 196
5.4.8. Determination of delamination front 198
5.5. Fast uniform-grid delamination scheme 208
x Contents
5.5.1. The fast uniform-grid delamination scheme 208

5.5.2. Delamination region identification 209
5.6. Microfracture analysis of composite laminates 220
5.6.1. Force-bearing mechanisms of fibers 220
5.6.2. Modeling scheme 220
5.6.3. Fibers modeling 222
References 231
6. Multiphysical analysis 235

6.2. Thermomechanical analysis 236
6.2.1. Variational principles considering temperature effect 236
6.2.3. Euler equations 239
6.2.6. Time integrations 245
6.2.7. Evaluation of SIF for thermomechanical dynamic problems 247
6.3. Piezoelectric analysis 250
6.3.1. Displacement and potential fields 250
6.3.2. Electromechanical variational principle 252
6.3.4. Finite element formulation 256
6.3.5. Coupling modeling of laminated plates with piezoelectric patch 258
6.3.6. Thermo-electromechanical dynamic analysis 260
6.4. Chemo-thermomechanical analysis 276
6.4.1. Chemo-thermomechanical fields 276
6.4.2. Hamilton principle and Euler equations 277
6.4.5. Times integration 285
6.4.6. Chemomechanical analysis 286
References 295
7. Analysis of complex composites 297

7.2. Layerwise/solid-element method of composite stiffened shells 299
7.2.1. Modeling scheme 299
7.2.2. Finite element formulations of the stiffener 300
Contents xi
7.2.3. LW/SE method 301

7.3. Dynamic thermomechanical analysis of stiffened plates 307
7.3.1. Dynamic thermomechanical three-dimensional elements 307
7.3.2. Dynamic thermomechanical XLW/SE 309
7.4. Analysis methods of sandwich structures 316
7.4.1. DLWM for the sandwich plates 316
7.4.2. Layerwise/solid-element of composite sandwich plates 316
7.4.3. LW/SE of sandwich plates with multilayer cores 321
7.4.4. Modeling of the sandwich structures 323
7.5. Dynamic thermomechanical analysis of sandwich plates 332
7.5.1. LW/SE method of sandwich plates with single core 332
7.5.2. LW/SE method of sandwich plates with multiply cores 337
7.6. Dynamic thermo-chemomechanical coupling analysis on aeroengine turbine 346
7.6.1. Three-dimensional thermo-chemomechanical formulations 346
7.6.2. Transformation of coordinate system 349
7.6.3. Modeling of aeroengine turbine with TBCs 351
References 363
8. Progressive failure analysis 365

8.2. Continuous damage mechanics analysis framework 366
8.2.1. Damage constitutive 366
8.2.2. Damage initiation 367
8.2.3. Damage evolution law 372
8.3. Progressive failure analysis of low-velocity impact 373
8.3.1. Mathematic model of impact problem 373
8.3.2. Contact force based on Hertz’s law 375
8.3.3. FEM implementation 376
8.4. Progressive failure analysis of composites 382
8.4.1. Discrete damage zone model 382
8.4.2. DDZM-XLWM 384
8.4.3. Fatigue analysis based on DDZM-XLWM 389
8.4.4. Fatigue parameters 393
8.5. Progressive thermomechanical DDZM-XLWM 408
8.5.1. Problems descriptions 408
8.5.2. Interfacial heat transfer 408
xii Contents

References 421
9. Multiscale analysis 423

9.2. Layerwise multiscale analysis method 424
9.2.1. Multiscale analysis based on EST 424
9.2.2. Homogenization method 425
9.2.3. Layerwise multiscale analysis method 428
9.2.4. Implementation 431
9.3. Two-scale C 2 of a laminated curved beams 434
9.3.1. TSDT of curved beams 434
9.3.2. Displacement decomposition 438
9.3.4. Nonlocal quadrature 443
9.4. Three-scale C 2 of laminated curved beams 444
9.4.1. Displacement decomposition 444
9.5. C 2 of laminated plates 455
9.5.1. Framework of C 2 for laminated plates 455
9.5.2. Two-scale analysis of laminated plates 459
9.5.3. Three-scale analysis of laminated plates 462
References 467
10. Sensitivity analysis 471

10.2. Sensitivity analysis based on FEM 472
10.2.1. Static responses 472
10.2.2. Frequency and mode shape 473
10.3. Evaluation methods 475
10.3.1. AM 476
10.3.2. FDM 476
10.3.3. SAM 477
10.3.4. Step sizes of SAM and FDM 477
10.4. Sensitivity analysis based on SST 482
10.4.1. Hybrid governing equations 482
10.4.2. Hybrid governing equation of bonding imperfection problems 484
10.4.3. Implement of sensitivity analysis 486
References 493
11. Analysis codes 495

11.1. Overall framework 495
Contents xiii
11.2. Data structures and pre/post process 496

11.2.1. Matrix storage formats 496
11.2.2. Preprocess 497
11.2.3. Post-process tool 500
11.3. Solver models 502
11.3.1. Solver _sdt 502
11.3.2. Solver _sst 504
11.3.3. Solver _rlw 505
11.3.4. Solver _xlw 506
References 509
Index 511
This page intentionally left blank
Biography
Dr. Li is a Professor and Vice President at the College of Aeronautical Engineering,

Civil Aviation University of China, and has been featured among the World’s Top 2%
Scientists List created by Stanford University. He finished his MSc at the Civil Aviation
University of China on the sensitivity analysis of composite structures in the state space
framework, and graduated one year ahead of schedule. His PhD was devoted to the
impact damage analysis and refined theories of the composite structures. He was the
first doctor to graduate in 2.5 years in the School of Aerospace Engineering, Tsinghua
University. He has worked with Professor Jacob Fish on multiscale analysis problems
of composite laminates at Columbia University in New York City. Dr. Li focused on
solving the basic mechanical problems in the composite engineering structures, involv-
ing the high-precision laminated plate and shell analysis theories, advanced numerical
method, fracture and damage mechanics of anisotropic material, multiphysical field and
multiscale analysis theories of composite structures. In 2015, Dr. Li was selected as the
second level candidate of the Tianjin “131” innovative talent training project and the
“Youth Blue Sky” scholar of the Civil Aviation University of China. In 2019, he was
selected as the high-level talent support plan of the Civil Aviation University of China.
Dr. Li is the author of nearly 60 journal papers. He has obtained two software copy-
rights and written one book (Composite repair of aircraft structures: theory, design, and
applications). Dr. Li is a young editorial board member of Aviation Science and Technology
and a specially invited reviewer of the Journal of Computational Mechanics.
xv
Acronyms
AM analytical method
C2 computational continua
CLPT classical laminated plate theory
CCC carbon-carbon composite (carbon matrix)
CDM continuum damage mechanics
CTDM central difference method
CFRP carbon fiber reinforced plates
CMC ceramic matrix composite
CUF Carrera’s unified formulation
CUC computational unit cell
DCB double cantilever beam
DDZM discrete damage zone model
DLWM discrete layerwise methods
DNS direct numerical simulation
DOF degree-of-freedom
EST equivalent single-layer theory
IIM interaction integral method
ILWM integrated layerwise methods
LMAM layerwise multiscale analysis method
LSM level set method
LWT layerwise theory
LW/SE laywise/solid-element
FDM finite difference method
FWDM forward difference method
Full-XLWM full extended layerwise method
FSDT first-order shear deformation theory
FEM finite element method
HSDT high-order shear deformation theory
HrSDT higher-order shear deformation theory
GLPT generalized laminate plate theory
GFRP glass fiber reinforced plates
PMC polymer matrix composite
MMC metal matrix composite
MCEP minimum complementary energy principle
MCTSC maximum circumferential tensile stress criterion
MPEP minimum potential energy principle
MQ modified multiquadrics
RBF radial basis functions
RLWT Reddy’s layerwise theory
RPIM radial point interpolation method
SAM semianalytical method
SDT shear deformation theories
SIF stress intensity factor
SERR strain energy release rate
xix
xx Acronyms
SSDT second-order shear deformation theory

SST state space theory
TPS thin plate spline
TSDT third-order shear deformation theory
ZZT zig-zag theory
XLWM extended layerwise method
XLW/SE extended layerwise/solid-element
XFEM extended finite element method
VCCT virtual crack closure technique
VDP virtual displacement principle
Preface
Nowadays composite materials play a very important role in all types of engineering
structures, such as aerospace, automotive, underwater structures, medical productions,
electronic, and sports equipments. Computational mechanic analysis is the base of the
dramatic development of composite materials. Composite structures can be studied
by using two basic analysis schemes: micromechanical methods and macromechanical
methods. In general, micro-mechanical analysis is aimed at predicting and understanding
the average properties in terms of the detailed microscopic behavior of the mate-
rial, rather than generating accurate design data; while macromechanical analysis draws
mainly on the results obtained from physical and mechanical testing of unidirectional
composites. If we need to analyze the macro and microresponse simultaneously, mul-
tiscale analysis methods are necessary. This book is focused on the macromechanical
analysis and multiscale analysis of composite engineering structures. In the early days
of laminated composites, the technique used for analyzing conventional plates was ex-
tended to analyze these new structures. The zig-zag effects and Cz0 -Requirements poses
a serious challenge to the early traditional analytical methods. Although the compos-
ite analysis theories have made great progress, there are still many challenges because
of the complex characteristics and wide applications of composites: their complex in-
tegrated molding process, complex anisotropic constitutive relations, complex damage
mechanism, complex multiphysical loading, and complex multiscale effective, namely
C 5 challenges. Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to accurately consider all the chal-
lenges using the existing refined analysis methods.
The author and his research team have focused on solving the basic mechanical prob-
lems in composite engineering structures, especially the theories of composite laminated
beams, plates, and shells; they are called the composite laminated theories in this book.
The research team has developed a composite structure analysis software system, with
a total code of more than 200,000 lines. The software system has a large number of
solvers based on shear deformation theories, state space theory, the layerwise method,
extended layerwise method, computational continua, multipoint multilevel grid refine-
ment method, and taking the fracture, damage, multiscale and multiphysics analysis
problems as its advantages. Analysis objects of this software system include: beams,
plates, shells, stiffened plates and shells, sandwich plates and shells, and multilayer sand-
wich plates and shells. Loading types include: mechanic, thermal, electric, chemical, and
their coupling loading. The software system adopts advanced storage and solution tech-
nologies, and requires less memory and hard disk than commercial software. For some
specific challenging engineering problems, the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed
software are better than these of the commercial software as well.
xvii
xviii Preface
As there is a dramatic increase in the use of composite materials, the number of

students taking courses in composite mechanics has steadily increased in recent years,
and the students are drawn to these courses from a variety of disciplines. The courses
offered at universities and the books published on composite materials are of three types:
material science, mechanics, and design. The present book belongs to the mechanics
category. The motivation for the present book has come from many years of the author’s
research in laminated composite structures and from the fact there does not exist a book
that contains a detailed coverage of various laminate theories, analytical solutions, finite
element models, and their applications in structural engineering problems. The book is
largely based on the author’s original work on refined theories of laminated composite
plates and shells, and the analytical and finite element solutions he and his collaborators
have developed over the last two decades. The novelty of this book is that the existing
most important analysis methods and their codes are introduced, and mainly focus on
fracture and damage analysis, together with multiscale analysis and multiphysics analysis.
This textbook is unique in three respects:
• Theory and implementation. The text provides a detailed exposition of the state-of-
the-art composite analysis theories and their insertion into engineering applications
of typical structure forms and problems;
• Hands-on experience. Included with this textbook is an academic version of the
composite analysis codes, which includes more than 200,000 lines of code;
• Engineering problems. Many structural engineering problems are studied numeri-
cally. A lot of benchmark examples are designed and detailed numerical results are
presented.
Due to a broad spectrum of application areas, this course is intended to be of interest
and used to a varied audience, including:
• Graduate students and researchers in academia and government laboratories who
are interested in acquiring fundamental skills that will enable them to advance the
state-of-the-art in the field;
• Practitioners in civil, aerospace, and automotive industries who are engaged in anal-
ysis, design, and optimization of composite structures;
• Commercial software vendors who are interested in extending their product port-
folios and tapping into new markets.
Dinghe Li
Tianjin
CHAPTER 1
Composite analysis overview

