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Applied Statistics: From Bivariate Through Multivariate

Techniques Second Edition – Ebook PDF Version
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Applied Univariate, Bivariate, and Multivariate

Statistics: Understanding Statistics for Social and
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Using Multivariate Statistics 7th Edition Barbara G.

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Statistics : learning from data Second Edition. Edition

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Applied medical statistics 1st Edition Jingmei Jiang
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Applied Statistics in Business and Economics 5th

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Methods of Multivariate Analysis (Wiley Series in

Probability and Statistics Book 709) 3rd Edition –
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Chapter 19. Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Chapter 20. Principal Components and Factor Analysis
Chapter 21. Reliability, Validity, and Multiple-Item Scales
Chapter 22. Analysis of Repeated Measures
Chapter 23. Binary Logistic Regression
Appendix A: Proportions of Area Under a Standard Normal Curve
Appendix B: Critical Values for t Distribution
Appendix C: Critical Values of F
Appendix D: Critical Values of Chi-Square
Appendix E: Critical Values of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Appendix F: Critical Values of the Studentized Range Statistic
Appendix G: Transformation of r (Pearson Correlation) to Fisher Z
Glossary
References
Index
8
DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Chapter 1. Review of Basic Concepts

1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Simple Example of a Research Problem
1.3 Discrepancies Between Real and Ideal Research Situations
1.4 Samples and Populations
1.5 Descriptive Versus Inferential Uses of Statistics
1.6 Levels of Measurement and Types of Variables
1.7 The Normal Distribution
1.8 Research Design
1.8.1 Experimental Design
1.8.2 Quasi-Experimental Design
1.8.3 Nonexperimental Research Design
1.8.4 Between-Subjects Versus Within-Subjects or Repeated Measures
1.9 Combinations of These Design Elements
1.10 Parametric Versus Nonparametric Statistics
1.11 Additional Implicit Assumptions
1.12 Selection of an Appropriate Bivariate Analysis
1.13 Summary
Comprehension Questions
Chapter 2. Basic Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Research Example: Description of a Sample of HR Scores
2.3 Sample Mean (M)
2.4 Sum of Squared Deviations (SS) and Sample Variance (s2)
2.5 Degrees of Freedom (df) for a Sample Variance
2.6 Why Is There Variance?
2.7 Sample Standard Deviation (s)
2.8 Assessment of Location of a Single X Score Relative to a Distribution of Scores
9
2.9 A Shift in Level of Analysis: The Distribution of Values of M Across Many Samples From the Same
Population
2.10 An Index of Amount of Sampling Error: The Standard Error of the Mean (σM)
2.11 Effect of Sample Size (N) on the Magnitude of the Standard Error (σM)
2.12 Sample Estimate of the Standard Error of the Mean (SEM)
2.13 The Family of t Distributions
2.14 Confidence Intervals
2.14.1 The General Form of a CI
2.14.2 Setting Up a CI for M When σ Is Known
2.14.3 Setting Up a CI for M When the Value of σ Is Not Known
2.14.4 Reporting CIs
2.15 Summary
Appendix on SPSS
Chapter 3. Statistical Significance Testing

3.1 The Logic of Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST)
3.2 Type I Versus Type II Error
3.3 Formal NHST Procedures: The z Test for a Null Hypothesis About One Population Mean
3.3.1 Obtaining a Random Sample From the Population of Interest
3.3.2 Formulating a Null Hypothesis (H0) for the One-Sample z Test
3.3.3 Formulating an Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
3.3.4 Choosing a Nominal Alpha Level
3.3.5 Determining the Range of z Scores Used to Reject H0
3.3.6 Determining the Range of Values of M Used to Reject H0
3.3.7 Reporting an “Exact” p Value
3.4 Common Research Practices Inconsistent With Assumptions and Rules for NHST
3.4.1 Use of Convenience Samples
3.4.2 Modification of Decision Rules After the Initial Decision
3.4.3 Conducting Large Numbers of Significance Tests
3.4.4 Impact of Violations of Assumptions on Risk of Type I Error
3.5 Strategies to Limit Risk of Type I Error
3.5.1 Use of Random and Representative Samples
3.5.2 Adherence to the Rules for NHST
3.5.3 Limit the Number of Significance Tests
3.5.4 Bonferroni-Corrected Per-Comparison Alpha Levels
3.5.5 Replication of Outcome in New Samples
3.5.6 Cross-Validation
3.6 Interpretation of Results
3.6.1 Interpretation of Null Results
10
3.6.2 Interpretation of Statistically Significant Results
3.7 When Is a t Test Used Instead of a z Test?
3.8 Effect Size
3.8.1 Evaluation of “Practical” (vs. Statistical) Significance
3.8.2 Formal Effect-Size Index: Cohen’s d
3.9 Statistical Power Analysis
3.10 Numerical Results for a One-Sample t Test Obtained From SPSS
3.11 Guidelines for Reporting Results
3.12 Summary
3.12.1 Logical Problems With NHST
3.12.2 Other Applications of the t Ratio
3.12.3 What Does It Mean to Say “p < .05”?
Chapter 4. Preliminary Data Screening

4.1 Introduction: Problems in Real Data
4.2 Quality Control During Data Collection
4.3 Example of an SPSS Data Worksheet
4.4 Identification of Errors and Inconsistencies
4.5 Missing Values
4.6 Empirical Example of Data Screening for Individual Variables
4.6.1 Frequency Distribution Tables
4.6.2 Removal of Impossible or Extreme Scores
4.6.3 Bar Chart for a Categorical Variable
4.6.4 Histogram for a Quantitative Variable
4.7 Identification and Handling of Outliers
4.8 Screening Data for Bivariate Analyses
4.8.1 Bivariate Data Screening for Two Categorical Variables
4.8.2 Bivariate Data Screening for One Categorical and One Quantitative Variable
4.8.3 Bivariate Data Screening for Two Quantitative Variables
4.9 Nonlinear Relations
4.10 Data Transformations
4.11 Verifying That Remedies Had the Desired Effects
4.12 Multivariate Data Screening
4.13 Reporting Preliminary Data Screening
4.14 Summary and Checklist for Data Screening
4.15 Final Notes
Chapter 5. Comparing Group Means Using the Independent Samples t Test

5.1 Research Situations Where the Independent Samples t Test Is Used
11
5.2 A Hypothetical Research Example
5.3 Assumptions About the Distribution of Scores on the Quantitative Dependent Variable
5.3.1 Quantitative, Approximately Normally Distributed
5.3.2 Equal Variances of Scores Across Groups (the Homogeneity of Variance Assumption)
5.3.3 Independent Observations Both Between and Within Groups
5.3.4 Robustness to Violations of Assumptions
5.4 Preliminary Data Screening
5.5 Issues in Designing a Study
5.6 Formulas for the Independent Samples t Test
5.6.1 The Pooled Variances t Test
5.6.2 Computation of the Separate Variances t Test and Its Adjusted df
5.6.3 Evaluation of Statistical Significance of a t Ratio
5.6.4 Confidence Interval Around M1 – M2
5.7 Conceptual Basis: Factors That Affect the Size of the t Ratio
5.7.1 Design Decisions That Affect the Difference Between Group Means, M1 – M2
5.7.2 Design Decisions That Affect Pooled Within-Group Variance, s2p
5.7.3 Design Decisions About Sample Sizes, n1 and n2
5.7.4 Summary: Factors That Influence the Size of t
5.8 Effect-Size Indexes for t
5.8.1 Eta Squared (η2)
5.8.2 Cohen’s d
5.8.3 Point Biserial r (rpb)
5.9 Statistical Power and Decisions About Sample Size for the Independent Samples t Test
5.10 Describing the Nature of the Outcome
5.11 SPSS Output and Model Results Section
5.12 Summary
Chapter 6. One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance

