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Anesthesia: A Comprehensive Review
SIXTH EDITION
Brian A. Hall, MD
Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, Minnesota
Robert C. Chantigian, MD
Associate Professor of Anesthesiology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, Minnesota
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Preface
List of Contributors
Acknowledgments
Part 1: Basic Sciences
General Anesthesia
Abstract
Index
Copyright
Elsevier
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under
copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notice
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and
knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds or
experiments described herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical
sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages
should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by
Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damage to persons
or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any
use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Directions
(Questions 1 through 90): Each question or incomplete statement in this section
is followed by answers or by completions of the statement, respectively. Select
the ONE BEST answer or completion for each item.
63. The most frequent cause of mechanical failure of the anesthesia delivery
system to deliver adequate O2 to the patient is
A. Attachment of the wrong compressed-gas cylinder to the O2
yoke
B. Improperly assembled O2 rotameter
C. Fresh-gas line disconnection from the anesthesia machine to
the in-line hosing
D. Disconnection of the O2 supply system from the patient
64. The esophageal detector device
A. Uses a negative-pressure bulb
B. Is especially useful in children younger than 1 year of age
C. Requires a cardiac output to function appropriately
D. Is reliable in morbidly obese patients and parturients
65. The reason CO2 measured by capnometer is less than the arterial Paco2
value measured simultaneously is
A. Use of ion-specific electrode for blood gas determination
B. Alveolar capillary gradient
C. One-way values
D. Alveolar dead space
66. Which of the following arrangements of rotameters on the anesthesia
machine manifold is safest with left-to-right gas flow?
A. O2, CO2, N2O, air
B. CO2, O2, N2O, air
C. Air, CO2, O2, N2O
D. Air, CO2, N2O, O2
67. A Datex-Ohmeda Tec 4 vaporizer is tipped over while being attached to
the anesthesia machine but is placed upright and installed. The soonest it
can be safely used is
A. After 30 minutes of flushing with dial set to “off”
B. After 6 hours of flushing with dial set to “off”
C. After 30 minutes with dial turned on
D. Immediately
68. In the event of misfilling, what percent sevoflurane would be delivered
from an isoflurane vaporizer set at 1%?
A. 0.6%
B. 0.8%
C. 1.0%
D. 1.2%
69. How long would a vaporizer (filled with 150 mL volatile) deliver 2%
isoflurane if total flow is set at 4.0 L/min?
A. 2 hours
B. 4 hours
C. 6 hours
D. 8 hours
70. Raising the frequency of an ultrasound transducer used for line
placement or regional anesthesia (e.g., from 3 MHz to 10 MHz) will
result in
A. Higher penetration of tissue with lower resolution
B. Higher penetration of tissue with higher resolution
C. Lower penetration of tissue with higher resolution
D. Higher resolution with no change in tissue penetration
71. The fundamental difference between microshock and macroshock is
related to
A. Location of shock
B. Duration
C. Voltage
D. Lethality
72. Intraoperative awareness under general anesthesia can be eliminated by
closely monitoring
A. Electroencephalogram
B. BP/heart rate
C. Bispectral index (BIS)
D. None of the above
73. A mechanically ventilated patient is transported from the OR to the ICU
using a portable ventilator that consumes 2 L/min of oxygen to run the
mechanically controlled valves and drive the ventilator. The transport
cart is equipped with an “E” cylinder with a gauge pressure of 2000 psi.
The patient receives a tidal volume (VT) of 500 mL at a rate of 10
breaths/min. If the ventilator requires 200 psi to operate, how long could
the patient be mechanically ventilated?
A. 20 minutes
B. 40 minutes
C. 60 minutes
D. 80 minutes
74. A 135-kg man is ventilated at a rate of 14 breaths/min with a VT of
600 mL and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 5 cm H2O
during a laparoscopic banding procedure. Peak airway pressure is 50 cm
H2O, and the patient is fully relaxed with a nondepolarizing
neuromuscular blocking agent. How can peak airway pressure be
reduced without a loss of alveolar ventilation?