1.1. Introduction
1.1.1 History of composites
The history of composite materials can be traced back to ancient times. Straw or wheat
straw reinforced clay and reinforced concrete, which have been used for many years,
are composed of two different materials. They can be regarded as the typical composite
materials. However, the modern composite materials have been developed for about 80
years. In 1940s, in order to improve the design of military vehicles, such as airplanes,
helicopters, and rockets, the high strength and lightweight materials were at a premium
compared with the traditional metal. Since the polymer industries were quickly devel-
oping, the lightweight polymers provided a possible solution for this challenge. On the
other hand, the extremely high theoretical strength of glass fibers was discovered, but
how to use it has become the obstacle for the structural engineering problems. Based
on above two driving forces, the modern composite materials made up by two or more
different phases, were invented and being extensively adopted in various structural en-
gineering fields, including aerospace, automotive, and civil engineering just name a few.
In general, the developing process of modern composite materials can be divided into
four generations or stages for 80 years.
The first generation is the glass fiber reinforced materials. In the 1940s, the glass
fibers were immersed into lightweight and lower strength polymers, and a stronger new
material was obtained. The polymer is regarded as a matrix and protects the fibers from
scratches that might result into fracture under low stress level. The fibers are regarded
as reinforcement and improve the strength of fragile polymers by shouldering most of
the stress transferred from the polymer through the fiber/matrix interface. The fibers
can significantly stop the propagation of microcracks in the matrix due to the bridge
effect. The first glass fiber laminated structure was produced in 1942. The earliest ap-
plications of glass fiber reinforced plates (GFRP) were in the marine industry to replace
the traditional wood or metal components. The lightweight and strong GFRP was not
subjected to rotting or rusting of their metal counterparts, and easy to maintain. Until
now, the GFRP continues to be a major component of boats and ships; furthermore, it
comprises about 90% of the composites’ market.
The second generation is the high performance composite materials. The GFRP
technologies was rapidly applied into many engineering fields during the 1950s, but the
new demands from military space programs prompted a general notion of composite
materials. Spacecraft requires even lighter and stronger components than GFRP. The
Analysis of Composite Laminates Copyright © 2022 China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. Published by Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-32-390804-7.00009-1 All rights reserved. 1
2 Analysis of Composite Laminates
heat generated during the reentry of a spacecraft could exceed 1500◦ C, which is beyond
the temperature limits of any monolithic or composite material, especially low-melting
point polymers. In 1956, an asbestos fiber was added into a phenolic resin as a possible
reentry nosecone material, and the composites of metal matrix was also regarded as a
solution. In these composite materials, the inorganic, ceramic fiber, or particulate phase
were employed to improve the heat resistance of lightweight metals and to lower their
thermal expansion coefficient. The space race provided an impetus for the development
of carbon and boron fibers as well. They were developed around the same time, but
the carbon took the lead in the 1960s due to its superior processing capabilities and
lower cost. The graphite fibers were of use only in polymer matrices at this time.
Because of the reactivity of carbon with aluminum and magnesium, the use of graphite
fibers as reinforcement for metal matrices was not possible. The strength of boron fibers
exceeded that of carbon fibers, and it is more suitable to military applications where the
cost was no concern, and made no extension into other industries. The compound of
aramid fibers was developed in 1964. Aramids belong to the nylon family of polymers;
the key structural feature is aromatic rings linked by amide groups.
The third stage is searching for new application fields and synergy of properties,
whereas the spacecraft and aircraft demands prompted new high modulus fibers in the
1960s. The composites made with the aforementioned expensive fibers had to find civil
applications in the 1970s when the space and military demands declined. The sports and
automobile industries became more important markets. At the same time, the analysis
and design methods based on the computational composite mechanics drove further
applications, such as the civilian and military aircraft. The carbon fibers were used ex-
tensively in sporting products beginning in the 1970s, with graphite tennis rackets and
golf clubs replacing the wooden and steel materials. During the same period, the com-
posites of a ceramic matrix was developed and applied. It must be reinforced by high
temperature fibers, such as SiC, because low-melting fibers would be destroyed at the
high processing temperatures required for ceramic sintering. On the other hand, the
brittle ceramics need a reinforcing phase to improve the toughness.
The fourth generation is the hybrid materials, nanocomposites, and biocomposites
(green-composites). In the 1990s, both academic and industrial researchers started to
extend the composite paradigm into smaller and smaller scales. From the macroscopic
scale to the molecular scale, it results into hybrid materials. They are an intentional
and complimenting combination of two or more materials with new properties. Ac-
cording to their criterion, the difference between hybrid materials and composites is
their functions and/or properties. Toward the nanoscale, it results into nanocomposites.
Nanocomposites are solid materials that have multiple phase domains and at least one of
these domains has a nanoscale structure. A biocomposite is a material composed of two
or more distinct constituent materials (one being naturally derived), which are com-
bined to yield a new material with improved performance over individual constituent
Composite analysis overview 3
materials, namely, the natural fiber-reinforced biopolymers. These composite materials

have been developed as an alternative to conventional materials that may be nonre-
newable, recalcitrant, or manufactured by pollution emitting processes. Because these
composite materials are not studied in this book, more detailed information will not
presented.
1.1.2 Applications of composites in aircrafts

The applications of composites in civilian and military aircraft followed the typical
stages of every new technology. In the beginning, the limited application on secondary
structure minimized risk and improved understanding by scientific research and service
experience. This limited usage was followed by wider applications first in small and
military aircrafts. More recently, with the increased requirement on efficiency and low
operation costs, the composite materials were being applied widely in larger civilian
aircraft.
In the aircraft industry, the helicopter design engineers were among the first to rec-
ognize the potential of composite materials and use them on primary structures. From
the seats and engine bay door to the fuselage and tailplane, an integral part of helicopters
was made from the composite materials. However, the rotor blade has perhaps benefited
most significantly from the use of composite materials. The most critical problems of
traditional wood, steel, or aluminum blade can be hugely reduced by the composite ma-
terials, together with many other design drawbacks. In addition, the strength-to-density
ratio of composites materials is four to six times greater than those of steel or aluminum,
leading to composite blades that are up to 45% lighter than metal ones.
In the 1970s, with the composites applications on sailplanes and helicopters in-
creasing, the first all-composite planes appeared, but these were small recreational or
aerobatic planes, and just cocured and bonded constructions with very limited num-
bers of fasteners. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the first all-composite airplane of larger
size began with the LearFan 2100 and sought FAA certification (FAR, Part 23). The
guidelines of the Advisory Circular on composite structure were observed throughout
this program, and Advisory Circular 20–107 was used as a guide for the certification
procedures.
With fuel prices rising, the composite materials became a very attractive alterna-
tive for the large civil aircrafts to reduced weight compared with the traditional metal
structure. Applications in the large civilian transport category started in the early 1980s
with the sandwich horizontal stabilizer of B737. Meanwhile, the horizontal and vertical
stabilizers of the A320 were made of composite materials as well. The next significant
application of composite materials on a primary aircraft structure was the B777 in 1990s,
the empennage, control surfaces, and main floor beams were made from composite ma-
terials. However, the cost of composite structures was not attractive enough to lead to
an even wildly application at that time.
With decades of development, the composite materials have been called the shape
of aerospace’s future. In the civil aviation industry, A380, A350, and B787 represent the
application of composite materials. The A380 is the first aircraft that has a central wing
box with carbon fiber reinforced plates (CFRP), representing a weight saving up to one
and a half tonnes compared to the most advanced aluminum alloys. The main challenge
is the wing root joint, where composite components could be up to 45 mm thick.
For this specific application, Airbus reaps a large benefit from the A340-600 CFRP
keel beams (16 meters long and 23 mm thick), each of which carries a force of 450
tonnes. A monolithic CFRP design has also been adopted for the fin box and rudder,
as well as the horizontal stabilizer and elevators. The size of the CFRP horizontal
tail plane is close to the size of wings of the A320, so the main challenge becomes
the size of the components. As for the center wing box, the size of the components
justifies the intensive use of automated tape-laying technology. Furthermore, the upper
deck floor beams and the rear pressure bulkhead is made of the CFRP. The advanced
glass/aluminum composites was used on the upper portion of fuselage, and it is called
the glare laminate. The glare laminate is a fiber metal laminate composed of several very
thin aluminum layers interspersed with glass fiber prepreg layers, and they are bonded
together with a matrix such as epoxy. This new aero structure material is widely used
in fatigued parts due to its outstanding features in anticracking and tension.
Boeing was the first to commit to a composite fuselage and wing for the B787. Such
extended applications of composite materials (about 50% of the structure) would give
the efficiency improvement needed by the airline operators, such as about 20% more
fuel efficient and 20% fewer emissions. The B787 is the first major commercial airplane
to have a composite fuselage, wings, and most other airframe components. Each B787
contains approximately 35 metric tons of CFRP, made with 23 metric tons of carbon
fiber. The fuselage is constructed in tubular segments, which are then joined together
during the final assembly. The applications of composites in the B787 saves 50,000 rivets
per plane; and each rivet site would have required maintenance checking as a potential
failure location. Other advantages of using composite materials is that a typical bonded
repair on the standard aluminum airframe sometimes requires more than 24 hours of
downtime, but Boeing has created a new way of repairing composite materials in less
than an hour. This leads to quicker turnarounds and offers the opportunity for a quick
in-and-out for minor damage that might make an aluminum airplane unable to fly.
The A350 is the first Airbus airplane with both fuselage and wing structures made
primarily of the CFRP. The A350 also has a slightly higher proportion of composites
(about 52% of the structure) in its construction than that of the B787. Most parts of the
aircraft are a mixture of composite and alloy. In the wings, the main metal components
are interspar ribs (the spars being the supporting structures and running along the wing
from tip to root; the ribs running across the width of the structure). In the fuselage, the
outer skin panels are constructed by CFRP, and the frame includes aluminum strips to
ensure that lightning strikes can be dissipated.
1.2. Composite laminates

1.2.1 Definition and constituents
A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent materials at a
macroscopic scale, and these constituent materials have significantly different physical or
chemical properties. This combination produces a new material with more useful char-
acteristics than the individual components. The individual components remain separate
and distinct within the finished structure. In typical composites, the matrix surrounds
the fibers, and they are must be properly bonded together as a single material system
[1]. Therefore the fiber, matrix, and interface are the controlled factors.
According to the form of fiber, the composite materials can be divided into two
categories: continuous and discontinuous fiber composites. The long continuous fibers
are considered to be high performance since their mechanical properties are maximized,
this form is the most common type for aircraft structures. The discontinuous fibers have
reduced properties because the load path of the fiber is disrupted. They are not usually
suitable for primary aircraft structures, though there are exceptions, they may also be
considered for some secondary structures. The composite materials also can be classified
by the type of matrix as polymer matrix composites (PMC), ceramic matrix composites
(CMC), metal matrix composites (MMC), and carbon-carbon composites (CCC).
In general, the material in fiber form has superior properties compared to the bulk
form. The amount and severity of detrimental imperfections decrease as the diame-
ter of fiber is reduced, and fiber can be rapidly cooled; so there are fewer defects in
fiber form. The fibers can be stretched along their axis during processing to increase
its strength as well. For example, the sudden fracture of glass sheets can result from a
small flaw or low energy impact, but the glass fiber composites are less susceptible to
the impact damage; this is true for carbon fibers and carbon fiber composites. Therefore
the composition of fibers and matrix is superior to a bulk material. In the compos-
ites, the matrix can transfer the load to the adjacent fibers if an individual fiber fails.
A matrix can also resist the damage introduced by impacts and other threats due to the
reinforcement of fibers, so the composite is not excessively brittle. In general, the fiber
is the major load carrying component, and can be made from materials such as carbon,
graphite, glass, boron, aramid, or quartz. Each of these fibers has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Stiffness, static strength, impact strength, fatigue performance, electrical
conductivity, electrical permeability, and thermal properties are among the properties
that are considered for selecting a fiber.
Compared with the fiber, the matrix is softer and of lower strength, and hold the
fibers together and distribute the loads; while the function of fibrous reinforcement is to
carry the external loads. The matrix allows the composites to bear compression loading
and protects the fibers from physical and environmental threats. Except for the afore-
mentioned loading transfer, the matrix also provides an energy-absorbing mechanism;
this can improve impact damage resistance and also soften the stress concentrations.
The fiber/matrix interface is known as the interphase. The properties of matrix and
the bond of fiber/matrix interface dominate the mechanical properties of composite
materials. The matrix and matrix/fiber interaction also have a significant effect on the
crack propagation of the composite materials. If the matrix shear strength and modulus
and the fiber/matrix bond strength are too high, a crack may propagate through the
fiber and matrix without turning, so the composite materials will behave as a brittle
material and show clean fracture surfaces. If the bond strength is too low, the matrix
will act as a fiber bundle and the composite materials will be weak. For the intermediate
bond strength, the cracks propagating in resin or fiber would turn at the matrix/fiber
interface and extend along the fiber. The composite materials that failed in this mode
will show considerable fiber pull-out and the fracture surface will be very rough. This
results in considerable energy absorption.
If the intact fibers are available behind the crack tips and connect at the crack faces,
the crack bridging mechanism is operative. Hence, the load would be shared by the
bridging fibers and crack tips, and the stress intensity factor (SIF) on the crack tip would
be reduced significantly. A higher amount of bridging fibers leads to the lower SIF on
the crack tip, and the resistance to crack growth increases with crack length increasing.
The extension of a transverse crack bridged by the intact fibers leads to the debonding
and fibers pull-out. This will increase the fracture toughness of composite materials.
The strength and fracture toughness of fiber reinforced composites is determined by the
interplay between the damage processes in different elements of composite materials.
Therefore the fiber bridging effect of transverse crack and delamination is a very im-
portant and challenging problem to understand the damage mechanism of composite
materials, and many analytic methods have been established [2,3].
1.2.2 Plies
A ply, which consists of fibers and matrix and also known as a lamina or layer, is shown
in Fig. 1.1. The continuous fibers in the plies can be oriented in a single direction,
or multiple directions for the woven composites. In the aircraft structures, the plies
can be in a prepreg form or dry fabric form. The prepreg is a common form. It is
preimpregnated by the fibers and a resin in a semicured state, where the fibers and resin
are combined but are still flexible enough to be laid in tooling. The laminate is fully
cured prepreg layers, and then the cured resin is referred to as the matrix mentioned
in previous section. The prepreg forms also include: tape, slit tape, fabric, sheet, and
tow/roving. The prepregs are common used for large aircraft structures and can consist
of dry fabric layers that are impregnated with an uncured and low viscosity resin. This
is known as a wet layup, as it may be considered for repairs but are not commonly used
for the original structures in large aircraft.
For a unidirectional individual ply, the fibers are all aligned in a single direction. In
tape form, it may also be called a unitape or a tape ply. Fabrics may be in prepreg or dry
Figure 1.1 Ply in composite materials. (a) Unidirectional ply and (b) Fabrics.
form. For woven fabrics, such as a plain weave fabric shown in Fig. 1.1(b), the weaving
bends the fibers. Furthermore, the fibers are not as closely packed as for unidirectional
plies. These characteristics reduce the static strength and stiffness, especially for the
compression loading. For the tensor loading, the stiffness of woven fibers would increase
due to the fiber stretching. For the manufacturing of composite structures, a fabric ply
is more easily draped over a compound surface than a unidirectional prepreg ply.
1.2.3 Laminates
The composite laminate is an assembly of individual layers to provide required me-
chanical properties, including in-plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, thermal
expansion coefficients, and so on. It is result of the designability of composite mate-
rials; see Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. The multiple cross-ply laminate is presented in Fig. 1.2; the
two-dimensional woven laminates and three-dimensional fabrics are shown in Fig. 1.3.
A layup is a processing method where plies are placed on top of each other and is defined
by the material system, orientations, and stacking sequence of the plies. Although all of
the plies in a laminate could be oriented with fibers aligned in the same direction, the
mechanic properties would be undesirable. Therefore the practical laminates are usually
multidirectional. The laminate coordinate system is the x-y-z system, namely global
coordinate system, as opposed to the ply’s local 1-2-3 coordinate system; see Fig. 1.2.
The orientation angle of individual ply is with respect to the x-y-z system. In the ply’s
local coordinate system, the 1-direction (longitudinal) is aligned with the fibers, the
2-direction (transverse) is normal to the fiber direction, and the 3-direction is along the
thickness and coincides with z-axial of laminate coordinate.
In the laminates, the individual layers generally are orthotropic or transversely
isotropic, so the laminate exhibits anisotropic, orthotropic, or quasiisotropic properties.
The quasiisotropic laminate exhibits isotropic in-plane response but is not restricted to
isotropic out-of-plane response. Depending upon the stacking sequence of individual
layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between in-plane and out-of-plane responses.
Figure 1.2 Multidirectional laminate and coordinate system [1].
Figure 1.3 Plane braided composites and 3D braided composites.
The orientation and position of each individual ply in a laminate may be expressed
in multiple ways. Although there are no universal rules, some of the common ways of
representing the ply orientations and laminate stacking sequence are presented in this
subsection, and they will be used in the following chapters. The 0◦ ply has its 1-direction
aligned with the x-direction in the global coordinate, and the 90◦ ply has its 1-direction
aligned with the y-direction in the global coordinate; see Fig. 1.2. In general, the first
ply in the sequence is located at the most negative z-position.
The degree symbol can be omitted for convenience. Some examples, which are not
necessarily indicative of practical laminates, are given by
[0/0/0/0] = [04 ]
[0/+45/90/−45/−45/90/+45/0] = [0/+45/90/−45]s
[0/+45/90/+45/0] = [0/+45/90]s
(1.1)
[0/90/0/90/0/90] = [0/90]3
[0/+45/−45] = [0/±45]
[0/0/+45/−45/−45/+45/0/0] = [02 /±45]s
where s indicates that the laminate is symmetric about the given ply.
1.3. Analysis schemes