6.1 Research Situations Where One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Is Used
6.2 Hypothetical Research Example
6.3 Assumptions About Scores on the Dependent Variable for One-Way Between-S ANOVA
6.4 Issues in Planning a Study
6.5 Data Screening
6.6 Partition of Scores Into Components
6.7 Computations for the One-Way Between-S ANOVA
6.7.1 Comparison Between the Independent Samples t Test and One-Way Between-S ANOVA
6.7.2 Summarizing Information About Distances Between Group Means: Computing MSbetween
6.7.3 Summarizing Information About Variability of Scores Within Groups: Computing MSwithin
6.7.4 The F Ratio: Comparing MSbetween With MSwithin
12
6.7.5 Patterns of Scores Related to the Magnitudes of MSbetween and MSwithin
6.7.6 Expected Value of F When H0 Is True
6.7.7 Confidence Intervals (CIs) for Group Means
6.8 Effect-Size Index for One-Way Between-S ANOVA
6.9 Statistical Power Analysis for One-Way Between-S ANOVA
6.10 Nature of Differences Among Group Means
6.10.1 Planned Contrasts
6.10.2 Post Hoc or “Protected” Tests
6.11 SPSS Output and Model Results
6.12 Summary
Chapter 7. Bivariate Pearson Correlation

7.1 Research Situations Where Pearson’s r Is Used
7.3 Assumptions for Pearson’s r
7.4 Preliminary Data Screening
7.5 Design Issues in Planning Correlation Research
7.6 Computation of Pearson’s r
7.7 Statistical Significance Tests for Pearson’s r
7.7.1 Testing the Hypothesis That ρXY = 0
7.7.2 Testing Other Hypotheses About ρXY
7.7.3 Assessing Differences Between Correlations
7.7.4 Reporting Many Correlations: Need to Control Inflated Risk of Type I Error
7.7.4.1 Limiting the Number of Correlations
7.7.4.2 Cross-Validation of Correlations
7.7.4.3 Bonferroni Procedure: A More Conservative Alpha Level for Tests of Individual Correlations
7.8 Setting Up CIs for Correlations
7.9 Factors That Influence the Magnitude and Sign of Pearson’s r
7.9.1 Pattern of Data Points in the X, Y Scatter Plot
7.9.2 Biased Sample Selection: Restricted Range or Extreme Groups
7.9.3 Correlations for Samples That Combine Groups
7.9.4 Control of Extraneous Variables
7.9.5 Disproportionate Influence by Bivariate Outliers
7.9.6 Shapes of Distributions of X and Y
7.9.7 Curvilinear Relations
7.9.8 Transformations of Data
7.9.9 Attenuation of Correlation Due to Unreliability of Measurement
7.9.10 Part-Whole Correlations
7.9.11 Aggregated Data
13
7.10 Pearson’s r and r2 as Effect-Size Indexes
7.11 Statistical Power and Sample Size for Correlation Studies
7.12 Interpretation of Outcomes for Pearson’s r
7.12.1 “Correlation Does Not Necessarily Imply Causation” (So What Does It Imply?)
7.12.2 Interpretation of Significant Pearson’s r Values
7.12.3 Interpretation of a Nonsignificant Pearson’s r Value
7.13 SPSS Output and Model Results Write-Up
7.14 Summary
Chapter 8. Alternative Correlation Coefficients

8.1 Correlations for Different Types of Variables
8.2 Two Research Examples
8.3 Correlations for Rank or Ordinal Scores
8.4 Correlations for True Dichotomies
8.4.1 Point Biserial r (rpb)
8.4.2 Phi Coefficient (ϕ)
8.5 Correlations for Artificially Dichotomized Variables
8.5.1 Biserial r (rb)
8.5.2 Tetrachoric r (rtet)
8.6 Assumptions and Data Screening for Dichotomous Variables
8.7 Analysis of Data: Dog Ownership and Survival After a Heart Attack
8.8 Chi-Square Test of Association (Computational Methods for Tables of Any Size)
8.9 Other Measures of Association for Contingency Tables
8.10 SPSS Output and Model Results Write-Up
8.11 Summary
Chapter 9. Bivariate Regression

9.1 Research Situations Where Bivariate Regression Is Used
9.2 A Research Example: Prediction of Salary From Years of Job Experience
9.3 Assumptions and Data Screening
9.4 Issues in Planning a Bivariate Regression Study
9.5 Formulas for Bivariate Regression
9.6 Statistical Significance Tests for Bivariate Regression
9.7 Setting Up Confidence Intervals Around Regression Coefficients
9.8 Factors That Influence the Magnitude and Sign of b
9.8.1 Factors That Affect the Size of the b Coefficient
9.8.2 Comparison of Coefficients for Different Predictors or for Different Groups
9.9 Effect Size/Partition of Variance in Bivariate Regression
14
9.10 Statistical Power
9.11 Raw Score Versus Standard Score Versions of the Regression Equation
9.12 Removing the Influence of X From the Y Variable by Looking at Residuals From Bivariate Regression
9.13 Empirical Example Using SPSS
9.13.1 Information to Report From a Bivariate Regression
9.14 Summary
Chapter 10. Adding a Third Variable: Preliminary Exploratory Analyses

10.1 Three-Variable Research Situations
10.2 First Research Example
10.3 Exploratory Statistical Analyses for Three-Variable Research Situations
10.4 Separate Analysis of the X1, Y Relationship for Each Level of the Control Variable X2
10.5 Partial Correlation Between X1 and Y, Controlling for X2
10.6 Understanding Partial Correlation as the Use of Bivariate Regression to Remove Variance Predictable
by X2 From Both X1 and Y
10.7 Computation of Partial r From Bivariate Pearson Correlations
10.8 Intuitive Approach to Understanding Partial r
10.9 Significance Tests, Confidence Intervals, and Statistical Power for Partial Correlations
10.9.1 Statistical Significance of Partial r
10.9.2 Confidence Intervals for Partial r
10.9.3 Effect Size, Statistical Power, and Sample Size Guidelines for Partial r
10.10 Interpretation of Various Outcomes for rY1.2 and rY1
10.11 Two-Variable Causal Models
10.12 Three-Variable Models: Some Possible Patterns of Association Among X1, Y, and X2
10.12.1 X1 and Y Are Not Related Whether You Control for X2 or Not
10.12.2 X2 Is Irrelevant to the X1, Y Relationship
10.12.3 When You Control for X2, the X1, Y Correlation Drops to 0 or Close to 0
10.12.3.1 Completely Spurious Correlation
10.12.3.2 Completely Mediated Association Between X1 and Y
10.12.4 When You Control for X, the Correlation Between X2 and Y1 Becomes Smaller (but Does Not
Drop to 0 and Does Not Change Sign)
10.12.4.1 X2 Partly Accounts for the X1, Y Association, or X1 and X2 Are Correlated Predictors of Y
10.12.4.2 X2 Partly Mediates the X1, Y Relationship
10.12.5 Suppression: When You Control for X2, the X1, Y Correlation Becomes Larger Than r1Y or
Becomes Opposite in Sign Relative to r1Y
10.12.5.1 Suppression of Error Variance in a Predictor Variable
10.12.5.2 Sign of X1 as a Predictor of Y Reverses When Controlling for X2
10.12.5.3 Predictor Variables With Opposite Signs
10.12.6 “None of the Above”
15
10.13 Mediation Versus Moderation
10.13.1 Preliminary Analysis to Identify Possible Moderation
10.13.2 Preliminary Analysis to Detect Possible Mediation
10.13.3 Experimental Tests for Mediation Models
10.14 Model Results
10.15 Summary
Chapter 11. Multiple Regression With Two Predictor Variables