A. Increase the inspiratory flow rate
B. Take off PEEP
C. Reduce the I:E ratio (e.g., change from 1:3 to 1:2)
D. Decrease VT to 300 and increase rate to 28
75. The pressure and volume per minute delivered from the central hospital
oxygen supply are
A. 2100 psi and 650 L/min
B. 1600 psi and 100 L/min
C. 75 psi and 100 L/min
D. 50 psi and 50 L/min
76. During normal laminar airflow, resistance is dependent on which
characteristic of oxygen?
A. Density
B. Viscosity
C. Molecular weight
D. Temperature
77. If the oxygen cylinder were being used as the source of oxygen at a
remote anesthetizing location and the oxygen flush valve on an
anesthesia machine were pressed and held down, as during an
emergency situation, each of the items below would be bypassed during
100% oxygen delivery EXCEPT
A. O2 flowmeter
B. First-stage regulator
C. Vaporizer check valve
D. Vaporizers
78. After induction and intubation with confirmation of tracheal placement,
the O2 saturation begins to fall. The O2 analyzer shows 4% inspired
oxygen. The oxygen line pressure is 65 psi. The O2 tank on the back of
the anesthesia machine has a pressure of 2100 psi and is turned on. The
oxygen saturation continues to fall. The next step should be to
A. Exchange the tank
B. Replace pulse oximeter probe
C. Disconnect O2 line from hospital source
D. Extubate and start mask ventilation
79. The correct location for placement of the V5 lead is
A. Midclavicular line, third intercostal space
B. Anterior axillary line, fourth intercostal space
C. Midclavicular line, fifth intercostal space
D. Anterior axillary line, fifth intercostal space
80. The diameter index safety system refers to the interface between
A. Pipeline source and anesthesia machine
B. Gas cylinders and anesthesia machine
C. Vaporizers and refilling connectors attached to bottles of
volatile anesthetics
D. Both pipeline and gas cylinders interface with anesthesia
machine
81. Each of the following is cited as an advantage of calcium hydroxide
lime (Amsorb Plus, Drägersorb) over soda lime EXCEPT
A. Compound A is not formed
B. CO is not formed
C. More absorptive capacity per 100 g of granules
D. It does not contain NaOH or KOH
82. The arrows in the figure above indicate
(From Mark JB: Atlas of Cardiovascular Monitoring, New York, Churchill
Livingstone, 1998, Figure 9-4.)
A. Respiratory variation
B. An underdamped signal
C. An overdamped signal
D. Atrial fibrillation
84. Helium
85. Nitrogen
86. CO2
A. Black
B. Brown
C. Orange
D. Gray
Directions
(Questions 87 through 90): Match the figures below with the correct numbered
statement. Each lettered figure may be selected once, more than once, or not at
all.
(Modified from Willis BA, Pender JW, Mapleson WW: Rebreathing in a T-piece:
volunteer and theoretical studies of Jackson-Rees modification of Ayre’s T-piece during
spontaneous respiration, Br J Anaesth 47:1239–1246, 1975. © The Board of Management
and Trustees of the British Journal of Anesthesia. Reproduced by permission of Oxford
University Press/British Journal of Anesthesia.)
(Reprinted with permission from Andrews JJ: Understanding anesthesia machines. In:
1988 Review Course Lectures, Cleveland, International Anesthesia Research Society, 1988,
p 78.)
8. (B) Check valves permit only unidirectional flow of gases. These valves
prevent retrograde flow of gases from the anesthesia machine or the
transfer of gas from a compressed-gas cylinder at high pressure into a
container at a lower pressure. Thus these unidirectional valves will allow
an empty compressed-gas cylinder to be exchanged for a full one during
operation of the anesthesia machine with minimal loss of gas. The
adjustable pressure-limiting valve is a synonym for a pop-off valve and
can be adjusted to allow varying degrees of pressure to be transmitted to
the patient. A fail-safe valve is a synonym for a pressure-sensor shutoff
valve. The purpose of a fail-safe valve is to discontinue the flow of N2O
(or proportionally reduce it) if the O2 pressure within the anesthesia
machine falls below 30 psi (Miller: Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, p 756;
Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, p 657).
9. (A) The control mechanism of standard anesthesia ventilators, such as
the Ohmeda 7000, uses compressed oxygen (100%) to compress the
ventilator bellows and electric power for the timing circuits. Some
ventilators (e.g., North American Dräger AV-E and AV-2 +) use a
Venturi device, which mixes oxygen and air. Still other ventilators use
sophisticated digital controls that allow advanced ventilation modes.