1.3.1 Basic analysis schemes
In general, the fiber reinforced composite structures can be studied based on two basic
analysis schemes: micromechanical methods and macromechanical methods. The mi-
cromechanical analyses are aimed at providing an understanding of the behavior of the
generally unidirectional ply in terms of the properties and interactions of the fibers
and matrix; see Figs. 1.4(a) and (b). The approximate models are used to simulate the
microstructure of the composite materials, and hence predict its average properties in
terms of the properties and behavior of the constituents, such as strength and stiffness.
The macromechanical methods are used to design or predict the behavior of composite
structures based on the average properties of the unidirectional plies: longitudinal mod-
ulus E11 , transverse modulus E22 , major Poisson’s ratio ν12 , and in-plane shear modulus
G12 as well as the appropriate strength values; see Fig. 1.4(c). For the woven composite
structures, we need the mesoscopic methods to predict the average properties of plies
(see Fig. 1.4(b)) since the microscopic method can only be used to obtain the aver-
age properties of the fiber bundle in this case. In this book, we mainly focus on the
macroscopic analysis theories of composite laminates, and they are defined as composite
laminated theories.
As already mentioned, the micromechanical analyses are based on microscopic mod-
els of unidirectional plies, in which the fibers and the matrix are separately modeled.
In the most simple models, the fibers are assumed to be homogeneous, linearly elas-
tic, isotropic, regularly spaced, perfectly aligned, and of uniform length. The matrix is
assumed to be homogeneous, linearly elastic, and isotropic as well. The fiber/matrix
interface is assumed to be perfect without voids or disbands. More complex models
representing more realistic situations may include voids, disbands, flawed fibers, wavy
fibers, nonuniform fiber dispersions, fiber length variations, and residual stresses. The
micromechanical analysis can be approached from two points of view. One is the ap-
proach attempted to predict the behavior of simplified models of the composite material.
Figure 1.4 Micromechanical methods and macromechanical methods of composite structures. (a) Mi-
cromechanical methods; (b) Mesomechanical methods; (c) Macromechanical methods.
Another one is the elasticity approach aimed at the upper and lower bound solutions,
exact solutions for very specific systems or numerical solutions.
Except the aforementioned two basic analysis schemes, the multiscale methods,
which are aimed at bridging material and structural scales (see Fig. 1.5), have been wildly
applied into the analysis of composite laminates. The multiscale simulation scheme takes
advantage of the fact that composite structures are made up of laminates, which in turn
are obtained by stacking individual plies with different fiber orientation. This leads to
three different entities (ply, laminate, and component) whose mechanical behaviors are
characterized by three different length scales, namely fiber diameter, ply, and laminate
thickness, respectively. Fiber diameters are of the order of 5–10 µm, while ply thick-
nesses are in the range 100–300 µm and standard laminates are several mm in thickness
and above. This clear separation of length scales is very useful to carry out multiscale
modeling by computing the properties of one entity (e.g., individual plies) at the rele-
vant length scale, homogenizing the results into a constitutive model, and passing this
information to the simulations at the next length scale to determine the mechanical
behavior of the larger entity (e.g., laminate). Thus the multiscale modeling is carried
out through the transfer of information between different length scales rather than by
coupling different simulation techniques.
In this book, we are mainly focused on the analysis methods of macroscopic re-
sponses, such as the static responses, dynamic responses, sensitivity coefficients, and
responses of fracture and damage. The multiscale analysis methods based on the macro-
scopic methods are also presented, such as the beam, plate, and solid elements. The
micromechanical is not discussed in following chapters of this book. Therefore the ba-
sic equations, which will be employed to analyze the macroscopic responses, are briefly
introduced.
Figure 1.5 Multiscale analysis scheme of composite structures.
1.3.2 Basic equations

The composite laminated plates and shells are the most commonly used structural forms.
Plates and shells are defined as plane structural elements with a small thickness com-
pared to the planar dimensions, and studying on the plate/shell reference surface ;
see Fig. 1.6. In fact, the obvious approach of plates and shells at the macroscopic scale
is the fundamental differential equations of three-dimensional elasticity in strong or
in weak forms [4]. Some three-dimensional solutions for multilayered structures can
be found, but these solutions are difficult to obtain in general; namely, they are not
in the strong form for the most general case of geometry, laminate layout, boundary,
and loading conditions. It is necessary to adopt some effective schemes to simplify this
complicated and special three-dimensional problem, but their theoretical basis is still
the three-dimensional elasticity; they will be briefly introduced, including equilibrium
equations, motion equation, geometrical equations, and boundary conditions.
First, if a composite plate or shell are regarded as a three-dimensional deformational
body, its equilibrium of elemental volume is shown in Fig. 1.6 with volume dV and
surface d . The coordinate system x1 , x2 , and x3 is employed (x, y, and z are employed
correspondingly in this book as well). The specified displacement is constrained at the
Figure 1.6 A three-dimensional deformational body and the equilibrium of elemental volume.
boundary u . On the other part of boundary σ , the distributed force per unit area t̄i
(i = x1 , x2 , x3 ) is subjected, and it also called traction. The body force fi is subjected to
the elemental volume dV . A load acting at a point is represented by its three components
Pi , also called point loads. Under the forces, the body deforms, and the deformation of
a point is given by three components of displacement ui . Fig. 1.6(b) shows a vanishing
small element of a deformable body, together with the stresses. The stresses on the
mutually parallel planes are the same but with an infinitesimal change in value. Summing
forces at the directions x1 , x2 , and x3 , including the body force fi , we then get three
differential equilibrium equations. They are given by
σji,j + fi = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 3 (1.2)
where i is a free index. This means that there are three subequations in the above
differential equilibrium equation, while j is a dummy index, summing within its range.
For the elastic dynamic problems of composite laminates, the inertia force can be
regarded as body force according to the d’Alembert principle. Therefore the differential
motion equation can be deduced from equation (1.2) directly as
∂ 2 ui
σji,j + fi = ρ (1.3)
∂ t2
where t denotes time. ρ is the density.
Considering the moment equilibrium of elemental volume in Fig. 1.6(b), we can
obtain the equivalent theorem of shearing stress (symmetry of stress tensor) as
σij = σji (1.4)
Consider an composite laminate in its original undeformed configuration described

in the coordinate system X1 , X2 , and X3 where we study the motion and deforma-
tion of an arbitrary point with the coordinates Xi (i = 1, 2, 3). Under the loading, the
body would deformed and moved to a new position; the original coordinate system is
transformed into the deformed configuration (x1 , x2 , x3 ). The coordinates of arbitrary
point in the deformed coordinates are defined as xi (i = 1, 2, 3). It is assumed that the
change and deformation of the composite laminates are continuous and the point trans-
formation is one-to-one. In the rectangular Cartesian coordinates, the transformation
between the original and deformed coordinates is given by [5],
x = x(X ). (1.5)
In the rectangular coordinate system, the Green strain tensor are given by

1 ∂ ui ∂ uj ∂ um ∂ um
Eij = + + (1.6)
2 ∂ Xj ∂ Xi ∂ Xi ∂ Xj
For the small deformation problem of composite laminates, we can obtain the strain-
displacement relationship as

∂ u1 1 ∂ u1 ∂ u2
ε11 = ε12 = ε12 = +
∂ x1 2 ∂ x2 ∂ x1
∂ u2 1 ∂ u2 ∂ u3
ε22 = ε23 = ε32 = + (1.7)
∂ x2 2 ∂ x3 ∂ x2
∂ u3 1 ∂ u1 ∂ u3
ε33 = ε13 = ε31 = +
∂ x3 2 ∂ x3 ∂ x1
In Fig. 1.6(a), there are displacement boundary conditions and traction conditions.
For the displacement boundary condition u , the displacement field should be equal to
the constraint ūi , namely
ui = ūi (1.8)
We can also consider boundary conditions such as ui = a, where a is a given displace-

ment. For the equilibrium between the external force and internal stress, the stress field
should meet the Cauchy stress formulation on traction boundary as
σij nj = σ̄i (1.9)
where nj is the unit vector normal to dσ .

For the hybrid boundary condition, both of the equations (1.8) and (1.9) should
meet, but the following equation must be met for two boundary conditions on the
boundary simultaneously:
σ ∪ u =
(1.10)
σ ∩ u = ∅
In addition, the initial condition (u0i and (dui /dt)0 ) must be given for the dynamic
problems.
1.3.3 Existing analysis theories