11.1 Research Situations Involving Regression With Two Predictor Variables
11.3 Graphic Representation of Regression Plane
11.4 Semipartial (or “Part”) Correlation
11.5 Graphic Representation of Partition of Variance in Regression With Two Predictors
11.6 Assumptions for Regression With Two Predictors
11.7 Formulas for Regression Coefficients, Significance Tests, and Confidence Intervals
11.7.1 Formulas for Standard Score Beta Coefficients
11.7.2 Formulas for Raw Score (b) Coefficients
11.7.3 Formula for Multiple R and Multiple R2
11.7.4 Test of Significance for Overall Regression: Overall F Test for H0: R = 0
11.7.5 Test of Significance for Each Individual Predictor: t Test for H0: bi = 0
11.7.6 Confidence Interval for Each b Slope Coefficient
11.8 SPSS Regression Results
11.9 Conceptual Basis: Factors That Affect the Magnitude and Sign of β and b Coefficients in Multiple
Regression With Two Predictors
11.10 Tracing Rules for Causal Model Path Diagrams
11.11 Comparison of Equations for β, b, pr, and sr
11.12 Nature of Predictive Relationships
11.13 Effect-Size Information in Regression With Two Predictors
11.13.1 Effect Size for Overall Model
11.13.2 Effect Size for Individual Predictor Variables
11.15.1 Sample Size
11.15.2 Selection of Predictor Variables
11.15.3 Multicollinearity Among Predictors
11.15.4 Range of Scores
11.16 Results
11.17 Summary
16
Chapter 12. Dummy Predictor Variables in Multiple Regression
12.1 Research Situations Where Dummy Predictor Variables Can Be Used
12.2 Empirical Example
12.3 Screening for Violations of Assumptions
12.5 Parameter Estimates and Significance Tests for Regressions With Dummy Variables
12.6 Group Mean Comparisons Using One-Way Between-S ANOVA
12.6.1 Gender Differences in Mean Salary
12.6.2 College Differences in Mean Salary
12.7 Three Methods of Coding for Dummy Variables
12.7.1 Regression With Dummy-Coded Dummy Predictor Variables
12.7.1.1 Two-Group Example With a Dummy-Coded Dummy Variable
12.7.1.2 Multiple-Group Example With Dummy-Coded Dummy Variables
12.7.2 Regression With Effect-Coded Dummy Predictor Variables
12.7.2.1 Two-Group Example With an Effect-Coded Dummy Variable
12.7.2.2 Multiple-Group Example With Effect-Coded Dummy Variables
12.7.3 Orthogonal Coding of Dummy Predictor Variables
12.8 Regression Models That Include Both Dummy and Quantitative Predictor Variables
12.9 Effect Size and Statistical Power
12.10 Nature of the Relationship and/or Follow-Up Tests
12.11 Results
12.12 Summary
Chapter 13. Factorial Analysis of Variance

13.1 Research Situations and Research Questions
13.1.1 First Null Hypothesis: Test of Main Effect for Factor A
13.1.2 Second Null Hypothesis: Test of Main Effect for Factor B
13.1.3 Third Null Hypothesis: Test of the A × B Interaction
13.4 Empirical Example: Description of Hypothetical Data
13.5 Computations for Between-S Factorial ANOVA
13.5.1 Notation for Sample Statistics That Estimate Score Components in Factorial ANOVA
13.5.2 Notation for Theoretical Effect Terms (or Unknown Population Parameters) in Factorial ANOVA
13.5.3 Formulas for Sums of Squares and Degrees of Freedom
13.6 Conceptual Basis: Factors That Affect the Size of Sums of Squares and F Ratios in Factorial ANOVA
13.6.1 Distances Between Group Means (Magnitude of the α and β Effects)
13.6.2 Number of Scores (n) Within Each Group or Cell
13.6.3 Variability of Scores Within Groups or Cells (Magnitude of MSwithin)
17
13.7 Effect-Size Estimates for Factorial ANOVA
13.9 Nature of the Relationships, Follow-Up Tests, and Information to Include in the Results
13.9.1 Nature of a Two-Way Interaction
13.9.2 Nature of Main Effect Differences
13.10 Factorial ANOVA Using the SPSS GLM Procedure
13.10.1 Further Discussion of Results: Comparison of the Factorial ANOVA (in Figures 13.7 and 13.8)
With the One-Way ANOVA (in Figure 13.1)
13.11 Summary
Appendix: Nonorthogonal Factorial ANOVA (ANOVA With Unbalanced Numbers of Cases in the Cells
or Groups)
Chapter 14. Multiple Regression With More Than Two Predictors

14.1 Research Questions
14.5 Computation of Regression Coefficients With k Predictor Variables
14.6 Methods of Entry for Predictor Variables
14.6.1 Standard or Simultaneous Method of Entry
14.6.2 Sequential or Hierarchical (User-Determined) Method of Entry
14.6.3 Statistical (Data-Driven) Order of Entry
14.7 Variance Partitioning in Regression for Standard or Simultaneous Regression Versus Regressions That
Involve a Series of Steps
14.8 Significance Test for an Overall Regression Model
14.9 Significance Tests for Individual Predictors in Multiple Regression
14.10 Effect Size
14.10.1 Effect Size for Overall Regression (Multiple R)
14.10.2 Effect Sizes for Individual Predictor Variables (sr2)
14.11 Changes in F and R as Additional Predictors Are Added to a Model in Sequential or Statistical
Regression
14.13 Nature of the Relationship Between Each X Predictor and Y (Controlling for Other Predictors)
14.14 Assessment of Multivariate Outliers in Regression
14.15 SPSS Example and Results
14.15.1 SPSS Screen Shots, Output, and Results for Standard Regression
14.15.2 SPSS Screen Shots, Output, and Results for Sequential Regression
14.15.3 SPSS Screen Shots, Output, and Results for Statistical Regression
14.16 Summary
18
Appendix 14.A: A Review of Matrix Algebra Notation and Operations and Application of Matrix Algebra
to Estimation of Slope Coefficients for Regression With More Than k Predictor Variables
Appendix 14.B: Tables for the Wilkinson and Dallal (1981) Test of Significance of Multiple R2 in Method
= Forward Statistical Regression
Chapter 15. Moderation: Tests for Interaction in Multiple Regression

15.1 Moderation Versus Mediation
15.2 Situations in Which Researchers Test Interactions
15.2.1 Factorial ANOVA Designs
15.2.2 Regression Analyses That Include Interaction Terms
15.3 When Should Interaction Terms Be Included in Regression Analysis?
15.4 Types of Predictor Variables Included in Interactions
15.4.1 Interaction Between Two Categorical Predictor Variables
15.4.2 Interaction Between a Quantitative and a Categorical Predictor Variable
15.4.3 Interaction Between Two Quantitative Predictor Variables
15.5 Assumptions and Preliminary Data Screening
15.6 Issues in Designing a Study
15.7 Sample Size and Statistical Power in Tests of Moderation or Interaction
15.8 Effect Size for Interaction
15.9 Additional Issues in Analysis
15.10 Preliminary Example: One Categorical and One Quantitative Predictor Variable With No Significant
Interaction
15.11 Example 1: Significant Interaction Between One Categorical and One Quantitative Predictor Variable
15.12 Graphing Regression Lines for Subgroups
15.13 Interaction With a Categorical Predictor With More Than Two Categories
15.14 Results Section for Interaction Involving One Categorical and One Quantitative Predictor Variable
15.15 Example 2: Interaction Between Two Quantitative Predictors
15.16 Results for Example 2: Interaction Between Two Quantitative Predictors
15.17 Graphing the Interaction for Selected Values of Two Quantitative Predictors
15.18 Results Section for Example 2: Interaction of Two Quantitative Predictors
15.19 Additional Issues and Summary
Chapter 16. Mediation

16.1 Definition of Mediation
16.1.1 Path Model Notation
16.1.2 Circumstances When Mediation May Be a Reasonable Hypothesis
16.2 A Hypothetical Research Example Involving One Mediating Variable
16.3 Limitations of Causal Models
16.3.1 Reasons Why Some Path Coefficients May Be Not Statistically Significant
19
16.3.2 Possible Interpretations for a Statistically Significant Path
16.4 Questions in a Mediation Analysis
16.5 Issues in Designing a Mediation Analysis Study
16.5.1 Type and Measurement of Variables in Mediation Analysis
16.5.2 Temporal Precedence or Sequence of Variables in Mediation Studies
16.5.3 Time Lags Between Variables
16.6 Assumptions in Mediation Analysis and Preliminary Data Screening
16.7 Path Coefficient Estimation
16.8 Conceptual Issues: Assessment of Direct Versus Indirect Paths
16.8.1 The Mediated or Indirect Path: ab
16.8.2 Mediated and Direct Path as Partition of Total Effect
16.8.3 Magnitude of Mediated Effect
16.9 Evaluating Statistical Significance
16.9.1 Causal-Steps Approach
16.9.2 Joint Significance Test
16.9.3 Sobel Test of H0: ab = 0
16.9.4 Bootstrapped Confidence Interval for ab
16.10 Effect-Size Information
16.11 Sample Size and Statistical Power
16.12 Additional Examples of Mediation Models
16.12.1 Tests of Multiple Mediating Variables
16.12.2 Multiple-Step Mediated Paths
16.12.3 Mediated Moderation and Moderated Mediation
16.13 Use of Structural Equation Modeling Programs to Test Mediation Models
16.13.1 Comparison of Regression and SEM Tests of Mediation
16.13.2 Steps in Running Amos
16.13.3 Opening the Amos Graphics Program
16.13.4 Amos Tools
16.13.5 First Steps Toward Drawing and Labeling an Amos Path Model
16.13.6 Adding Additional Variables and Paths to the Amos Path Diagram
16.13.7 Adding Error Terms for Dependent Variables
16.13.8 Correcting Mistakes and Printing the Path Model
16.13.9 Opening a Data File From Amos
16.13.10 Specification of Analysis Method and Request for Output
16.13.11 Running the Amos Analysis and Examining Preliminary Results
16.13.12 Unstandardized Path Coefficients on Path Diagram
16.13.13 Examining Text Output From Amos
16.13.14 Locating and Interpreting Output for Bootstrapped CI for the ab Indirect Effect
16.13.15 Why Use Amos/SEM Rather Than OLS Regression?
16.14 Results Section
20
16.15 Summary
Chapter 17. Analysis of Covariance