These ventilators use an electric stepper motor attached to a piston
(Miller: Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, p 757; Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia
Equipment: Principles and Applications, ed 2, pp 160–161; Barash:
Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, p 684).
10. (C) U.S. manufacturers require that all compressed-gas cylinders
containing O2 for medical use be painted green. A compressed-gas
cylinder completely filled with O2 has a pressure of approximately
2000 psi and contains approximately 625 L of gas. According to Boyle’s
law, the volume of gas remaining in a closed container can be estimated
by measuring the pressure within the container. Therefore, when the
pressure gauge on a compressed-gas cylinder containing O2 shows a
pressure of 1600 psi, the cylinder contains 500 L (1600 psi /2100 psi =
0.77 and 0.77 times 650 = 500) of O2. At a gas flow of 2 L/min, O2
could be delivered from the cylinder for approximately 250 minutes
(Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and Applications, ed 2,
p 4; Butterworth: Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, p 657).
∗ The World Health Organization specifies that cylinders containing oxygen for medical use be
painted white, but manufacturers in the United States use green. Likewise, the international color
for air is white and black, whereas cylinders in the United States are color-coded yellow.
Characteristics of compressed gases stored in “e” size
cylinders that may be attached to the anesthesia machine
11. (B) Given the description of the problem, no flow of O2 through the O2
rotameter is the correct choice. In a normally functioning rotameter, gas
flows between the rim of the bobbin and the wall of the Thorpe tube,
causing the bobbin to rotate. If the bobbin is rotating, you can be certain
that gas is flowing through the rotameter and that the bobbin is not stuck
(Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and Applications, ed 2,
pp 43–45; Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 661–662).
(Modified from American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA): Check-out: A Guide for
Preoperative Inspection of an Anesthesia Machine, Park Ridge, IS, ASA, 1987. A copy of
the full text can be obtained from the ASA at 520 N. Northwest Highway, Park Ridge, IL
60068-2573.)
12. (B) Fail-safe valve is a synonym for pressure-sensor shutoff valve. The
purpose of the fail-safe valve is to prevent the delivery of hypoxic gas
mixtures from the anesthesia machine to the patient resulting from
failure of the O2 supply. Most modern anesthesia machines, however,
would not allow a hypoxic mixture, because the knob controlling the
N2O is linked to the O2 knob. When the O2 pressure within the
anesthesia machine decreases below 30 psi, this valve discontinues the
flow of N2O or proportionally decreases the flow of all gases. It is
important to realize that this valve will not prevent the delivery of
hypoxic gas mixtures or pure N2O when the O2 rotameter is off, because
the O2 pressure within the circuits of the anesthesia machine is
maintained by an open O2 compressed-gas cylinder or a central supply
source. Under these circumstances, an O2 analyzer will be needed to
detect the delivery of a hypoxic gas mixture (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia
Equipment: Principles and Applications, ed 2, pp 37–40; Barash:
Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, p 656).
13. (C) It is important to zero the electromechanical transducer system with
the reference point at the approximate level of the heart. This will
eliminate the effect of the fluid column of the transducer system on the
arterial BP reading of the system. In this question, the system was
zeroed at the stopcock, which was located at the patient’s wrist
(approximate level of the ventricle). The BP expressed by the arterial
line will therefore be accurate, provided the stopcock remains at the
wrist and the transducer is not moved once zeroed. Raising the arm
(e.g., 15 cm) decreases the BP at the wrist but increases the pressure on
the transducer by the same amount (i.e., the vertical tubing length is
now 15 cm H2O higher than before) (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia
Equipment: Principles and Applications, ed 2, pp 276–278; Miller:
Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 1354–1355; Barash: Clinical Anesthesia,
ed 8, p 714).
14. (C) O2 and N2O enter the anesthesia machine from a central supply
source or compressed-gas cylinders at pressures as high as 2200 psi (O2)
and 750 psi (N2O). First-stage pressure regulators reduce these pressures
to approximately 45 psi. Before entering the rotameters, second-stage
O2 pressure regulators further reduce the pressure to approximately 14
to 16 psi. (Miller: Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, p 761; Barash: Clinical
Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 660–661).