The analysis problem of plate or shell originated from an experiment of standing waves
on flat surfaces, and it was carried out by Ernst Chladni in 1804; then it was studied
by Marie-Sophie Germain, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and Simeon Denis Poisson dur-
ing 1810s. The first accepted analysis theory was developed by Claude-Louis Navier
in 1820. The simply supported rectangular plate was solved and the correct boundary
conditions were obtained; the solutions under uniform and concentrated loads were ob-
tained by using double trigonometric series, and it was the first correct solution for the
plate bending problem. In 1829–1831, Poisson obtained the deflection curve equation
by the concept of molecular structure; the formulation was completely consistent with
the current one for the simply supported and clamp supported boundaries. Until 1850,
the Kirchhoff–Love assumptions were presented, and the first perfect bending theory
was established for the thin plates and shells; it was extended into the thick plates and
shells by Reissner (1945) [6] and Raymond Mindlin (1951) [7], namely, the Mindlin–
Reissner plate theory.
Since the typical thickness to width ratio is at least of one order of magnitude lower
than to a representative in-plane dimension. The traditional analysis methods were de-
veloped by reducing the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one for the
plates and shells. Such a reduction transforms a problem, which is defined in each point
PV (x, y, z) in the three-dimensional continuum into a problem that is defined in each
point P (α, β) in a reference shell/plate surface , where α , β , and z is a orthogo-
nal curvilinear coordinate system defined for the plate/shell reference surface [4,8]. For
the multilayered laminates (see Fig. 1.7), the material properties change radically along
the thickness direction and there are many bimaterial interfaces; so its analysis schemes
should be more complex.
Figure 1.7 Notation for a multilayered plate.
In the early days of composite laminates, the previous techniques used for analyzing
conventional plates were extended to analyze this new structures directly. The classi-
cal laminated plate theory (CLPT) is an extension of the classical plate theory based
on Kirchhoff assumptions. In order to analyze the composite structures accurately and
effectively, many theories have been established in the last half century [9], such as
equivalent single-layer theory (EST), layerwise theory (LWT), Zig-Zag theory (ZZT),
three-dimensional elastic methods, and so on. The CLPT and first-order shear defor-
mation theory (FSDT) are the two most popular ESTs, and widely used in design,
analysis, and optimize the composite engineering structures; they are also employed
in the commercial finite element software. The ESTs can provide good results for the
global responses of very thin composite laminated plates and shells, for example, gross
deflections, critical buckling loads, fundamental vibration frequencies, and associated
mode shapes, but have poor results for the thick composite laminates, especially the lo-
cal responses, such as the distribution of ply-level stresses. The CLPT cannot represent
the realistic distributions of displacements and stresses along the thickness direction. The
major drawback of ESTs is introduced by the continuous assumption of in-plane dis-
placements, and it cannot present the Zig-Zag distribution of in-plane displacements.
The LWT and ZZT were established to overcome the drawback of ESTs, and they have
become the most important developed direction of composite laminated theories.
According to the Carrera’s point of view, we can divide the available theories of
monocoque plates and shells into the following three groups [4]: (1) continuum based
or stress resultants based models; (2) asymptotic type approaches; (3) axiomatic type ap-
proaches. In the framework of the first approach, the three-dimensional continuum of
plates or shells is seen as a surface on which correspondence stress resultants are defined;
the two-dimensional approximations are then introduced at a certain level and inte-
gration in the thickness direction is then performed. These approaches do not present
any difficulties in the formulation of nonlinear theories in both the case of geometric
and physical nonlinear behavior. In the framework of asymptotic approaches, the three-
dimensional governing equations are expanded in terms of a perturbation parameter
(usually the thickness to length ratio is used) and theories related to the same order
in perturbation parameter are derived. In the axiomatic framework, an certain displace-
ment and/or stress fields are postulated in the thickness direction; it permits to introduce
intuitive approximations into the plate/shell behavior while no results can be established
as far as the convergence of intuitive models to three-dimensional solutions.
1.3.4 Challenges
Taking the B787 as an example, the application of a composite would result into a
weight saving up to 15 tons theoretically, but in fact, the weight of a B787 is only
reduced by 4.5 tons compared with the traditional metal components; although B787
represents the highest level of composite application in civil aircrafts. From the author’s
point of view, there are three main reasons: (1) lack of experience in using this new ma-
terials; (2) lack of effective experimental schemes; (3) theoretical and numerical methods
can not meet the requirements of engineering problems. The last one will be discussed
in the following.
The composite laminates is a multilayered plate or shell; see Fig. 1.7. The challenges
of analysis method are from following aspects (namely, C 5 challenges): (1) exhibiting
the so-called complex anisotropy, in-plane anisotropy and transverse anisotropy, Zig-
Zag effects and interlaminar continuity (Cz0 -Requirements) [4]; (2) extremely complex
fracture and damage mechanisms; (3) complex structural forms resulted from integral
forming technology; (4) complex multiscale effect, there are three different entities: ply,
laminate, and component, and their mechanical behaviors are characterized by three
different length scales; (5) complex multiphysical loads, including mechanical, thermal,
curing fields and so on.
The in-plane anisotropy means different mechanical and physical properties in dif-
ferent in-plane directions, it could show higher transverse flexibility with respect to
in-plane deformability, namely shear and normal components. The laminates are the
high transversely deformable structures as well, exhibiting high values of Young’s moduli
orthotropic ratio, E11 /E22 = E11 /E33 ; and low values for the transverse shear modulus
ratio, G12 /E22 ≈ G23 /E22 . The transverse anisotropy would lead to higher transverse
shear and normal stress deformability than the isotropic cases. In addition, the in-plane
anisotropy is related to the other complex problems: (1) coupling between shear and
axial strains; (2) coupling between in-plane and out-of-plane strains for the unsymmet-
rically laminated panels [4,10].
From a view of computation, due to the transverse discontinuous mechanical prop-
erties, the displacement fields in the thickness direction are extremely complex Zig-Zag
sharp; they must to be exhibited to represent the rapid change of their slopes in corre-
spondence to each interface; see Fig. 1.8. In-plane stresses σ11 , σ22 , and σ12 are in general
be discontinuous at each interface, while the transverse stresses σ13 , σ23 , and σ33 must be
continuous at each interface for equilibrium, it is called as the interlaminar continuity of
transverse stresses. The displacements and transverse stresses are C 0 -continuous functions
in the thickness direction. In the most general case, the displacement and transverse stress
have discontinuous first derivatives with correspondence to each interface, since the me-
chanical properties change along the thickness direction. The Zig-Zag and interlaminar
continuity are referred to as Cz0 -Requirements. The fulfillment of Cz0 -Requirements is
a crucial point in the development of any composite laminated theories.
Figure 1.8 Cz0 -Requirements.

The knowledge of damage and fracture mechanisms plays one of the most important
roles for the practical design of composite structures. Furthermore, the damage in fiber
reinforced composite materials occur at a number of length scales, from the micro-
scopic, barely observable fiber/matrix debonding, to macroscopic transverse cracking
and delamination. The layered, orthotropic, sometimes inhomogeneous and multima-
terial characteristics allow the possibility for occurrence of various failure modes under
different loading conditions. And various failure modes are exist in the damaged com-
posite structures simultaneously. In general, the failure modes of composites can be
categorized into four classes: fiber failure, interfacial delamination, matrix cracking and
fiber/matrix debonding; see Fig. 1.9. There is no method to predict effectively the ini-
tiation and growth of these damage, so does the effects of these damage on the structural
integrity.
Figure 1.9 Composite damage forms. (a) Debonding; (b) Fiber breakage; (c) Matrix crack and (d) De-
lamination.
The structural plates/shells systems stiffened by beams are widely applied in the
construction of aircraft fuselage and wings. For instance, the fuselage structure is a semi-
monocoque construction consisting of a thin shell stiffened by axial elements (stringers
and longerons) and transverse elements (frames or rings). The composite sandwich
structures, which consist of two thin but stiff composite laminated facesheets bonded
to a lightweight and thick core with low in-plane modulus are widely used in aero-
nautics and astronautics owing to the low weight and high rigidity. The complexity
of the overall and local behavior of sandwich structures has aroused a large number of
computational methods. The mentioned two basic composite structures poses serious
challenges to the existing analysis methods. Furthermore, with the rapid development
and wide application of composite integral forming technology, the forms of stiffened
composite structures, grid structures, and sandwich structures are becoming more and
more complex.
Due to the obvious multiscale effect, the macroscopic properties and response of
composites depends on the microscopic and mesoscopic details, such as properties of
individual layers, bonding between layers, stacking sequences and so on. For compos-
ites design, a good understanding is required for the relation between micromechanical
and global structure properties. The traditional beam, plate and shell elements do not
provide detailed stresses in the matrix and fiber phases, while the direct numerical simu-
lation (DNS) that resolves microstructural details is too expensive for practical problems.
Therefore it is necessary to develop practical multiscale analysis models for the compos-
ite structures.
The composite laminated structures are often under the combined action of mul-
tiphysical field loads in the process of manufacturing and service period, such as
mechanic-thermal-curing coupling, mechanic-moisture-thermal coupling, mechanic-
thermal-electric of smart composites. The accurate analysis of multiphysical field be-
havior has become an unavoidable problem in the design of composite structures. The
computational complexity increases with the increase of multiphysical variables.
1.3.5 Future developments

The sustained and rapid development of composite technology poses a serious challenge
to analytical and numerical methods, and also points out their improvement directions.
On the other hand, with the improvement of precision requirement of composite struc-
ture design and the rapid development of computer technology, various refined EST and
LWT were presented. For the LWT, it would be the development focus, and it can be
employed to solve some of the existing difficult problems. From the author’s point of
view, the improvement direction of the composite laminated theories include but not
limited to the following aspects:
1. Although the existing refined ESTs can provide accurate enough global responses
results, as the requirements of engineering structure analysis and design increase,
they should focus on the ply-level responses and the interlaminar continuity by
meeting the C0 requirements of displacement and transverse stresses in thickness
direction.
2. As the rapid development of computer science, the three-dimensional and quasi
three-dimensional laminated theories will becoming more and more important, for
example, the LWT, since the computational cost will no longer be a limiting factor.
Small desktop workstations can easily solve tens of millions of computing problems.
3. The complex fracture and damage problems can be solved properly by the three-
dimensional composite laminated theories, such as LWT, with the traditional frac-
ture and damage concepts and methods used in the three-dimensional finite element
method (FEM).
4. Similar to the three-dimensional FEM, the traditional multiscale analysis methods
can be introduced into the LWT to obtain the microscopic and mesoscopic re-
sponses in the composite plates/shells. Based on this scheme, the multiscale analysis
may be directly applied into the analysis and design of practical engineering struc-
ture of composite materials; it is difficult for the existing multiscale analysis methods
based on the ESTs.
5. The existing methods should directly applied to the complex composite structures
manufactured by integral forming technology and second molding, it is necessary
to established some special schemes and to develop special software.
6. Although the composite laminated theories were developed originally for the com-
posites, it can be extended to other isotropic or anisotropic multilayered structures,
such as functional graded materials, thermal barrier coating, multilayered anticorro-
sive coating and so on. The multilayer structures with different characteristics exist
widely in nature and engineering practices, so the laminated theories will still be a
hot issue of computational mechanics.
7. The existing composite laminated theories can be employed to solve the ply-level
residual responses introduced by the multiphysic fields, including the mechanical,
thermal, curing, hygro and so on.
8. The existing composite laminated theories should be improved to solve the general
multidisciplinary complex engineering problems, such as multiphysic/scale analysis,
multiphysic/scale/damage analysis, multiphysic/scale/fracture analysis and so on.
1.4. General Hooke’s law

1.4.1 Hyperelastic materials
The basic equations introduced in previous section are describe equilibrium, motion
and deformation, we still need to understand the mechanical properties, namely, consti-
tutive equations, or strain-stress relationships. In this section, we turn to the constitutive
equations, assuming that the relationship between the stress and strain are constant dur-
ing the deformation. The constitutive equations of linear elasticity are regarded as the
generalized Hooke’s law for infinitesimal deformation. The equations presented in this
section are the fundament of composite mechanics, so they can be found in many
references [11]. Still, these basic equations will briefly introduced here to ensure the
integrity of this book. Suppose that the reference configuration has a stress state of σ 0 .
If the stress components are assumed to be linear functions of the strain components,
the most general form of the linear constitutive equations is given by
σ = C : ε + σ 0 , σij = Cijkl εkl + σij0 (1.11)
where : denotes the double dot product. Since both of stress σ and stain ε are the
second-order tensor, according to the quotient rule of tensor, C is the fourth-order
tensor and is termed stiffness tensor.
In general, there are 34 = 81 scalar components in a fourth-order tensor. In the
absence of body couples, the principle of conservation of angular momentum requires
the stress tensor to be symmetric, namely, σij = σ ji , so Cijkl must be symmetric in the
first two subscripts. Hence, the number of independent material stiffness components
reduces to 6 × (3)2 = 54. Since the strain tensor is also symmetric, εkl = εlk , Cijkl must
be symmetric in the last two subscripts as well, the number of independent stiffness
components reduces to 6 × 6 = 36.
If the material is hyperelastic, the stress can be obtained based on a strain energy
density function U0 (εij ) as
∂ U0
σij = = Cijkl εkl + σij0 (1.12)
∂εij
and we have
∂ 2 U0
= C ijkl (1.13)
∂εij ∂εkl
Since the order of differentiation is arbitrary in above equation, Cijkl = Cklij ; the
number of independent stiffness components reduces to 21. Usually, we express equa-
tion (1.11) into Voigt–Kelvin notation, the single subscript is used for stresses and strains,
and two subscripts are used for the stiffness coefficients, for example,
σ11 → σ1 , σ22 → σ2 , σ33 → σ3 , σ23 → σ4 , σ13 → σ5 , σ12 → σ6

(1.14)
C1111 → C11 , C1122 → C12 , C1112 → C16 , C1212 → C66 , · · ·
Therefore, equation (1.11) can be rewritten as
σi = Cij εj + σi0 i, j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 6 (1.15)
Now the coefficients Cij must be symmetric for the hyperelastic material, the most
general elastic material has 21 independent stiffness coefficients. Assuming that the
stress-strain relations (equation (1.15)) are invertible, thus the strain-stress relations are
given by
εi = Sij σj + εi0 (1.16)
where Sij is the compliance parameter with [S] = [C ]−1 .
1.4.2 Monoclinic materials

When the elastic coefficients at a point have the same value for every pair of coordinate
systems, which are the mirror images of each other with respect to a plane, the mate-
rial is called as monoclinic material. Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be two coordinate
systems, and the x1 − x2 plane parallel to the plane of symmetry. Choose x3 = x3 is the
mirror image of the other. The definitions and sign conventions of the stress and strain
components show that

σ23 = −σ23 , σ31 = −σ31 ,
(1.17)
ε23 = −ε23 , ε31 = −ε31
while all their independent stress and strain components remain unchanged in value by
the change from one coordinate system to the other. Note that the elastic parameters
Cij are the same for these two coordinate systems because they are the mirror images in
the plane of symmetry. Using the stress-strain relations of the form in equation (1.17),
we can obtain
C14 ε4 + C15 ε5 = 0 (1.18)
Since the strain is arbitrary, the above equation holds only if C14 = C15 = 0. Similar
discussion with the remaining stress components yield C24 = C25 = C34 = C35 = C46 =
C56 = 0. Thus there are only 13 independent parameters in monoclinic material, and
the stiffness matrix is given by
⎡ ⎤
C11 C12 C13 0 0 C16
⎢C C22 C23 0 0 C26 ⎥
⎢ 12 ⎥
⎢C C36 ⎥
⎢ 13 C23 C33 0 0 ⎥
[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ (1.19)
⎢ 0 0 0 C44 C45 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 C45 C55 0 ⎦
C16 C26 C36 0 0 C66
1.4.3 Orthotropic materials