17.4 Variance Partitioning in ANCOVA
17.6 Formulas for ANCOVA
17.7 Computation of Adjusted Effects and Adjusted Y* Means
17.8 Conceptual Basis: Factors That Affect the Magnitude of SSAadj and SSresidual and the Pattern of
Adjusted Group Means
17.9 Effect Size
17.11 Nature of the Relationship and Follow-Up Tests: Information to Include in the Results Section
17.12 SPSS Analysis and Model Results
17.13 Additional Discussion of ANCOVA Results
17.14 Summary
Appendix: Alternative Methods for the Analysis of Pretest/Posttest Data
Chapter 18. Discriminant Analysis

18.2 Introduction of an Empirical Example
18.5 Equations for Discriminant Analysis
18.6 Conceptual Basis: Factors That Affect the Magnitude of Wilks’s Λ
18.7 Effect Size
18.8 Statistical Power and Sample Size Recommendations
18.9 Follow-Up Tests to Assess What Pattern of Scores Best Differentiates Groups
18.10 Results
18.11 One-Way ANOVA on Scores on Discriminant Functions
18.12 Summary
Appendix: Eigenvalue/Eigenvector Problem
Chapter 19. Multivariate Analysis of Variance

19.2 Introduction of the Initial Research Example: A One-Way MANOVA
21
19.3 Why Include Multiple Outcome Measures?
19.4 Equivalence of MANOVA and DA
19.5 The General Linear Model
19.6 Assumptions and Data Screening
19.8 Conceptual Basis of MANOVA and Some Formulas for MANOVA
19.9 Multivariate Test Statistics
19.10 Factors That Influence the Magnitude of Wilks’s Λ
19.11 Effect Size for MANOVA
19.12 Statistical Power and Sample Size Decisions
19.13 SPSS Output for a One-Way MANOVA: Career Group Data From Chapter 18
19.14 A 2 × 3 Factorial MANOVA of the Career Group Data
19.14.1 Potential Follow-Up Tests to Assess the Nature of Significant Main Effects
19.14.2 Possible Follow-Up Tests to Assess the Nature of the Interaction
19.14.3 Further Discussion of Problems With This 2 × 3 Factorial MANOVA
19.15 A Significant Interaction in a 3 × 6 MANOVA
19.16 Comparison of Univariate and Multivariate Follow-Up Analyses for MANOVA
19.17 Summary
Chapter 20. Principal Components and Factor Analysis

20.1 Research Situations
20.2 Path Model for Factor Analysis
20.3 Factor Analysis as a Method of Data Reduction
20.4 Introduction of an Empirical Example
20.6 Issues in Planning a Factor-Analytic Study
20.7 Computation of Loadings
20.8 Steps in the Computation of Principal Components or Factor Analysis
20.8.1 Computation of the Correlation Matrix R
20.8.2 Computation of the Initial Loading Matrix A
20.8.3 Limiting the Number of Components or Factors
20.8.4 Rotation of Factors
20.8.5 Naming or Labeling Components or Factors
20.9 Analysis 1: Principal Components Analysis of Three Items Retaining All Three Components
20.9.1 Communality for Each Item Based on All Three Components
20.9.2 Variance Reproduced by Each of the Three Components
20.9.3 Reproduction of Correlations From Loadings on All Three Components
20.10 Analysis 2: Principal Component Analysis of Three Items Retaining Only the First Component
20.10.1 Communality for Each Item Based on One Component
22
20.10.2 Variance Reproduced by the First Component
20.10.3 Partial Reproduction of Correlations From Loadings on Only One Component
20.11 Principal Components Versus Principal Axis Factoring
20.12 Analysis 3: PAF of Nine Items, Two Factors Retained, No Rotation
20.12.1 Communality for Each Item Based on Two Retained Factors
20.12.2 Variance Reproduced by Two Retained Factors
20.12.3 Partial Reproduction of Correlations From Loadings on Only Two Factors
20.13 Geometric Representation of Correlations Between Variables and Correlations Between Components
or Factors
20.13.1 Factor Rotation
20.14 The Two Sets of Multiple Regressions
20.14.1 Construction of Factor Scores (Such as Score on F1) From z Scores
20.14.2 Prediction of Standard Scores on Variables (zxi) From Factors (F1, F2, …, F9)
20.15 Analysis 4: PAF With Varimax Rotation
20.15.1 Variance Reproduced by Each Factor at Three Stages in the Analysis
20.15.2 Rotated Factor Loadings
20.15.3 Example of a Reverse-Scored Item
20.16 Questions to Address in the Interpretation of Factor Analysis
20.16.1 How Many Factors or Components or Latent Variables Are Needed to Account for (or
Reconstruct) the Pattern of Correlations Among the Measured Variables?
20.16.2 How “Important” Are the Factors or Components? How Much Variance Does Each Factor or
Component Explain?
20.16.3 What, if Anything, Do the Retained Factors or Components Mean? Can We Label or Name Our
Factors?
20.16.4 How Adequately Do the Retained Components or Factors Reproduce the Structure in the Original
Data—That Is, the Correlation Matrix?
20.17 Results Section for Analysis 4: PAF With Varimax Rotation
20.18 Factor Scores Versus Unit-Weighted Composites
20.19 Summary of Issues in Factor Analysis
20.20 Optional: Brief Introduction to Concepts in Structural Equation Modeling
Appendix: The Matrix Algebra of Factor Analysis
Chapter 21. Reliability, Validity, and Multiple-Item Scales

21.1 Assessment of Measurement Quality
21.1.1 Reliability
21.1.2 Validity
21.1.3 Sensitivity
21.1.4 Bias
21.2 Cost and Invasiveness of Measurements
23
21.2.1 Cost
21.2.2 Invasiveness
21.2.3 Reactivity of Measurement
21.3 Empirical Examples of Reliability Assessment
21.3.1 Definition of Reliability
21.3.2 Test-Retest Reliability Assessment for a Quantitative Variable
21.3.3 Interobserver Reliability Assessment for Scores on a Categorical Variable
21.4 Concepts From Classical Measurement Theory
21.4.1 Reliability as Partition of Variance
21.4.2 Attenuation of Correlations Due to Unreliability of Measurement
21.5 Use of Multiple-Item Measures to Improve Measurement Reliability
21.6 Computation of Summated Scales
21.6.1 Assumption: All Items Measure Same Construct and Are Scored in Same Direction
21.6.2 Initial (Raw) Scores Assigned to Individual Responses
21.6.3 Variable Naming, Particularly for Reverse-Worded Questions
21.6.4 Factor Analysis to Assess Dimensionality of a Set of Items
21.6.5 Recoding Scores for Reverse-Worded Items
21.6.6 Summing Scores Across Items to Compute Total Score: Handling Missing Data
21.6.7 Sums of (Unit-Weighted) Item Scores Versus Saved Factor Scores
21.6.7.1 Simple Unit-Weighted Sum of Raw Scores
21.6.7.2 Simple Unit-Weighted Sum of z Scores
21.6.7.3 Saved Factor Scores or Other Optimally Weighted Linear Composites
21.6.7.4 Correlation Between Sums of Items Versus Factor Scores
21.6.7.5 Choice Among Methods of Scoring
21.7 Assessment of Internal Homogeneity for Multiple-Item Measures: Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability
Coefficient
21.7.1 Cronbach’s Alpha: Conceptual Basis
21.7.2 Empirical Example: Cronbach’s Alpha for Five Selected CES-D Scale Items
21.7.3 Improving Cronbach’s Alpha by Dropping a “Poor” Item
21.7.4 Improving Cronbach’s Alpha by Increasing the Number of Items
21.7.5 Other Methods of Reliability Assessment for Multiple-Item Measures
21.7.5.1 Split-Half Reliability
21.7.5.2 Parallel Forms Reliability
21.8 Validity Assessment
21.8.1 Content and Face Validity
21.8.2 Criterion-Oriented Validity
21.8.2.1 Convergent Validity
21.8.2.2 Discriminant Validity
21.8.2.3 Concurrent Validity
21.8.2.4 Predictive Validity
24
21.8.3 Construct Validity: Summary
21.9 Typical Scale Development Process
21.9.1 Generating and Modifying the Pool of Items or Measures
21.9.2 Administer Survey to Participants
21.9.3 Factor Analyze Items to Assess the Number and Nature of Latent Variables or Constructs
21.9.4 Development of Summated Scales
21.9.5 Assess Scale Reliability
21.9.6 Assess Scale Validity
21.9.7 Iterative Process
21.9.8 Create the Final Scale
21.10 Modern Measurement Theory
21.11 Reporting Reliability Assessment
21.12 Summary
Appendix: The CES-D Scale
Chapter 22. Analysis of Repeated Measures