15. (B) This patient has a huge air leak. Before switching to an anesthesia
bag connected to a separate oxygen source, possible reasons to consider
include disconnected hoses (inspiratory limb or expiratory limb) from
the circle system, disconnection of the Y piece from the anesthesia
circuit to the endotracheal tube (ETT) tube, failure to close the CO2
absorber or a crack in the CO2 absorber system, check valve or
anesthesia pressure limiting valve (pop-off valve) malfunction,
flowmeter or vaporizer leak, disconnection in the oxygen analyzer,
disconnection from the fresh gas flow to the circle system, and pipeline
pressure below 50 psi causing a failure in the oxygen supply pressure to
give oxygen flow. Most of these should have been evaluated in the
preoperative check of the machine before inducing anesthesia. When the
same problem with ventilation occurs with an anesthesia bag connected
to a separate oxygen source, the anesthesia machine is not the problem.
Rarely would the leak from an underinflated ETT or an esophageal
intubation cause that much of an air leak; however, when an NG tube
inadvertently enters the trachea instead of the GI tract and the suction
connected to the NG tube is turned on, you quickly deflate the lung and
will not be able to adequately ventilate the patient. Resolution of the air
leak will occur when NG suction is turned off or when the NG tube is
removed from the trachea. (Miller: Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 752–
817).
16. (C) Agent-specific vaporizers, such as the Sevotec (sevoflurane)
vaporizer, are designed for each volatile anesthetic. However, volatile
anesthetics with identical saturated vapor pressures can be used
interchangeably, with accurate delivery of the volatile anesthetic.
Although halothane is no longer used in the United States, that
vaporizer, for example, may still be used in developing countries for
administration of isoflurane (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment:
Principles and Applications, ed 2, pp 72–73; Barash: Clinical
Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 668-669, 672).
Vapor pressures
Agent Vapor Pressure mm Hg at 20° C
Halothane 243
Sevoflurane 160
Isoflurane 240
Desflurane 669
17. (B) Turbulent flow occurs when gas flows through a region of severe
constriction such as that described in this question. Laminar flow occurs
when gas flows down parallel-sided tubes at a rate less than critical
velocity. When the gas flow exceeds the critical velocity, it becomes
turbulent. (Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, p 366).
18. (C) During turbulent flow, the resistance to gas flow is directly
proportional to the density of the gas mixture. Substituting helium for
oxygen will decrease the density of the gas mixture, thereby decreasing
the resistance to gas flow (as much as threefold) through the region of
constriction (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and
Applications, ed 2, pp 230–234; Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, pp
365–366).
19. (C) Modern electronic BP monitors are designed to interface with
electromechanical transducer systems. These systems do not require
extensive technical skill on the part of the anesthesia provider for
accurate use. A static zeroing of the system is built into most modern
electronic monitors. Thus after the zeroing procedure is accomplished,
the system is ready for operation. The system should be zeroed with the
reference point of the transducer at the approximate level of the aortic
root, eliminating the effect of the fluid column of the system on arterial
BP readings (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and
Applications, ed 2, pp 276–278; Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, pp
713–714).
20. (B) Waste gas disposal systems, also called scavenging systems, are
designed to decrease pollution in the OR by anesthetic gases. These
scavenging systems can be passive (waste gases flow from the
anesthesia machine to a ventilation system on their own) or active
(anesthesia machine is connected to a vacuum system, then to the
ventilation system). Positive-pressure relief valves open if there is an
obstruction between the anesthesia machine and the disposal system,
which would then leak the gas into the OR. A leak in the soda lime
canisters would also vent to the OR. Given that most ventilator bellows
are powered by oxygen, a leak in the bellows will not add air to the
evacuation system. The negative-pressure relief valve is used in active
systems and will entrap room air if the pressure in the system is less
than −0.5 cm H2O. (Ehrenwerth: Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and
Applications, ed 2, pp 101–103; Miller: Miller’s Anesthesia, ed 8, p
802; Barash: Clinical Anesthesia, ed 8, pp 693–694).
21. (D) The standard method for BP measurements introduced by NS
Korotkoff in 1905 was by auscultation, which measures the systolic
(first sounds heard when the BP cuff is deflated) and diastolic BP
(significantly muffled or disappearance of sounds with further deflation
of the cuff), but not the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP). MAP is
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