If there are three mutually orthogonal planes of material symmetry, the number of elastic
coefficients is reduced to 9 using arguments similar to those given for single material
symmetry plane, and such materials are called orthotropic. The stress-strain relations are
given by
⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ σ1 ⎪
⎪ C11 C12 C13 0 0 0 ⎪ ⎪ ε1 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢C ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
σ2⎪⎪ ⎢ 12 C22 C23 0 0 0 ⎥⎥⎪
⎪
⎪ ε 2⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨σ ⎪ ⎬ ⎢C ⎥ ⎪
0 ⎥ ε3 ⎬
⎨ ⎪
3 ⎢ 13 C23 C33 0 0
=⎢ ⎥ (1.20)
⎪
⎪ σ4⎪⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 C44 0 0 ⎥⎪ ε4 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎪ ⎪
⎪σ5 ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
0 0 0 C55 0 ⎪ ε
⎩ ⎪
⎪ 5 ⎪
⎭
σ6 0 0 0 0 0 C66 ε6
For the general hyperelastic materials, there is the most complex normal and shear
coupling effect; see equation (1.15). Although the normal and shear coupling effect also
appears in the monoclinic materials, only the shear strain in symmetric plane x1 − x2
can rise to the normal stress; see equation (1.19). It can be found from above equation
that there is no normal and shear coupling effect for the orthotropic materials.
In general, the most simple mechanical-property characterization tests are performed
with a known load or stress. Hence, it is convenient to write the inverse of relations in
equation (1.20), namely [S] = [C ]−1 . In general, the material properties are determined
in a laboratory in terms of the engineering constants such as Young’s modulus, shear
modulus and so on. These constants are measured using simple tests like uniaxial tension
test or pure shear test. Because of their direct and obvious physical meaning, engineering
constants are used in place of the more abstract stiffness coefficients Cij and compliance
coefficients Sij . The strain-stress relationship in term of engineering constants is given
by
⎡ 1 ν21 ν31 ⎤
− − 0 0 0
⎢ E11 E22 E33 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎧ ⎫ ⎢ ν12 1 ν32 ⎥⎧ ⎫
⎪ ε1 ⎪ ⎢− − 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎪σ1 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ E11 ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ε2 ⎪⎪ ⎢ ν E22 E33 ⎥⎪⎪σ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 13 ν23 1 ⎥⎪⎪ 2⎪⎪
⎨ε ⎬ ⎢− − 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎨σ ⎪
⎪ ⎬
⎢ ⎥ 3
= ⎢ E11 E22 E33
3
⎥ (1.21)
⎪
⎪ ε4 ⎪⎪ ⎢ 1 ⎥⎪ σ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎪⎪ 4⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ε ⎪ ⎢
⎪ G23 ⎥⎪⎪
⎪ σ5 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎢
5 ⎪ ⎥⎪ ⎪
ε6 ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎩σ6 ⎭
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ G13 ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
0 0 0 0 0
G12
The above equation presents the relation of compliance coefficients Sij to the engi-
neering constants. Since the compliance matrix [S] is the inverse of the stiffness matrix
[C ] and the inverse of a symmetric matrix is symmetric. The stiffness coefficients also
can be expressed in terms of the engineering constants as well
1 − ν23 ν23 ν21 + ν31 ν23 ν12 − ν32 ν13

C11 = C12 = =
E22 E33 Δ E22 E33 Δ E11 E33 Δ
ν31 + ν21 ν32 ν13 + v12 v23
C13 = =
E22 E33 Δ E11 E22 Δ
1 − ν13 ν31 ν32 + ν12 ν31 ν23 − ν21 ν13
C22 = C23 = = (1.22)
E11 E33 Δ E11 E33 Δ E11 E33 Δ
1 − ν12 ν21
C33 = C44 = G23 C55 = G31 C66 = G12
E11 E22 Δ
1 − ν12 ν21 − ν23 ν32 − ν31 ν13 − 2ν21 ν32 ν13
Δ=
E11 E22 E33
1.4.4 Isotropic materials

When there exist no preferred directions in the material, the number of independent
elastic coefficients reduces to 2; these materials are called isotropic. For isotropic mate-
rials, we have
E11 = E22 = E33 = E,
G12 = G13 = G23 = G, (1.23)
ν12 = ν23 = ν13 = ν
Consequently, in view of the equations (1.22) and (1.23), equations (1.20) and (1.21)
can be rewritten as
⎡ ⎤
1−ν ν ν 0 0 0
⎧ ⎫ ⎢ ⎥⎧ ⎫
⎪ σ1 ⎪ ⎢ ν 1−ν ν 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎪ε1 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪σ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪ε ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 2⎪⎪ ⎢ 1−ν ⎥⎪⎪ 2⎪⎪
⎪
⎨σ ⎪ ⎬ ⎢
ν ν 0 0 0 ⎥⎪⎨ε ⎪ ⎬
3 ⎢ ⎥ 3
= ⎢ 1 ⎥ (1.24)
⎪
⎪ σ4 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 0 0 0 (1 − 2ν) 0 0 ⎥⎪ ε4 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ σ5 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎭ ⎢ 1
(1 − 2ν) ⎥⎪⎪ε5 ⎪⎪
σ6 ⎢ 0 0 0 0
2
0 ⎥ ⎩ε6 ⎭
⎣ 1 ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 (1 − 2ν)
2
and
⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ε1 ⎪
⎪ 1 −ν −ν 0 0 ⎪σ1 ⎪
⎪
0 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎥⎪⎪σ ⎪
⎪
⎪ε2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎢−ν
⎢ 1 −ν 0 0 ⎥⎪0
⎪ 2⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ε ⎪⎬ ⎢−ν ⎥⎪⎨σ ⎪⎬
3 1 ⎢ −ν 1 0 0 ⎥ 3
0
= ⎢ ⎥ (1.25)
⎪
⎪ ⎪ E⎢ 0
ε4 ⎪ 0 0 2(1 + ν) 0 ⎥⎪0σ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪ 4⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ε5 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎣0 0 0 0 2(1 + ν) ⎦⎪⎪
⎪
0
⎪σ5 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎪ ⎭
ε6 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ν) σ6
where
E
= (1.26)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
1.4.5 Plane stress-reduced constitutive relations

For the composite laminates, the generalized plane stress state with respect to the x1 -x2
plane is defined as
σαβ = σαβ (x1 , x2 ), σα3 = σα3 (x1 , x2 ), σ33 = 0 (1.27)
where α and β take the values of 1 and 2. Although σ33 = 0, ε33 is not zero.
According to equation (1.21), the strain-stress relations of an orthotropic body in

plane stress state can be written as
⎡ ⎤
1 v21
⎧ ⎫ − 0 ⎥⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎢ E11 E22
⎪
⎨ ε1 ⎪
⎬ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎨ σ ⎪
⎬ S11 S12 0 ⎪ ⎨ σ1 ⎪
⎬
⎢ v12 1 ⎥ 1
⎢ ⎥
ε2 =⎢
⎢− 0 ⎥ σ
⎥⎪ 2 ⎪ = ⎣ S12 S22 0 ⎦ σ2 (1.28)
⎪
⎩ ε ⎪
⎭ ⎢ E11 E22 ⎥⎩ σ ⎭ ⎪ ⎪
6 ⎣ 1 ⎦ 6 0 0 S66 ⎩ σ6 ⎭
0 0
G12
and the transverse normal strain is given by

v13 v23
ε3 = − σ1 − σ2 (1.29)
E11 E22
Equation (1.28) is inverted to obtain the stress-strain relations as

⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎨ σ1 ⎪
⎬ Q11 Q12 0 ⎪ ⎨ ε1 ⎪
⎬
⎢ ⎥
σ2 = ⎣Q12 Q22 0 ⎦ ε2 (1.30)
⎪
⎩ σ ⎪
⎭ ⎪ ⎪
6 0 0 Q66 ⎩ ε6 ⎭
where Qij is called as the plane stress-reduced stiffness, it is given by
E11 v12 E11

Q11 = , Q12 =
1 − v12 v21 1 − v12 v21
E22 1
Q22 = , Q12 = = G12
1 − v12 v21 S66
Note that the reduced stiffness involve four independent material constants,
E11 , E22 , v12 , and G12 . The transverse shear stresses are related to the transverse shear
strains in an orthotropic material by the following relations

σ4 Q44 0 ε4
= , Q44 = G23 , Q55 = G13 (1.31)
σ5 0 Q55 ε5
1.4.6 Transformation of material coefficients

The aforementioned constitutive relations for an orthotropic material are referred to
a local coordinate system of individual layers. The global coordinate system of the
laminates does not coincide with the local coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Furthermore, the composite laminates have many plies with different orientation, it is
necessary to establish transformation relations among stresses and strains in one coordi-
nate system to the corresponding quantities in another coordinate system. Let (x, y, z)
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
de lʼhorloge nʼavait, en effet, été confié jusque-là quʼà des serruriers
de la ville. Le soupçon, que nous manifestons, dut naître dans
lʼesprit des échevins eux-mêmes, puisquʼils se décidèrent, en 1597,
à faire venir un horloger du Poitou. Cet horloger, appelé Loys
Demarque, passa marché avec la ville « pour faire sonner les quarts
et demi-heures à lʼhorloge » et sʼengager à fournir huit cloches qui
14
« rendront sons et tons différents . » « Loys Demarque, dit
15
M. Auguste Leroy , disposa les roues de manière que le
remontage des poids ne se fit plus quʼune fois par jour, puis
remplaça le carillon de Jean Labbé par huit tinterelles neuves, dont
la plus grosse pesait 200 livres. Il leur fit jouer, aux heures, le
premier vers de lʼhymne: Veni Creator Spiritus; aux demies:
Inviolata, integra et casta es Maria; et aux quarts: O benigna.
Demarque employa deux mois à faire ce travail, avec lʼaide de
quatre compagnons, et reçut pour solde une somme de 48 écus.
Après lui on confia son œuvre aux soins du sieur Dodemare,
bourgeois de Caen, qui sʼétait fait recevoir maître horloger. »
Depuis ce travail exécuté en 1597, il nʼest plus trace, dans les
anciens registres de lʼHôtel de Ville, de perfectionnements apportés
au mécanisme de lʼhorloge. On nʼy trouve que la mention de
réparations quelquefois assez importantes, comme celle dont il est
er
question dans la délibération du 1 juin 1624:
« Sur ce que Michel Coquerel, fondeur de cloches, qui a fait
alleu de refondre et raccommoder les tinterelles faites pour les
demies et quarts de lʼhorloge, a dit quʼil est besoin lui fournir trois ou
quatre cents livres de métal, pour ce quʼil fait une petite cloche plus
quʼil nʼy en avait. Il a été arrêté que du nombre dʼune pièce de
r
canon, qui fut cassée lors de lʼarrivée du s maréchal dʼAncre en
cette ville, il en sera pris trois ou quatre cents livres, et soixante
livres dʼétain, qui sera acheté, pour rendre la besogne parfaite, etc. »
Ainsi, vingt-sept ans seulement après les travaux exécutés par
lʼhorloger Poitevin, on était obligé de remplacer les tinterelles quʼil
avait posées en 1597. Si les pièces de lʼhorloge sʼusaient en si peu
de temps, il est présumable quʼil ne devait rester que bien peu de
chose de lʼhorloge primitive lorsquʼon ordonna la démolition du
beffroi en 1755.
Bien quʼelle eût été pour ainsi dire complètement remplacée,
par suite de réparations fréquentes, la vieille machine ainsi
renouvelée avait conservé tout son prestige aux yeux de certains
esprits, qui ont le goût et le respect des choses dʼautrefois. Voici par
exemple un contemporain, lʼavocat Mauger, qui nous a fait parvenir,
dans une note manuscrite, comme un écho de son indignation: « Le
16
misérable carillon de lʼhorloge, dit-il , chanta pour la dernière fois le
Regina cœli le 15 mai 1755, à six heures du matin, et le quart avant
sept heures. Cette horloge a duré 441 ans en état de servir; et
lʼédifice, qui est sur le pont, va aussi être démoli, au grand regret de
toute la ville.
Épitaphe de lʼhorloge:
CY GIST QUI PAR SON SERVICE
MÉRITOIT UN MEILLEUR SORT.
CʼEN EST FAIT; VICTIME DU CAPRICE
DARNETAL NE VIT PLUS, IL EST MORT!
JUIN 1755. »
On avait cependant conservé le bronze qui servait de timbre

pour lʼhorloge et de cloche communale. Cette cloche avait mêlé sa
voix au bruit des événements heureux ou malheureux qui, durant
quatre siècles et demi, avaient agité la ville. Si nous avions son
histoire, nous aurions en même temps celle de Caen; mais il nous
reste là-dessus peu de documents. En voici un, toutefois, qui ne
manque pas dʼintérêt.
« A été fait venir en ladite maison de ville, dit un procès-verbal
de février 1562, Robert Regnier, du métier de serrurier, demeurant
près le pont et maison de ville, pour savoir de quelle autorité il avait
cejourdʼhui mis un battail à lʼhorloge de cette ville. Lui juré de dire
vérité et interrogé, a dit que, pour les troubles que lʼon ventile être
préparés, il se peut être que lʼon pourrait commander être sonné une
alarme, qui est accoutumé être fait et sonné par lad. cloche de
lʼhorloge, et pour éviter que sonnant lad. alarme il ne fût offensé de
quelque coup dʼarquebuse, il avait demandé un battail de lad.
maison de ville et de ce avait parlé à M. Dumoulin, lʼun des
gouverneurs, et pour cette occasion avait pendu led. battail en lad.
cloche, disant quʼil ne voudrait avoir entrepris aucune chose contre
le bien de lad. ville et était prêt descendre led. battail. »
Le sieur Regnier, malgré ses protestations, dut sembler quelque
17
peu suspect, puisque nous voyons quʼun an après environ on fit
« défense, sous peine de la vie, dʼouvrir ou faire ouvrir à personne
lʼhuis de la porte de lʼhorloge, sans exprès commandement des
gouverneurs. »
Dʼailleurs, quand les troubles religieux ou civils se
prolongeaient, les gouverneurs de Caen, sʼils se défiaient des
sentiments des gens de la commune, mettaient en interdit lʼhorloger
et la cloche elle-même du beffroi. Et au nom du roi, représenté par
son lieutenant, la sonnerie de lʼéglise St-Pierre était priée de faire
lʼintérim. Cʼest du moins ce qui ressort de ce passage des anciens
registres de la ville, à la date du 26 juin 1593: « Arrête quʼil sera fait
ordonnance à M. Richard de La Brousse, prêtre, custos de lʼéglise
de St-Pierre, de la somme de six écus, pour son salaire dʼavoir
sonné la cloche pour la retraite des bourgeois, afin quʼils ne
divaguent et soient trouvés par les rues, après neuf heures sonnées,
suivant quʼil a été ordonné par M. de La Verune, et qui est à raison
dʼun écu par mois. »
Outre les suspensions dont il était menacé pendant les troubles,
lʼinfortuné gouverneur de lʼhorloge se voyait quelquefois exposé,
dans des temps paisibles, à payer des dommages-intérêts quand la
vieille machine, dont il avait la direction, venait à commettre quelque
bévue bien excusable à son âge. Cʼest ainsi quʼon trouve dans les
archives municipales, à la date de 1579, « une plainte contre le
gouverneur de lʼhorloge, attendu que laditte horloge ayant sonné
sept heures quand il nʼen était que cinq, des maçons et des
couvreurs quittèrent leur travail, ce qui causa un préjudice à celui qui
employait ces ouvriers. »
Plus tard, lorsque les guerres, religieuses ou civiles, eurent
cessé, le « gouvernement et entretenement » de lʼhorloge furent
moins onéreux. Pour quelques soins dʼentretien, lʼhorlogeur, comme
disent les archives municipales à la date du 9 juin 1732, était
exempté du logement des gens de guerre, ce qui équivalait pour le
temps à un traitement très-acceptable. La cloche quʼil sonnait
dʼailleurs ne jetait que rarement lʼalarme dans la ville; elle retentissait
surtout pour annoncer des fêtes; et cʼétait du beffroi de lʼHôtel de
Ville que partait le signal qui mettait en branle toutes les cloches des
18
couvents et des églises .
Cette cloche, qui avait joué un rôle si important dans lʼhistoire
de Caen, ce précieux souvenir subsistait encore en 1808. Mais le
premier empire, se souciant peu sans doute de conserver un bronze
qui rappelait les franchises communales de lʼancienne France,
19
ordonna de fondre la cloche historique, sous prétexte dʼoffrir à
lʼéglise St-Pierre une sonnerie plus à la mode.
Nous avons dit précédemment quʼà partir de la seconde moitié
e
du XVI siècle, il avait été souvent question de remplacer la maison
commune du pont St-Pierre par une autre construction plus vaste et
plus solide. Mais, avant que ce projet eût été réalisé, les échevins
durent abandonner plusieurs fois, malgré eux, le second Hôtel de
Ville. Ce premier exil leur fut imposé par le maréchal de Brissac à la
suite des troubles religieux qui avaient éclaté à Caen en 1562.
Quoique le calme fût depuis longtemps rétabli dans la ville, le
Maréchal donna aux échevins lʼordre de lui céder la maison
commune pour y établir un corps de garde. On était au 8 septembre
1563; le corps de ville se réunit, délibère et arrête « quʼune
députation sera envoyée au Maréchal pour lui remontrer
lʼinconvénient de transporter les meubles et un nombre infini
dʼécritures, touchant le bien et revenu de la ville, et la difficulté de
trouver une autre maison... » Le maréchal de Brissac ne se laissant
pas toucher par de si bonnes raisons, les échevins déclarent à M. de
Bourgueville, lieutenant particulier, quʼils ne quitteront la maison
commune quʼaprès avoir fait un inventaire en présence du bailli ou
de son lieutenant. LʼHôtel de Ville servait, en effet, tout à la fois
dʼarsenal et de magasin de dépôt. Peu de mois auparavant, à
lʼépoque du sac de la ville par les Protestants, le commis des
administrateurs de lʼHôtel-Dieu y avait apporté un calice en argent,
deux calices en vermeil et une croix en argent avec le crucifix;
dʼautres ornements dʼéglise, provenant de St-Étienne et de St-
Pierre, y avaient été déposés vers le même temps; et toute une salle
contenait le plomb que les Protestants, suivant un rapport erroné de
M. de Bras, auraient arraché aux toitures de lʼabbaye de St-
20 21
Étienne . On y trouvait aussi des armes diverses, des fusils et
deux canons pacifiques qui ne faisaient entendre leur voix que dans
les cérémonies publiques, fêtes anniversaires, entrées de princes et
22
de souverains .
Dès quʼils eurent appris ce qui se passait à lʼHôtel de Ville, le
prieur de lʼabbaye de St-Étienne et les trésoriers de St-Pierre
accoururent et réclamèrent leurs ornements dʼéglise. On proposa à
lʼun des échevins de recueillir chez lui les autres objets; mais,
comme il refusait dʼaccepter la responsabilité dʼun tel dépôt, M. de
Bourgueville, sieur de Bras, qui présidait à lʼinventaire du mobilier,
remit les clefs « au mestre de camp des vieilles bandes de Piémont,
à ce commis par M. de Brissac, le requiérant de nʼôter, ni transporter
aucune chose dʼicelle maison de ville. »
Le conseil était bon à donner, mais difficile à suivre, pour des
soldats qui devaient être portés à considérer comme des rebelles les
magistrats dont ils prenaient la place. Ils furent probablement
contenus dʼabord par le maréchal de Brissac, qui était aussi juste
que brave; malheureusement le duc de Bouillon, en prenant le
commandement après la mort de Brissac, apporta un esprit
dʼintolérance qui pouvait servir dʼexcuse aux excès des gens de
guerre placés sous ses ordres. Voici, en effet, dans quels termes le
duc de Bouillon sʼadressa aux échevins dès quʼil fut arrivé à Caen:
« Il est enjoint et commandé aux échevins de la ville de Caen de
fournir et bailler au corps de garde du pont St-Pierre le nombre de
six bûches, six fagots, douze chandelles de trois deniers pièce et tel
nombre de tourbes qui puisse garder le feu pour allumer les mèches
er
jour et nuit, le tout par chacun jour, à commencer le 1 oct. et finir le
31 mars. Et le reste de lʼannée, sera réduit à la moitié.
« Davantage ordonnons quʼil sera baillé aux soldats de la
garnison de cette ville vingt chambres près et à lʼentour du pont St-
Pierre pour les loger, parce que ceux qui fourniront lesd. chambres
ne bailleront aucune chose, mais sera le linge, vaisselle et lits, fourni
23
par égalité par les autres bourgeois et habitants de lad. ville . »
Tel était le langage que tenaient les représentants de lʼordre aux
bons bourgeois quʼon venait sauver malgré eux. Les actes ne le
cédèrent pas aux paroles. Huit jours après lʼordonnance du duc de
Bouillon, le conseil de la commune était obligé de prendre des
mesures pour réparer les dégâts commis par les soldats, chargés de
protéger la ville contre ses passions subversives.
« Il a été avisé sur ce qui a été ventilé et averti que les soldats,
faisant la garde sur le pont St-Pierre, font grandes démolitions en la
maison sur led. pont, tant aux planchers quʼaux couvertures de lad.
maison, que M. de Laguo, gouverneur en cette ville et château, sera
de ce averti, même que le lieu sera vu et visité par les gouverneurs,
présence de M. le Lieutenant, pour, ce fait et le procès-verbal vu,
être ordonné sur les réparations qui seront trouvées nécessaires,
ainsi quʼil appartiendra. »
Tandis que ces défenseurs de la propriété démolissaient les
planchers et les charpentes de lʼédifice du pont St-Pierre pour les
vendre ou en faire du feu, les élus de la cité, chassés du lieu
ordinaire de leurs séances, délibéraient à tour de rôle les uns chez
les autres, en attendant quʼils eussent trouvé un Hôtel de Ville
provisoire. Ils sʼinstallèrent enfin, vers le milieu de lʼannée 1565,
dans une maison appelée Parc-le-Roi et qui était bâtie sur des
terrains voisins de lʼendroit où se trouve aujourdʼhui le passage
Bellivet. Ils y restèrent exilés jusquʼau 15 mai 1572. A cette date, une
ordonnance du maréchal de Montmorency ordonna « que la maison
de ville serait rendue aux maire et échevins... pour en jouir comme
ils faisaient auparavant les troubles. »
Malgré cette promesse, lʼHôtel de Ville fut de nouveau occupé
par les soldats du roi, en 1574: on permit toutefois aux « bourgeois
habitants de la ville de continuer à y tenir leurs assemblées. » Les
échevins acceptèrent cette communauté dʼhabitation, mais avec
certaines précautions. Sʼils consentirent à risquer leurs personnes,
ils eurent soin de laisser leurs papiers, registres, vaisselles et
argenterie dans la maison du Parc-le-Roi, quʼils avaient confiée à la
garde du greffier de lʼHôtel de Ville. Ils avaient oublié
malheureusement que leur greffier était lui-même sous la garde des
défenseurs de lʼordre, venus pour protéger les habitants contre leurs
propres égarements. Or, il arriva quʼun beau matin le greffier et son
fils furent assaillis dans leur lit par « des gens de guerre, soldats ou
autres, comme il est écrit dans les anciens registres de lʼHôtel de
24
Ville , ayant lʼarquebuse et feu à mèche, lesquels se sont efforcés
de rompre lʼhuis du dépensier pour avoir, comme ils disaient, de la
vaisselle, afin de la porter en une taverne pour leur servir à dîner. »
Une troisième fois, les maire et échevins de Caen eurent le
privilège dʼêtre protégés dʼune façon analogue en 1589, pendant les
troubles de la Ligue. Cette fois, ils furent tout à fait mis à la porte de
la maison commune et obligés de délibérer chez des particuliers
jusquʼà leur rentrée, à la date du 12 janvier 1590. Mais, avec le
temps, le Gouvernement se poliça et apprit lʼart de commettre sans
brutalité des violences dites légales. Dès lʼannée 1610, nous voyons
le pouvoir central remplacer à Caen les représentants élus de la cité
25
par des créatures du Gouvernement . Cʼest ce que nous appelons
aujourdʼhui une commission municipale, procédé que lʼon pourrait
croire dʼinvention toute moderne et qui devrait, au contraire, figurer
dans lʼinventaire du vieux-neuf si spirituellement dressé par
M. Fournier.
Quand on leur laissait la libre possession de leur Hôtel de Ville,
les échevins nʼétaient pas encore à lʼabri des tracasseries du
Gouvernement. Il y avait souvent assez dʼennuis attachés à leurs
fonctions pour quʼils préférassent lʼobscurité de la vie privée au relief
décevant de la vie publique. Aussi arrivait-il quelquefois quʼon les
obligeât à exercer leur charge malgré eux. En 1563, par exemple,
une sentence du bailliage condamne « les sieurs Lebrethon et
Anger, élus, à exercer la charge dʼéchevins, malgré leur refus, et à
prêter serment, ce à quoi ils seront contraints par la prise de leurs
26
corps et biens . » Même dans des temps moins troublés, comme
e
dans la période du XVII siècle, il sʼélevait à tout instant des conflits
entre le pouvoir central, qui imposait exceptionnellement une ville
écrasée déjà par les taxes ordinaires, et les représentants de la cité,
qui défendaient leur caisse avec lʼénergie du désespoir.
Les échevins ne perdaient dʼailleurs jamais une occasion de se
plaindre. Ainsi, en 1602, le Roi eut la maladresse de leur adresser
des lettres closes, pour leur demander conseil sur le fait des
monnaies. « Elle leur ordonne, disaient ces lettres, écrites à Poitiers
le 25 mai, donner avis de ce qui se pourrait faire pour empêcher la
rareté quʼon voit en ce royaume des monnaies dʼor et dʼargent au
coin et armes de France, et sʼil est expédient donner cours en son
dit roy. aux monnaies étrangères. » Les échevins sʼempressent de
convoquer les notables habitants de la ville pour leur lire les lettres
du Roi en présence du procureur de Sa Majesté. Et quand cette
formalité est accomplie, ils rédigent, séance tenante, une réponse où
la critique la plus vive des actes du Gouvernement se cache sous
les apparences du plus profond respect. « Ouï sur ce plusieurs
27
propositions et avis des assistants, disaient les échevins , a été
trouvé bon quʼil soit remontré à Sa Majesté, avec leur humilité et
obéissance, que la rareté dʼor et dʼargent, qui est si grande entre ses
sujets, vient de ce quʼils sont contraints en fournir plus quʼils ne
peuvent pour les nécessités des affaires de Sa Majesté, pour
lesquelles, comme il est vraisemblable, lʼor et lʼargent au coin et
armes de France est transporté aux étrangers, qui le retiennent
comme le meilleur; et sont les choses venues à ce point quʼentre les
plus aisés, y en a si grande rareté que, pour leurs menues affaires,
ils sont contraints stipuler de payer ceux desquels ils se servent en
blé, cidre, bestiaux ou quelques autres denrées, quʼils peuvent avoir
de leur cru ou industrie. Occasion de quoi Sa Majesté est très-
humblement suppliée que, pour éviter quʼils ne soient encore réduits
en plus grande extrémité, il lui plaise leur donner quelque diminution
des levées de deniers de toute sorte, qui se font sur eux, et
cependant continuer le cours en son royaume de toutes espèces
dʼor et dʼargent quelles quʼelles soient, pour leur juste et légitime
valeur... »
Avec leur finesse normande, les administrateurs de Caen
avaient deviné quʼon ne les consultait si poliment aujourdʼhui sur la
question des monnaies que pour leur en réclamer demain
impérieusement. Et, sans doute, tout en donnant une leçon
spirituelle au pouvoir, ils avaient espéré éloigner cette menaçante
échéance.
Malheureusement, lorsquʼil nʼosait plus réclamer de la ville des
secours en argent, le Gouvernement les exigeait en nature. En
1626, peu de temps avant le siége de La Rochelle, le sieur du Carlo,
ingénieur de Sa Majesté, est envoyé à Caen pour obliger les
échevins à « acheter trois vieux vaisseaux et les faire conduire à
leurs dépens à lʼîle de Ré pour le service de Sa Majesté et pour
28
lʼutilité du public... . »
Ce public arrivait bien là comme des excuses après le coup de
bâton qui vous a assommé! En 1626, on demandait de vieux
vaisseaux; au mois dʼoctobre 1647, on exige des habits neufs. « Il a
été apporté, disent les anciens registres de lʼHôtel de Ville, des
lettres de cachet, données à Fontainebleau le 13 de ce mois, par
lesquelles Sa Majesté mande et ordonne aux sieurs Echevins de
lʼassister de 500 paires dʼhabits complets, consistant en pourpoint
long en forme de justaucorps, haut et bas de chausses, de drap le
plus propre à résister à lʼinjure du temps, avec des bonnets et autant
de paires de souliers, et de faire que ces habillemens et chaussures
soient de trois grandeurs, un quart pour des hommes de la plus
grande taille, autant pour des plus petits et la moitié pour des
moyens, et que le tout soit fourni dans la fin du présent mois ès
mains de ceux qui en auront ordre de Sa Majesté, pour les faire
transporter en ses armées. Arrêté quʼaprès les publications dʼusage,
il sera fait adjudication au rabais de la fourniture de 250 paires
dʼhabits et que remontrances seront faites au Roi et à Nosseigneurs
de son Conseil pour être la ville déchargée de la fourniture des
autres 250 paires, attendu sa grande misère et surcharge de lad.
taxe. »
Ce fut surtout en 1659 que les échevins durent repousser, avec
lʼéternel argument tiré des malheurs de la ville, un des plus terribles
assauts que la caisse municipale ait jamais eu à soutenir. Il
sʼagissait dʼun don gratuit à lʼoccasion du mariage du Roi. Les
archives de la ville, à la date du 12 septembre 1659, nous
apprennent ce que Louis XIV entendait par un don gratuit.
« Sur la lecture faite en cet Hôtel commun de Lettres de cachet
du Roi, du 6 août dernier, mises ce matin ès mains des sieurs
Echevins par M. du Boullay Favier, intendant en cette généralité, par
lesquelles Sa Majesté demande à cette ville, en don gratuit, la
somme de 50,000 liv. pour les frais du mariage du Roi; après avoir
envoyé lʼhuissier de la ville vers M. le Lieutenant général, pour le
convier de se trouver en cet Hôtel commun, lequel a rapporté que
r
led. s était absent, il a été arrêté quʼil sera écrit par lʼordinaire de ce
jour à Son Altesse, pour la supplier de vouloir interposer son autorité
pour faire réduire et modérer lad. somme de 50,000 liv. à quelque
somme modique, vu les grandes charges de cette ville et de
lʼimpuissance où elle est de fournir lad. somme. »
Trop heureux encore les échevins quand on leur permettait de
marchander ainsi avec le pouvoir; celui-ci imposait le plus souvent
sans discussion, et, quand il nʼy avait plus rien à prendre dans les
caisses vides, il jetait en prison le receveur de la ville, comme nous
lʼapprend une délibération du 17 novembre 1640, où lʼon voit que
« lʼaprès-midi sʼest passée à la poursuite de la délivrance de M. du
Taillis, emprisonné au Château pour le paiement de la subsistance
des gens de guerre du présent quartier dʼhiver. »
Pour apitoyer ces bourreaux dʼargent, les échevins mettaient
quelquefois en action le proverbe, qui prétend que les petits cadeaux
entretiennent lʼamitié. « Il a esté conclu, disent les anciens registres
er
au 1 avril 1567, quʼils (les échevins) se présenteront vers M. de
Brunville, lieutenant général, pour lui parler des priviléges de la
ville..., et que, en faveur du mariage de la fille dudit sieur lieutenant,
il sera délivré aux nopces une pièce de vin doux... » Ces sortes de
dépenses étaient même portées régulièrement sur le budget de la
er
ville; ainsi, dans lʼétat des finances du 1 mai 1679, on trouve
inscrits par estimation 300 livres « pour vins et confitures de
présent », avec cette condition toutefois « quʼil ne pourra être donné
à chaque personne plus de deux douzaines de bouteilles de vin et
deux douzaines de boîtes de confitures. »
Lʼimportance des cadeaux variait cependant suivant le rang des
personnages et la protection que la ville pouvait en attendre. Cʼest
ainsi que, lors du mariage de M. du Quesnay Le Blais, lieutenant
général, on remplaça le vin ou les confitures par des présents plus
sérieux.
« Pour triompher de la joie que la ville reçoit dud. mariage le
jour dʼhier célébré, disent les anciens registres de juillet 1637, il a été
r
arrêté que le s de Bretteville Rouxel, échevin, et de Bauches,
r
syndic, assistés de Beaussieu, greffier, iront saluer led. s lieutenant
général et dame son épouse, à laquelle ilsporteront, de la part de la
ville, une table de linge fin à haute lisse.
« Cette conclusion a été exécutée led. jour après midi et
consistait lad. table de linge en un grand doublier de cinq aunes, en
un petit de trois aunes et deux aunes de large chacun, en deux
douzaines de serviettes et deux serviettes à laver, qui fut acheté
e
chez M. Graindorge, m façonneur de haute lisse le plus expert de
r
cette ville, et coûta 300 liv., de laquelle lesd. s et dame furent
grandement contents et en remercièrent la ville. »
Nous avons essayé de reconstituer, à lʼaide de dessins
originaux et dʼanciens manuscrits, la vue extérieure du second Hôtel
de Ville de Caen, et indiqué rapidement les exils et les tribulations
que les échevins eurent à subir depuis la construction de cet édifice
jusquʼà sa démolition en 1755. Nous allons, avec les mêmes guides,
entrer dans lʼintérieur de la maison commune du pont St-Pierre. Voici
dʼabord sur la cheminée de la salle des délibérations un buste du
souverain régnant, usage que notre siècle a conservé et qui semble
remonter assez loin dans le passé. Les anciens registres disent en
effet, à la date du 11 septembre 1679: « Il a été accordé à Jean
Postel, sculpteur de cette ville, lʼexemption de tout logement de gens
de guerre et contributions dʼustensile, en considération des services
par lui rendus à la ville et notamment de ce quʼil a fait un buste
représentant la personne du Roi, à présent régnant, pour placer sur
la corniche de la cheminée de cet Hôtel commun; pour lequel il sʼest
seulement contenté des frais par lui faits, ayant remis volontairement
à la ville ses peines et travaux. »
De la salle des délibérations le regard sʼétendait de deux côtés
sur une vue ravissante. « Et, dit M. de Bras dans ses Recherches et
antiquitez de Caen, de la haute salle de ceste maison où se font les
assemblées et conventions publiques, lʼon voit au droict de la rivière,
vers lʼOrient, arriver les navires venans de la mer, chargez de
précieuses et rares marchandises que lʼon descend à lʼendroit de dix
grands quaiz du quartier de lʼIsle... Et par les fenestres et croisées
de lʼautre costé, lʼon a un plaisant regard sur les prais, et une
perspective et veuës des plus plaisans et agréables paisages quʼon
puisse voir. »
La maison commune de Caen ressemblait un peu trop
malheureusement à ces petits appartements que lʼon montre aux
locataires, en les conduisant aux fenêtres qui sʼouvrent sur de
vastes squares, ou sur les jardins des grands hôtels du voisinage.
Son unique salle, qui devait servir tant aux réunions du conseil
quʼaux réceptions officielles, ne pouvait contenir les quarante
convives du dîner du mercredi des cendres, que lʼon donnait aux
notables qui avaient assisté à lʼélection des administrateurs de la
29
ville ; aussi les échevins en étaient-ils réduits souvent à offrir une
simple collation, comme cela se fit le 23 juin 1652 pour les comtes
de Dunois et de Saint-Pol, qui avaient accepté lʼinvitation de mettre
le feu au bûcher de la St-Jean sur la place St-Pierre. « Quelque peu
30
de temps après, disent les anciens registres de la ville , leurs d.
Altesses ayant témoigné être prêts de se mettre à table pour faire
collation, laquelle était préparée dans led. Hôtel de Ville, il leur avait
rs er e
été présenté par les s de Rotot et de Sannerville, 1 et 2 échevin,
deux serviettes mouillées pour laver leurs mains, et après se
seraient mis à la table dans deux chaires où il y avait des carreaux
de velours cramoisi, ayant devant eux leurs cadenas et couverts
ordinaires; et parce quʼil nʼavait été mis sur lad. table que quatre
couverts, pour M. de Chamboy et ceux auxquels Son Altesse
ordonnerait de sʼasseoir, MM. de la ville ayant fait dessein de ne sʼy
mettre pas afin de faire mieux les honneurs de la ville et témoigner
plus de respect à leurs Altesses, M. le comte de Dunois aurait pris la
parole et dit quʼabsolument il ne mangerait point si lesd. sieurs ne se
faisaient apporter des couverts et des siéges pour se mettre à table
et faire collation avec lui. A quoi ayant été résisté longtemps par led.
r
s de Tilly, échevins et officiers de lʼHôtel de Ville, enfin Son Altesse
leur aurait dit quʼelle désirait que cela fût et quʼelle était venue pour
boire avec eux: à quoi ayant obéi ils auraient pris leurs places et
M. le comte de Dunois, après avoir mangé quelque temps, avait dit
hautement quʼil fallait boire la santé du Roi, et sʼétant fait donner du
vin et de lʼeau et à M. le comte de Saint-Pol, son frère, ils se seraient
levés debout dans leurs chaires et mis lʼépée nue à la main, et, en
cette position, auraient bu la santé de Sa Majesté et cassé leurs
verres, témoignant un grand zèle et affection à son service, ayant
même fait tirer du château à cet effet plusieurs coups de canon; en
quoi ils avaient été invités par M. Lejeune, fils de M. de Chamboy,
qui avait accompagné leurs Altesses, et ensuite M. de Chamboy
avait aussi bu la santé de Sa Majesté, ainsi que toute la
Compagnie. »
Le petit édifice du pont St-Pierre était si étroit que le greffier lui-
même ne pouvait y demeurer et quʼil emportait à son domicile la
plupart des registres, pièces, clefs et cachets qui nʼauraient jamais
31
dû sortir de lʼHôtel de Ville . Lʼhuissier de la ville seul y avait un
logement. Plusieurs pièces servaient, comme nous lʼavons déjà vu,
dʼarsenal et de magasins. Dans une des quatre tours, qui flanquaient
les angles de lʼédifice, se trouvaient des cachots destinés aux gens
arrêtés le soir par le guet, et où lʼon devait « les mettre jusques au
Jour, dit M. de Bras, et les rendre à la justice sans en prendre
aucune congnoissance, et par le juge ordinaire en est faict le procez
et ordonné de telle punition qui appartient au cas. »
M. de Bras nous dorme encore quelques détails intéressants
sur le corps de garde qui était placé sous le pont St-Pierre. « Le
sieur capitaine dudict Caen, écrit-il, pour garder les habitans en
patience la nuict, doibt commettre un mareschal de guet pour obvier
aux bruits de nuict, et quʼil ne se commette aucuns larcins ny
insolences. Lequel mareschal convoque à ceste fin les Bordiers,
cʼest-à-dire locataires qui nʼont maison et ne sont bourgeois, en
nombre suffisant; et estans soubs le pont sainct Pierre, dict de
Dernetal, qui est la maison de ville, et en temps dʼhyver doibt avoir
du feu et chandelle en une lanterne haut eslevée, et sʼil se faict
quelque bruit, ledict mareschal et aucuns des siens sʼy doibt
transporter, et se saisir de tels mutins... »
Malgré lʼexiguïté de leur Hôtel de Ville, les échevins trouvaient
encore le moyen de sʼy entourer de quelques locataires. Ainsi nous
voyons, dans les anciens registres, un cordonnier « requérir lui être
baillé et délaissé une petite place vide entre lʼune des tours du pont
St-Pierre et le coin de la muraille tendant aux Carmes, en laquelle
32
place soullait avoir un appentif servant dʼouvroir... » ; en 1075,
cʼest une demande de permission « pour establir de la mercerie sur
le pont St-Pierre »; en 1577, une autre demande « pour y establir
des fruitages »; en 1578, une requête dʼun sieur Charles de
Bourgueville (était-ce un parent de M. de Bras?) pour « étaler sa
marchandise sur le même pont. » Les échevins retiraient souvent
plus dʼennuis que de profit des autorisations quʼils accordaient,
comme cela est prouvé par une délibération du 21 mai 1580, qui
mentionne quʼil « était advenu grand désordre et scandale par deux
femmes, lʼune lingère et lʼautre rubannière, auxquelles avait été par
ci-devant permis prendre place sur le pont St-Pierre, sous cette
maison de ville, pour vendre les ouvrages de leurs métiers, sous
espoir quʼelles sʼy comporteraient en tout honneur et modestie... »
La description de lʼancien Hôtel de Ville de Caen serait
incomplète si, après avoir montré ce quʼil était en temps ordinaire,
nous nʼessayions pas de donner une idée de la physionomie quʼil
prenait pendant les jours de fête.
Lorsquʼun nouveau gouverneur de la ville et du château faisait
son entrée à Caen, on plaçait aux fenêtres de la maison commune
quatre armoiries, savoir: celles du roi, du gouverneur, de la province
et de la ville. Le corps de ville allait le saluer à lʼhôtel où il était
descendu. Le premier échevin lui faisait le compliment dʼusage avant
de lui présenter les clefs de la ville, que le gouverneur acceptait et
renvoyait par son écuyer. Si le gouverneur était marié, le corps de
ville se présentait de nouveau à son hôtel pour saluer sa femme, et,
après le départ des échevins, lʼhuissier de la ville présentait à la
femme du gouverneur le vin, deux douzaines de boîtes de
confitures, avec une corbeille garnie de quantité de rubans et
remplie de six bourses. Le lendemain ou surlendemain de lʼentrée
du gouverneur, le corps de ville, assemblé pour le recevoir, sortait de
la maison commune, « précédé de lʼhuissier ordinaire avec sa toque
de velours, et des six sergents royaux et sergent général avec leurs
écharpes, ayant un trompette à la tête » pour se rendre en lʼhôtel du
gouverneur. Après lʼavoir salué, il lʼaccompagnait à la maison
commune, où le gouverneur prenait séance au bout de la table,
« dans un fauteuil dans lequel il y avait un carreau de velours. »
er
Cʼest ainsi, du moins, que les choses se passèrent le 1 avril
1680, lors de lʼarrivée du comte de Coigny, récemment nommé
gouverneur des ville et château de Caen.
On se mettait naturellement en frais lorsquʼil sʼagissait dʼun
souverain ou dʼun prince de lʼÉglise, surtout quand le roi, comme il le
fit lors de lʼentrée du cardinal de Farnèse, se donnait la peine
dʼécrire « par ses lettres missives aux échevins de la ville quʼils
33
eussent à lui faire en icelle réception honorable »
Alors on faisait peindre des emblèmes, des écussons et des
tableaux allégoriques quʼon suspendait aux murs de lʼHôtel de Ville,
tant du côté de St-Pierre que du côté de la rue St-Jean. Puis,
cʼétaient des illuminations et le vin qui, pendant plusieurs heures,
coulait abondamment par les fenêtres pour le peuple.
Le 16 janvier 1679, à lʼoccasion de la paix qui venait dʼêtre
signée entre le roi de France et le roi dʼEspagne, « pour marquer la
joie publique, le beffroi était orné de tapis et dʼun étendard avec
plusieurs branches de laurier, dont on sonna la grosse cloche dès 4
heures du matin, et lʼHôtel de Ville, dʼun grand tableau de chaque
côté avec plusieurs écussons, éclairés de plusieurs flambeaux, dont
té
lʼun représentait sa M à cheval, couronnée par un ange, foulant aux
pieds et terrassant la Guerre, la Discorde et lʼEnvie; et lʼautre, la Paix
descendant du ciel en terre, dans un char de triomphe, tiré par des
amours, précédé de la Renommée et y apportant lʼabondance. »
Le sujet des tableaux variait suivant la circonstance qui donnait
lieu à la fête. Le 11 août 1659, « pour le mariage du roi, disent les
anciens registres, le vin de lʼHôtel de Ville coula, du côté de St-
Pierre, par deux canaux faits exprès dans le tableau du Dieu
dʼHyménée. » Et, quelque deux ans après, lorsquʼon fit des
réjouissances publiques pour la naissance du Dauphin, il y eut une
distribution de vin au peuple par une fontaine qui sortait dʼun
34
dauphin, figuré à lʼune des fenêtres de lʼHôtel de Ville .
On croirait volontiers que ces peintures décoratives,
appropriées aux circonstances, devaient entraîner pour la ville des
dépenses considérables; mais un Mémoire des dépenses faites pour
35
lʼentrée du duc de Joyeuse nous montre que les nécessités du
budget avaient créé à Caen un genre nouveau quʼon pourrait
appeler la peinture économique: « des tableaux de 12 pieds sur 8
nʼy sont cotés que 6, 8 et 10 écus. » La place, comme on le voit, ne
manquait pas aux artistes pour se mettre en frais dʼimagination; mais
il est probable quʼils en donnaient à la ville pour son argent.
LʼANCIEN PORT DE CAEN
LʼANCIEN PORT DE CAEN
NOTICE HISTORIQUE
SUR LES TRAVAUX AUXQUELS IL A DONNÉ LIEU
E port de Caen est aussi ancien que la ville. Dès lʼan
1026, il avait assez dʼimportance pour que la dîme des
produits de sa douane fût attribuée par Richard II,
comme une donation sérieuse, à lʼabbaye de Fécamp.
Au temps du duc Guillaume, sa prospérité fut encore
augmentée par la conquête de lʼAngleterre, qui amena
nécessairement un échange de productions entre la Normandie et le
royaume nouvellement conquis.
Jusque-là, les navires nʼavaient eu pour principale station que le
cours du Grand-Odon, depuis lʼendroit où cette rivière se jetait dans
lʼOrne, cʼest-à-dire vers le point où est actuellement le pont des
Abattoirs, jusquʼau pont de Darnetal, appelé plus tard pont St-Pierre.
La première amélioration du port fut entreprise par le duc
Robert, fils de Guillaume le Conquérant, vers lʼannée 1104. Après
avoir renforcé lʼOdon dʼune branche de lʼOrne, à laquelle la postérité
reconnaissante a conservé le nom de canal du duc Robert, le duc fit
creuser à lʼOdon un nouveau lit dans la prairie St-Gilles, pour lʼélargir
et le rejeter un peu plus haut dans lʼOrne, vers le lieu quʼon appelle
encore le rond-point. Grâce à ces travaux, des bâtiments plus forts
purent remonter jusquʼau pont St-Pierre.
Ils y vinrent en si grand nombre que, quelque dix ans après
cette première amélioration, la vue du mouvement du port excitait
lʼadmiration dʼun certain Raoul Tortaire, moine de lʼabbaye de St-
Benoît-de-Fleuri (Loiret), qui nous a laissé une curieuse relation en
vers latins du voyage quʼil avait fait en Normandie, à une date quʼon
peut fixer dʼune manière certaine entre les années 1107 et 1113.
« Le port, dit-il dans son poëme, donne asile à quelques gros
vaisseaux que lui envoie la mer, dont les ondes, dans leur flux,
suspendent presque entièrement le cours de la rivière. Ce sol,
fécond en moissons, ne connaît pas lʼombrage des forêts; la noix
gauloise, le raisin, la figue et lʼolive lui manquent; mais lʼîle
Britannique lʼenrichit des produits divers du commerce et de ce
quʼenfantent les terres baignées par la mer dʼOccident. »
Ébloui et tenté par le nombre et lʼéclat des étoffes de laine de
diverses couleurs, des tissus de lin dʼune rare finesse, des soies
moelleuses à trame serrée, et des autres marchandises quʼon
débarque sur le quai, le bon moine sʼécrie naïvement: « A la vue de
tant de richesses apportées des pays les plus divers par des
hommes, dont les vêtements sont si disparates, je me sens tout
agité et horriblement malheureux de ne pas avoir dʼargent! ».
Ces brillants produits de lʼOrient, qui faisaient regretter au bon
religieux ses vœux de pauvreté, étaient échangés contre le blé,
lʼorge, le hareng salé qui servait à lʼapprovisionnement des places
fortes, et aussi contre les pierres à bâtir tirées des carrières de
Vaucelles et de St-Julien.
e
Au XIII siècle, lʼaffluence des « navires chargés de toute sorte
de marchandises » est encore affirmée en vers latins, par Guillaume
36
Le Breton , historiographe de Philippe Auguste. Mais le
mouvement du port dut singulièrement se ralentir pendant les
malheurs de la guerre de Cent-Ans, les troubles de la Ligue du bien
public et les dévastations des guerres de religion. Durant cette
longue période de désastres, aucune amélioration nouvelle ne fut,
on le comprend, apportée à la situation du port.
Cependant, il en eût exigé dʼurgentes; car, tandis que le pays
commençait à se débarrasser de ses ennemis, le port de Caen
subissait un autre genre dʼinvasion qui devait compromettre sa
fortune et le menacer dʼune ruine prochaine. Lʼhistoire du port, à
e
partir du XVI siècle, ne se compose guère, en effet, que de la
relation des envasements successifs de lʼOrne, des projets quʼon
proposa et des travaux qui furent tentés pour remédier à cet état
périlleux pour la navigation. Ces envasements redoutables tenaient
à la nature des terrains où lʼOrne sʼétait creusé son lit capricieux. Le
sol des prairies de Caen jusquʼà la mer nʼest, en effet, que le produit
des matières que lʼeau de la rivière et le flux des marées avaient
successivement déposées dans lʼancienne baie. Des fouilles,
e
exécutées à la fin du XVIII siècle pour creuser le nouveau canal de
lʼOrne, ont donné lieu à des découvertes qui sembleraient prouver
que cette alluvion ne sʼest pas accomplie avec la lenteur que met
habituellement la nature dans son patient travail des siècles. Telle
est, du moins, lʼopinion dʼun observateur du temps, qui pense que le
sol de lʼancienne baie de Caen se serait exhaussé de 6 mètres

Analysis of Composite Laminates Theories and Their Applications 1St Edition Dinghe Li Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Analysis of Composite Laminates Theories and Their Applications 1St Edition Dinghe Li Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Analysis of Composite Laminates:

Theories and Their Applications 1st

Theories of development : concepts and applications 6th

Applied Analysis of Composite Media: Analytical and

Damage Modeling of Composite Structures: Strength,

Applied Analysis of Composite Media: Analytical and

Inorganic and composite fibers: production, properties,

Dynamics of Molecular Excitons: Theories and

Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications 6th

Fascinating Fluoropolymers and Their Applications 1st

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

1. Composite analysis overview 1

2. Shear deformation theories 35

2.3.2. Kinematic equation 48

3. State space theory 71

4. Layerwise theories 111

4.2.1. Generalized laminate plate theory 112

5. Extended layerwise method 139

5.5.1. The fast uniform-grid delamination scheme 208

6. Multiphysical analysis 235

7. Analysis of complex composites 297

7.2.3. LW/SE method 301

8. Progressive failure analysis 365

8.5.4. Numerical examples 414

9. Multiscale analysis 423

10. Sensitivity analysis 471

11. Analysis codes 495

11.2. Data structures and pre/post process 496

Dr. Li is a Professor and Vice President at the College of Aeronautical Engineering,

SSDT second-order shear deformation theory

As there is a dramatic increase in the use of composite materials, the number of

Composite analysis overview

materials, namely, the natural fiber-reinforced biopolymers. These composite materials

1.1.2 Applications of composites in aircrafts

1.2. Composite laminates

Figure 1.2 Multidirectional laminate and coordinate system [1].

Figure 1.3 Plane braided composites and 3D braided composites.

1.3. Analysis schemes

Figure 1.5 Multiscale analysis scheme of composite structures.

1.3.2 Basic equations

motion equation can be deduced from equation (1.2) directly as

σij = σji (1.4)

Consider an composite laminate in its original undeformed configuration described

We can also consider boundary conditions such as ui = a, where a is a given displace-

σij nj = σ̄i (1.9)

where nj is the unit vector normal to dσ .

1.3.3 Existing analysis theories

Figure 1.7 Notation for a multilayered plate.

Figure 1.8 Cz0 -Requirements.

1.3.5 Future developments

1.4. General Hooke’s law

the most general form of the linear constitutive equations is given by

σ = C : ε + σ 0 , σij = Cijkl εkl + σij0 (1.11)

σ11 → σ1 , σ22 → σ2 , σ33 → σ3 , σ23 → σ4 , σ13 → σ5 , σ12 → σ6

Therefore, equation (1.11) can be rewritten as

σi = Cij εj + σi0 i, j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 6 (1.15)

1.4.2 Monoclinic materials

1.4.3 Orthotropic materials

1 − ν23 ν23 ν21 + ν31 ν23 ν12 − ν32 ν13

1.4.4 Isotropic materials

1.4.5 Plane stress-reduced constitutive relations