22.1 Introduction
22.2 Empirical Example: Experiment to Assess Effect of Stress on Heart Rate
22.2.1 Analysis of Data From the Stress/HR Study as a Between-S or Independent Samples Design
22.2.2 Independent Samples t Test for the Stress/HR Data
22.2.3 One-Way Between-S ANOVA for the Stress/HR Data
22.3 Discussion of Sources of Within-Group Error in Between-S Versus Within-S Data
22.4 The Conceptual Basis for the Paired Samples t Test and One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA
22.5 Computation of a Paired Samples t Test to Compare Mean HR Between Baseline and Pain Conditions
22.6 SPSS Example: Analysis of Stress/HR Data Using a Paired Samples t Test
22.7 Comparison Between Independent Samples t Test and Paired Samples t Test
22.8 SPSS Example: Analysis of Stress/HR Data Using a Univariate One-Way Repeated Measures
ANOVA
22.9 Using the SPSS GLM Procedure for Repeated Measures ANOVA
22.10 Screening for Violations of Assumptions in Univariate Repeated Measures
22.11 The Greenhouse-Geisser ε and Huynh-Feldt ε Correction Factors
22.12 MANOVA Approach to Analysis of Repeated Measures Data
22.13 Effect Size
22.15 Planned Contrasts
22.16 Results
22.17 Design Problems in Repeated Measures Studies
22.18 More Complex Designs
22.19 Alternative Analyses for Pretest and Posttest Scores
25
22.20 Summary
Chapter 23. Binary Logistic Regression

23.1 Research Situations
23.1.1 Types of Variables
23.1.2 Research Questions
23.1.3 Assumptions Required for Linear Regression Versus Binary Logistic Regression
23.2 Simple Empirical Example: Dog Ownership and Odds of Death
23.3 Conceptual Basis for Binary Logistic Regression Analysis
23.3.1 Why Ordinary Linear Regression Is Inadequate
23.3.2 Modifying the Method of Analysis to Handle These Problems
23.4 Definition and Interpretation of Odds
23.5 A New Type of Dependent Variable: The Logit
23.6 Terms Involved in Binary Logistic Regression Analysis
23.6.1 Estimation of Coefficients for a Binary Logistic Regression Model
23.6.2 Assessment of Overall Goodness of Fit for a Binary Logistic Regression Model
23.6.3 Alternative Assessments of Overall Goodness of Fit
23.6.4 Information About Predictive Usefulness of Individual Predictor Variables
23.6.5 Evaluating Accuracy of Group Classification
23.7 Analysis of Data for First Empirical Example: Dog Ownership/Death Study
23.7.1 SPSS Menu Selections and Dialog Windows
23.7.2 SPSS Output
23.7.2.1 Null Model
23.7.2.2 Full Model
23.7.3 Results for the Dog Ownership/Death Study
23.8 Issues in Planning and Conducting a Study
23.8.1 Preliminary Data Screening
23.8.2 Design Decisions
23.8.3 Coding Scores on Binary Variables
23.9 More Complex Models
23.10 Binary Logistic Regression for Second Empirical Analysis: Drug Dose and Gender as Predictors of
Odds of Death
23.11 Comparison of Discriminant Analysis to Binary Logistic Regression
23.12 Summary
Appendix A: Proportions of Area Under a Standard Normal Curve
Appendix B: Critical Values for t Distribution
26
Appendix C: Critical Values of F
Appendix D: Critical Values of Chi-Square
Appendix E: Critical Values of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Appendix F: Critical Values of the Studentized Range Statistic
Appendix G: Transformation of r (Pearson Correlation) to Fisher Z
Glossary
References
Index
27
PREFACE
I am grateful to the readers of the first edition who provided feedback about errors and made suggestions
for improvement; your input has been extremely helpful. I have corrected all typographical errors that
were noticed in the first edition and added some clarifications based on reader feedback. I welcome
communication from teachers, students, and readers; please email me at rmw@unh.edu with comments,
corrections, or suggestions. Instructor and student support materials are available for download from
www.sagepub.com/warner2e.
The following materials are available for instructors:
PowerPoint presentations that outline issues in each chapter and include all figures and tables from the
textbook
Answers for all comprehension questions at the end of each chapter (instructors may wish to use some
of these questions on exams or as part of homework assignments)
For both instructors and students, these additional materials are available:
All datasets used in examples in the chapters can be downloaded as either SPSS or Excel files.
Optional handouts show how all of the analyses done using SPSS in the book can be run using SAS
Version 9.3, including screen shots, and details about input and output files.
Changes in the Second Edition
All SPSS screen shots and output have been updated to IBM SPSS Version 19.
Chapter 4 (data screening) has brief new sections about examination of the pattern in missing data,
imputation of missing values, and problems with dichotomizing scores on quantitative variables.
Chapter 9 (bivariate regression) now includes references to the discussion of problems with comparison
of standardized regression coefficients across groups.
Chapter 10 includes a new section on inconsistent mediation as one type of suppression.
Chapter 13 has new examples using bar graphs with error bars to report means in factorial analysis of
variance (ANOVA).
In the first edition, mediation was discussed briefly in Chapters 10 and 11, and moderation/analysis of
interaction in regression was introduced in Chapter 12. In the second edition, this material has been moved
into separate new chapters and substantially expanded.
28
New Chapter 15, Moderation, discusses the analysis of interaction in multiple regression, including how
to generate line graphs to describe the nature of interactions between quantitative predictors.
New Chapter 16, Mediation, provides a thorough and updated discussion of tests for hypotheses about
mediated causal models. This chapter includes complete instructions on how to do mediation analysis if
you do not have access to a structural equation modeling program, as well as an optional brief
introduction to the Amos structural equation modeling program, available as an SPSS add-on, as
another way to test mediated models.
Because two new chapters were added in the middle of the book, all chapters from Chapter 15 to the end
of the book have been renumbered in the second edition.
Chapter 21 (Chapter 19 in the first edition) has a new section on the different ways that SPSS handles
missing scores when forming summated scales using the SPSS Mean and Sum functions.
Suggested Ways to Use This Book
In a two-semester or full-year course, it may be possible to cover most of the material in this textbook. This
provides basic coverage of methods for comparisons of means in between and within S designs, as well as an
introduction to linear regression. The coverage of path models in Chapter 10 and latent variables in Chapter
20 provides the background students will need to move on to more advanced topics such as structural equation
modeling.
Several different one-semester courses can be taught using selected chapters (and, of course, students can
be referred to chapters that are not covered in class for review as needed). If further coverage is desired (for
example, polytomous logistic regression), monographs from the SAGE series “Quantitative Applications in
the Social Sciences” are excellent supplements.
One-Semester Course: Comparison of Group Means
Chapter 1: Review of Basic Concepts
Chapter 2: Basic Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals
Chapter 3: Statistical Significance Testing
Chapter 4: Preliminary Data Screening
Chapter 5: Comparing Group Means Using the Independent Samples t Test
Chapter 6: One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance
Chapter 13: Factorial Analysis of Variance
Chapter 17: Analysis of Covariance
29
Chapter 19: Multivariate Analysis of Variance (perhaps also Chapter 18, Discriminant Analysis, for
follow-up analyses)
Chapter 22: Analysis of Repeated Measures
SAGE monographs suggested as supplements for ANOVA:
Experimental Design and Analysis, by Steven R. Brown and Lawrence E. Melamed
Missing Data, by Paul D. Allison
Nonparametric Statistics: An Introduction, by Jean D. Gibbons
Random Factors in ANOVA, by Sally Jackson and Dale E. Brashers
One-Semester Course: Correlation and Regression, Including Mediation/Moderation
Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals
Chapter 7: Bivariate Pearson Correlation
(Optional: Chapter 8: Alternative Correlation Coefficients)
Chapter 9: Bivariate Regression
Chapter 10: Adding a Third Variable: Preliminary Exploratory Analyses
Chapter 11: Multiple Regression With Two Predictor Variables
(Optional: Chapter 12: Dummy Predictor Variables in Multiple Regression)
Chapter 14: Multiple Regression With More Than Two Predictors
Chapter 15: Moderation: Tests for Interaction in Multiple Regression
Chapter 16: Mediation
(Optional: Chapter 23: Binary Logistic Regression)
SAGE monographs suggested as supplements for regression analysis:
Applied Logistic Regression Analysis, Second Edition, by Scott Menard
30
Bootstrapping: A Nonparametric Approach to Statistical Inference, by Christopher Z. Mooney and Robert
D. Duval
Interaction Effects in Logistic Regression, by James Jaccard
Latent Growth Curve Modeling, by Kristopher J. Preacher, Aaron L. Wichman, Robert C. MacCallum,
and Nancy E. Briggs
Logistic Regression Models for Ordinal Response Variables, by Ann A. O’Connell
Logit and Probit: Ordered and Multinomial Models, by Vani Kant Borooah
Logit Modeling: Practical Applications, by Alfred DeMaris
Modern Methods for Robust Regression, by Robert Andersen
Multilevel Modeling, by Douglas A. Luke
Multiple and Generalized Nonparametric Regression, by John Fox
Nonparametric Statistics: An Introduction, by Jean D. Gibbons
Nonrecursive Models: Endogeneity, Reciprocal Relationships, and Feedback Loops, by Pamela Paxton, John
R. Hipp, and Sandra Marquart-Pyatt
Regression Diagnostics: An Introduction, by John Fox
Understanding Regression Assumptions, by William D. Berry
One-Semester Course: Development of Multiple-Item Scales and Reliability/Validity Assessment
Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals
Chapter 7: Bivariate Pearson Correlation
Chapter 8: Alternative Correlation Coefficients
Chapter 20: Principal Components and Factor Analysis
Chapter 21: Reliability, Validity, and Multiple-Item Scales
31
SAGE monographs suggested as supplements for multiple-item scales/measurement/reliability analysis:
Differential Item Functioning, Second Edition, by Steven J. Osterlind and Howard T. Everson
Ordinal Item Response Theory: Mokken Scale Analysis, by Wijbrandt H. van Schuur
Polytomous Item Response Theory Models, by Remo Ostini and Michael L. Nering
Rasch Models for Measurement, by David Andrich
Summated Rating Scale Construction: An Introduction, by Paul E. Spector
Survey Questions: Handcrafting the Standardized Questionnaire, by Jean M. Converse and Stanley
Presser
Translating Questionnaires and Other Research Instruments: Problems and Solutions, by Orlando Behling
and Kenneth S. Law
Other SAGE monographs for use in any of the courses outlined above:
Internet Data Collection, by Samuel J. Best and Brian S. Kruege
Meta-Analysis: Quantitative Methods for Research Synthesis, by Fredric M. Wolf
Other Remarks
This book was written to provide a bridge between the many excellent statistics books that already exist at
introductory and advanced levels. I have been persuaded by years of teaching that most students do not have a
clear understanding of statistics after their first or second courses. The concepts covered in an introductory
course include some of the most difficult and controversial issues in statistics, such as level of measurement
and null hypothesis significance testing. Until students have been introduced to the entire vocabulary and
system of thought, it is difficult for them to integrate all these ideas. I believe that understanding statistics
requires multiple-pass learning. I have included a review of basic topics (such as null hypothesis significance
test procedures) along with introductions to more advanced topics in statistics. Students need varying amounts
of review and clarification; this textbook is designed so that each student can review as much basic material as
necessary prior to the study of more advanced topics such as multiple regression. Some students need a review
of concepts involved in bivariate analyses (such as partition of variance), and most students can benefit from a
thorough introduction to statistical control in simple three-variable research situations. This textbook differs
from many existing textbooks for advanced undergraduate- and beginning graduate-level statistics courses
because it includes a review of bivariate methods that clarifies important concepts and a thorough discussion
of methods for statistically controlling for a third variable (X2) when assessing the nature and strength of the
association between an X1 predictor and a Y outcome variable. Later chapters present verbal explanations of
widely used multivariate methods applied to specific research examples.
32
Writing a textbook requires difficult decisions about what topics to include and what to leave out and how
to handle topics where there is disagreement among authorities. This textbook does not cover nonparametric
statistics or complex forms of factorial analysis of variance, nor does it cover all the advanced topics found in
more encyclopedic treatments (such as time-series analysis, multilevel modeling, survival analysis, and log-
linear models). The topics that are included provide a reasonably complete set of tools for data analysis at the
advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate level along with explanations of some of the fundamental
concepts that are crucial for further study of statistics. For example, comprehension of structural equation
modeling (SEM) requires students to understand path or “causal” models, latent variables, measurement
models, and the way in which observed correlations (or variances and covariances) can be reproduced from the
coefficients in a model. This textbook introduces path models and the tracing rule as a way of understanding
linear regression with two predictor variables. The explanation of regression with two predictors makes it clear
how estimates of regression slope coefficients are deduced from observed correlations and how observed
correlations among variables can be reproduced from the coefficients in a regression model. Explaining
regression in this way helps students understand why the slope coefficient for each X predictor variable is
context dependent (i.e., the value of the slope coefficient for each X predictor variable changes depending on
which other X predictor variables are included in the regression analysis). This explanation also sets the stage
for an understanding of more advanced methods, such as SEM, that use model parameters to reconstruct
observed variances and covariances. I have tried to develop explanations that will serve students well whether
they use them only to understand the methods of analysis covered in this textbook or as a basis for further
study of more advanced statistical methods.
33
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
W riters depend on many other people for intellectual preparation and moral support. My
understanding of statistics was shaped by several exceptional teachers, including the late Morris
de Groot at Carnegie Mellon University, and my dissertation advisers at Harvard, Robert
Rosenthal and David Kenny. Several of the teachers who have most strongly influenced my thinking are
writers I know only through their books and journal articles. I want to thank all the authors whose work is
cited in the reference list. Authors whose work has greatly influenced my understanding include Jacob and
Patricia Cohen, Barbara Tabachnick, Linda Fidell, James Jaccard, Richard Harris, Geoffrey Keppel, and
James Stevens.
I wish to thank the University of New Hampshire (UNH) for sabbatical leave time and Mil Duncan,
director of the Carsey Institute at UNH, for release time from teaching. I also thank my department chair,
Ken Fuld, who gave me light committee responsibilities while I was working on this book. These gifts of time
made the completion of the book possible.
Special thanks are due to the reviewers who provided exemplary feedback on the first drafts of the
chapters:
For the first edition:
David J. Armor, George Mason University
Michael D. Biderman, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Susan Cashin, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Ruth Childs, University of Toronto
Young-Hee Cho, California State University, Long Beach
Jennifer Dunn, Center for Assessment
William A. Fredrickson, University of Missouri–Kansas City
Robert Hanneman, University of California, Riverside
Andrew Hayes, Ohio State University
Lawrence G. Herringer, California State University, Chico
Jason King, Baylor College of Medicine
Patrick Leung, University of Houston
34
Scott E. Maxwell, University of Notre Dame
W. James Potter, University of California, Santa Barbara
Kyle L. Saunders, Colorado State University
Joseph Stevens, University of Oregon
James A. Swartz, University of Illinois at Chicago
Keith Thiede, University of Illinois at Chicago
For the second edition:
Diane Bagwell, University of West Florida
Gerald R. Busheé, George Mason University
Evita G. Bynum, University of Maryland Eastern Shore
Ralph Carlson, The University of Texas Pan American
John J. Convey, The Catholic University of America
Kimberly A. Kick, Dominican University
Tracey D. Matthews, Springfield College
Hideki Morooka, Fayetteville State University
Daniel J. Mundfrom, New Mexico State University
Shanta Pandey, Washington University
Beverly L. Roberts, University of Florida
Jim Schwab, University of Texas at Austin
Michael T. Scoles, University of Central Arkansas
Carla J. Thompson, University of West Florida
Michael D. Toland, University of Kentucky
Paige L. Tompkins, Mercer University
Their comments were detailed and constructive. I hope that revisions based on their reviews have
improved this book substantially. The publishing team at SAGE, including Vicki Knight, Lauren Habib,
Kalie Koscielak, Laureen Gleason, and Gillian Dickens, provided extremely helpful advice, support, and
35
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
29 Octobre 1915.
Les Affiches “TAISEZ-VOUS, MÉFIEZ-VOUS” sont

apposées dans les gares de chemins de fer, du
Métropolitain, dans les tramways, etc.
J’ai décidé de faire apposer à profusion dans toutes les voitures servant au
transport en commun, des placards de 28 centimètres de haut sur 38 centimètres de
largeur environ, ainsi libellés:
TAISEZ-VOUS! MÉFIEZ-VOUS!
LES OREILLES ENNEMIES VOUS ÉCOUTENT
Un envoi de 10.000 exemplaires vous sera fait incessamment.

Vous voudrez bien en offrir les quantités nécessaires à toutes les compagnies de
transport (sauf les chemins de fer, qui en seront pourvus directement par mes soins),
notamment aux compagnies de tramways en les invitant à les faire apposer dans les
véhicules, salles d’attente, etc., etc.
Circulaire adressée par M. Millerand, ministre de la Guerre, aux généraux
gouverneurs militaires de Paris et de Lyon et aux généraux commandant
les régions.
25 Novembre 1915.
L’Emprunt de la
Victoire
..... Il ne suffit pas de faire son devoir les armes à la main et d’être prêt à verser
son sang sur un champ de bataille ou dans les tranchées. Cela est beau, cela est
héroïque. Mais tout le devoir n’est pas rempli: il faut, en outre, apporter les réserves
dont on dispose au lieu de les garder jalousement, comme un avare.
Ce qu’il faut dire au pays, c’est qu’à cette heure l’égoïsme n’est pas seulement
une lâcheté, une sorte de trahison, mais qu’il est la pire des imprévoyances. Que
deviendraient ces réserves si la France devait être vaincue?
Elles seraient la rançon de la défaite au lieu d’être le prix de la victoire.
Discours prononcé à la Chambre des Députés par M. Ribot, ministre des
Finances, le 12 novembre 1915.
..... Il y a, à cette heure, plus de 700 millions de rente et nous croyons (tout n’est
pas vérifié et je ne veux apporter que des chiffres certains) que le chiffre définitif de
rentes souscrites dépassera 720 millions et atteindra peut-être 725 millions. Cela, en
capital, représente 14 milliards dont nous sommes certains à l’heure présente et
probablement 14 milliards et demi.
Discours prononcé à la Chambre des Députés, le 24 décembre 1915, par M.
Ribot, ministre des Finances.
6 Décembre 1915.
Le Premier Conseil de guerre des

Alliés
..... Il a toujours été admis que les forces qui agissent sur un même théâtre
d’opérations doivent être réunies sous un commandement unique: mais l’expérience
de la guerre actuelle prouve que cette unité de direction est nécessaire même quand
les forces sont réparties sur plusieurs fronts.
Elle devient indispensable quand plusieurs armées alliées ont à concerter leurs
vues pour l’adoption d’un plan unique s’appliquant à tous les théâtres d’opérations.
..... Le général Joffre, tout en conservant le commandement direct des armées du

Nord et du Nord-Est, s’est vu confier la direction supérieure de nos armées sur tous
les fronts. Relèvent aussi directement de lui les décisions relatives au personnel.
Note officielle communiquée à la Presse le 12 décembre
1915.
21 Décembre 1915.
Les Bulgares et les Allemands

envahissent la Serbie
Retraite du roi Pierre et de l’armée
serbe
..... Épuisée par ces guerres terribles, où le succès avait été chèrement acheté, la
Serbie commençait à peine à se remettre lorsqu’elle fut surprise par l’agression de
juillet 1914. A deux reprises le petit peuple triompha des masses autrichiennes. Il
délivra la capitale et chassa l’envahisseur. Il a fallu la félonie du vil et astucieux
Cobourg de Sofia, le triste abandon de la Grèce et les ravages du typhus pour
chasser les Serbes d’un territoire qu’ils ont courageusement baigné de leur sang.
Mais ce peuple n’est pas de ceux que la défaite décourage. Il a l’âme héroïque, le
sens du devoir national, l’esprit d’abnégation et de sacrifice.
La terre des aïeux sera rendue aux Serbes. Elle leur sera rendue tout entière. Ils
se sont battus pour les Alliés qui ne les abandonneront pas.
Discours prononcé par M. Barthou, ancien président du Conseil, à la
manifestation des Alliés à l’occasion de la fête nationale serbe de Saint-
Sava.
25 décembre 1915.
Noël
Art. 1.—Le
public est admis à envoyer gratuitement un paquet postal, du poids
maximum d’un kilogramme, à destination des militaires et marins présents dans la
zone des armées en France, aux colonies, dans les pays de protectorat et à
l’étranger.
Art. 2.—Les militaires présents dans la zone des armées sont:
a) En France: 1o ceux dont l’adresse comporte un numéro de secteur postal; 2o
ceux qui, sans être compris dans un secteur postal, sont desservis par un bureau de
poste de la zone des armées;
b) Dans les colonies, les pays de protectorat et à l’étranger: ceux qui font partie
des troupes du Maroc et de la Tunisie, de l’armée d’Orient et du corps expéditionnaire
d’Orient, des troupes opérant dans l’Ouest africain, Nord-Cameroun, Sud-Cameroun,
Ouest-Cameroun, de la Shangha et de la Lobaye.
Art. 3.—Sont considérés comme présents dans la zone des armées tous les
marins en service à la mer.
Articles du décret déterminant les conditions d’application de la loi autorisant
l’envoi gratuit par la poste, à tous les militaires et marins présents dans la
zone des armées, d’un colis postal du poids maximum d’un kilogramme.
9 Janvier 1916.
Évacuation des
Dardanelles
Dans la nuit du 8 au 9 janvier, l’évacuation complète de la presqu’île de Gallipoli,

minutieusement préparée depuis quelques jours et parfaitement réglée par le
commandement anglais et par le commandant de notre corps expéditionnaire, s’est
effectuée sans aucune perte.
Tout le matériel français a été évacué en dehors de six pièces de marine fixes,
inutilisables d’ailleurs, qui ont été détruites avant le départ, et de quelques
approvisionnements sans importance, qui ont été rendus inutilisables.
Les six pièces dont il s’agit font partie du total des dix-sept pièces détruites
annoncées par le communiqué anglais.
L’ennemi n’a ouvert le feu qu’au moment où l’embarquement s’est terminé vers 4
heures du matin.
Communiqué officiel français.
10 Janvier 1916.
Départ de la classe
1917
..... Les jeunes gens de la classe 1917 sortent à peine de l’adolescence. Ils vont
partir en plein cœur de l’hiver. N’importe! Ils partent confiants, avec, sur leurs jeunes
visages, cet air de résolution qui est aujourd’hui la caractéristique de tous les
Français et que je connais bien pour l’avoir vu moi-même briller d’un éclat inoubliable
dans les yeux de nos Parisiens, alors qu’en août et en septembre 1914, ils assistaient
aux préparatifs de la grande bataille dont, ils le savaient, dépendait le sort de la
France.
La classe 1917 va partir et la nation tout entière l’accompagne, et la nation
entend, exige que fassent leur devoir tous ceux qui, à un titre quelconque, ont la
charge et la responsabilité d’accueillir ces jeunes gens, de les maintenir dans un bon
état physique et moral, de les instruire, de les préparer pour la grande lutte qui ne se
terminera que lorsque la France, d’accord avec ses alliés, dira: “J’ai obtenu pleine et
entière satisfaction, je m’arrête, je reprends mon œuvre de paix.....”
Discours prononcé le 29 décembre 1915, à la Chambre des Députés, par le
général Gallieni, ministre de la Guerre.
14 Janvier 1916.
Le Service obligatoire
pour les célibataires en
Angleterre[2]
..... Je déclare solennellement à la Chambre et au pays, en mon nom et au nom

du Cabinet tout entier, que si la loi n’est pas votée, nous n’aurons pas les hommes
nécessaires pour jouer notre rôle dans la poursuite de la guerre.
Je ne dirai pas que cette loi décidera de la victoire ou de la défaite. La victoire ou
la défaite dépendent des mille contingences dont la Providence seule a le secret.
Mais, sans cette loi, nous ne serons pas en mesure de remplir nos obligations envers
notre pays et envers nos Alliés.
Discours prononcé par M. Asquith à la Chambre des
Communes.
..... Nos Alliés emploient toutes leurs ressources en combattants et en argent: ils
endurent des souffrances autrement grandes que les nôtres. Il nous incombe donc
d’employer toutes nos ressources.....
Discours prononcé par M. Henderson, ministre travailliste, à la Chambre des
Communes.
[2] Postérieurement, le service obligatoire a été établi en Angleterre (N. de l’A.).

19 Janvier 1916.
Les Autrichiens
occupent le
Monténégro
Le Monténégro ayant demandé, le 13 janvier, la cessation des hostilités et

l’ouverture de négociations de paix, il lui fut notifié que cette demande ne pourrait être
examinée qu’après la reddition.
Le Gouvernement monténégrin aurait fait alors savoir qu’il acceptait la reddition
sans conditions.
Note officielle publiée par les journaux autrichiens.
M. Lazare Miouchekovitch, président du Conseil, ministre des Affaires étrangères
du Monténégro, arrivé à Brindisi hier soir, accompagnant la reine Milena et les
princesses en route pour la France, télégraphie à M. Louis Brunet, chargé d’affaires
du Monténégro à Paris, que le Roi et son Gouvernement ont énergiquement refusé
toutes les conditions autrichiennes et que le Monténégro continue la lutte à outrance.
Note communiquée à la Presse par le consul général du Monténégro à Paris.
21 Février 1916.
Premier Jour de la bataille de

Verdun
Faible action des deux artilleries sur l’ensemble du front, sauf au nord de Verdun
où elles ont eu une certaine activité.—Dans toute la région de Verdun les deux
artilleries ont continué à se montrer très actives.—Les Allemands ont attaqué hier en
fin de journée nos positions à l’est de Brabant-sur-Meuse. Ils ont pris pied dans
quelques éléments de tranchées avancées et poussé par endroits jusqu’aux
tranchées de doublement.—L’ennemi a pu occuper le bois de Haumont.—Nous
avons évacué le village de Haumont.—Les Allemands ont pu pénétrer dans le bois de
la Wavrille. Étant donnée la violence du bombardement de la position avancée de
Brabant-sur-Meuse, nos troupes ont évacué ce village.—Nous avons reporté notre
ligne, d’une part, en arrière de Samogneux, d’autre part, au sud d’Ornes.
Extraits des communiqués des 21, 22, 23 et 24 février.
9 Mars 1916.
L’Allemagne déclare la guerre

au Portugal
Depuis le commencement de la guerre, le Gouvernement portugais, par ses actes

contraires à la neutralité, soutient les ennemis de l’Empire allemand.
Enfin il a effectué la saisie des navires allemands dans une forme qui doit être
interprétée comme une provocation à l’égard de l’Allemagne. Le pavillon allemand a
été abaissé sur les navires allemands et remplacé par le pavillon de guerre du
Portugal. Le navire amiral a salué.
Le Gouvernement impérial a été, cette fois, obligé de tirer les conséquences
nécessaires de l’attitude du Gouvernement portugais. Il se considère, dès à présent,
comme étant en état de guerre avec le Gouvernement portugais.
Note remise par le Gouvernement allemand au ministre du Portugal à Berlin.
28 Mars 1916.
Clôture de la Conférence des

Alliés
Les représentants des Gouvernements alliés, réunis à Paris les 27 et 28 mars

1916, affirment l’entière communauté de vues et la solidarité des Alliés.
Ils confirment toutes les mesures prises pour réaliser l’unité d’action sur l’unité de
front.
Ils entendent, par là, à la fois, l’unité d’action militaire assurée par l’entente
conclue entre les états-majors, l’unité d’action économique dont la présente
conférence a réglé l’organisation, et l’unité d’action diplomatique que garantit leur
inébranlable volonté de poursuivre la lutte jusqu’à la victoire de la cause commune.
Article I de la résolution votée par la Conférence des Alliés.
9 Avril 1916.
Quarante-neuvième Jour de la
bataille de Verdun
Il se confirme que la journée du 9, dans la région de Verdun, marque la première

grande tentative d’offensive générale de l’ennemi, s’étendant sur un front de plus de
vingt kilomètres. Nos adversaires, qui n’ont obtenu aucun résultat appréciable, eu
égard surtout aux efforts déployés, ont subi des pertes dont témoignent les cadavres
amoncelés devant nos lignes.
Communiqué officiel du 10 avril.
Le 9 avril est une journée glorieuse pour nos armes. Les assauts furieux des
soldats du Kronprinz ont été partout brisés: fantassins, artilleurs, sapeurs, aviateurs
de la IIe armée ont rivalisé d’héroïsme.
Honneur à tous.
Les Allemands attaqueront sans doute encore; que chacun travaille et veille pour
obtenir le même succès qu’hier.

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Applied Statistics: From Bivariate

Through Multivariate Techniques

Applied Statistics: From Bivariate Through Multivariate

Applied Univariate, Bivariate, and Multivariate

Using Multivariate Statistics 7th Edition Barbara G.

Statistics : learning from data Second Edition. Edition

Applied Statistics in Business and Economics 5th

Applied Statistics: Theory and Problem Solutions with R

Applied Statistics with R: A Practical Guide for the

Methods of Multivariate Analysis (Wiley Series in

Chapter 20. Principal Components and Factor Analysis

Chapter 21. Reliability, Validity, and Multiple-Item Scales

Chapter 22. Analysis of Repeated Measures

Chapter 23. Binary Logistic Regression

Appendix A: Proportions of Area Under a Standard Normal Curve

Appendix B: Critical Values for t Distribution

Appendix C: Critical Values of F

Appendix D: Critical Values of Chi-Square

Appendix E: Critical Values of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient

Appendix F: Critical Values of the Studentized Range Statistic

Appendix G: Transformation of r (Pearson Correlation) to Fisher Z

About the Author

Chapter 1. Review of Basic Concepts

Chapter 2. Basic Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals

Chapter 3. Statistical Significance Testing

Chapter 4. Preliminary Data Screening

Chapter 5. Comparing Group Means Using the Independent Samples t Test

Chapter 6. One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance

Chapter 7. Bivariate Pearson Correlation

Chapter 8. Alternative Correlation Coefficients

Chapter 9. Bivariate Regression

Chapter 10. Adding a Third Variable: Preliminary Exploratory Analyses

Chapter 11. Multiple Regression With Two Predictor Variables

Chapter 13. Factorial Analysis of Variance

Chapter 14. Multiple Regression With More Than Two Predictors

Chapter 15. Moderation: Tests for Interaction in Multiple Regression

Chapter 16. Mediation

Chapter 17. Analysis of Covariance

Chapter 18. Discriminant Analysis

Chapter 19. Multivariate Analysis of Variance

Chapter 20. Principal Components and Factor Analysis

Chapter 21. Reliability, Validity, and Multiple-Item Scales

Chapter 22. Analysis of Repeated Measures

Chapter 23. Binary Logistic Regression

Appendix A: Proportions of Area Under a Standard Normal Curve

Appendix B: Critical Values for t Distribution

Appendix D: Critical Values of Chi-Square

Appendix E: Critical Values of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient

Appendix F: Critical Values of the Studentized Range Statistic

Appendix G: Transformation of r (Pearson Correlation) to Fisher Z

Changes in the Second Edition

Suggested Ways to Use This Book

One-Semester Course: Comparison of Group Means

Chapter 1: Review of Basic Concepts

Chapter 2: Basic Statistics, Sampling Error, and Confidence Intervals

Chapter 3: Statistical Significance Testing

Chapter 4: Preliminary Data Screening

Chapter 5: Comparing Group Means Using the Independent Samples t Test

Chapter 6: One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance

Chapter 13: Factorial Analysis of Variance

Chapter 17: Analysis of Covariance

Chapter 22: Analysis of Repeated Measures

SAGE monographs suggested as supplements for ANOVA: