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vi CONTENTS
The Demographic Context 30

The Ideological Context 33
The Cultural Context 36
Summary 37
Resources 37
Chapter 3 The Economy: Changing

Government–Business Relationships 38
Issue Background: Key Concepts in Economics 38
The Free-Enterprise System 39
History of Government’s Role 42
Inf lation and Recession 44
Microeconomic Approaches 44
Contemporary Policy: Purposes and Tools of Economic
Intervention 48
Protecting Citizens and Consumers 48
Maintaining a Sound Economy 52
Sustaining Economic Activity 52
International Trade 54
Policy Evaluation: Encouraging Competition or
Discouraging Innovation? 57
Deregulation 57
Free Trade 58
Assistance to Business 58
Effects of Regulation 60
Changes in Regulation 61
Continuing Debates 63
Alternative Approaches 64
Summary 67
Resources 67
Chapter 4 Economic Issues: Taxing, Spending, and

Budgeting 68
Issue Background: Concepts and Issues 68
Macroeconomic Approaches 70
Contemporary Policy: Approaches to Managing the Economy 72
Traditional Economic Theory 72
Supply-Side Economics 72
Budget Deficits 73
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CONTENTS vii
Tax Reform 75
Economic Policy Obstacles 76
Policy Evaluation: Success or Failure? 77
Inflation and Growth 78
Fiscal Policy 79
Federal Revenues and Spending 81
Fiscal Policy Evaluation 82
Defense Spending 83
Continuing Debates: Spending, Taxes, the Deficit,
and Economic Stimulus Programs 83
Policy Conflict over the Federal Spending to Stimulate
the Economy: TARP and ARRA 85
Taxes 85
Fiscal Cliff 86
Budget Deficit and National Debt 87
Monetary Policy 88
Balanced Budget Amendment 88
Line Item Veto 88
Entitlement Programs 89
Energy Costs 89
Homeland Security 89
Summary 89
Resources 90
Chapter 5 Energy and Environmental Policies:

Policy Instability 91
Energy Policy Issue Background: Complacency and Crisis 91
Traditional Energy Policy 91
Western Vulnerability: OPEC and the Arab Oil Embargo 93
Contemporary Policy: A Cycle of Complacency, Crisis,
and Concern 95
Energy Problems Emerge 95
Global Dependence on Fossil Fuels 97
Energy Policy after 1973 98
Policy Evaluation: Continued Fossil Fuel Dependence 101
Alternatives to Fossil Fuels 102
viii CONTENTS
Nuclear Power 104

Political Impact of Continued Oil Dependence 107
Continuing Debates: Energy Policy Concern 110
Renewed Concern 111
Environmental Policy 113
Issue Background: A Legacy of Environmental Abuse 113
Air Pollution 113
Water and Solid-Waste Pollution 116
Toxic and Hazardous Waste 117
Acid Rain 119
The Environmental Legacy 120
Contemporary Environmental Policy 120
Water-Pollution Policy 120
Air-Pollution Policy 121
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 121
Policy Evaluation: Searching for Direction 122
Current Policy Direction and Values 122
Public Environmental Concern 124
The Politics of Regulation 124
Enforcement Problems 125
Continuing Debates: Unresolved Policy Issues 125
International Treaties 125
Self-Regulation of the Market 126
Taxes and Legal Action 126
The Role of State Governments 127
Public Attitudes 128
Energy and the Environment 128
Summary 130
Resources 130
Energy Policy–Related Websites 130
Environmental Policy–Related Websites 131
Chapter 6 Crime and Criminal Justice: Dilemmas
of Social Control 132
Issue Background: The Growth and Decline of Crime 135
The Extent of Crime 135
Reasons for Crime 141
Issues in Equal Protection and Government
Response to Crime 146
CONTENTS ix
Contemporary Policy: Constitutional Rights and

Deterrence of Crime 150
Confessions and the Right to Counsel 152
The Exclusionary Rule and Search and Seizure 153
Capital Punishment 156
Technology, Deterrence, and Crime 163
Incarceration Rates 163
Policy Evaluation: Flaws in the Criminal Justice System? 165
Confessions and the Right to Counsel 166
The Exclusionary Rule and Search and Seizure 167
Capital Punishment 168
Is Technology Always Infallible? 170
Conclusion: Crime and Criminal Procedure 173
Continuing Debates: Policy Options for Reducing Crime 175
Drug-Related Crimes 175
Violence against Women 176
Crimes of Violence and Gun Control 178
Decriminalization and Deterrence 187
Strengthening the Police 187
Penal Reform, Sentencing, and Recidivism 188
Zero Tolerance for Petty Street Crime 189
Limiting the Alternatives to Punishment 190
Summary 191
Resources 192
Chapter 7 Poverty and Social Welfare Policy 193

Issue Background: Poverty 193
Defining Poverty 193
How Many Poor? 197
Who Are the Poor? 199
What Causes Poverty? 201
The Welfare State 209
Contemporary Policy: Social Insurance and
Social Assistance Programs 210
Social Insurance 210
Cash Transfer Programs 214
In-Kind Benefits 216
What Is Missing? 219
x CONTENTS
Policy Evaluation: Do Social Welfare Policies Reduce

Poverty? 219
Accomplishments and Criticisms of Social Insurance 220
Accomplishments and Criticisms of Social Assistance 220
Continuing Debates: Social Welfare Policy Change 226
Children and Poverty 227
Employment Issues 228
Summary 230
Resources 230
Chapter 8 Health Care: Transformation or

Continued Crisis? 231
Issue Background: The Changing Health Care System 232
The Structure of American Health Care 232
Quality: How Healthy Is America? 233
Inequities in Access to Health Care 236
High Cost 238
Other Nations 240
Contemporary Policy: Medicare, Medicaid, and
the Affordable Care Act 241
Medicare 242
Medicaid 245
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 246
Other Federal Programs 255
Policy Evaluation: Health Care at the Crossroads 256
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 256
Medicare and Medicaid 262
Ideology and the Health Care System 263
Continuing Debates: Reshaping a Complex System 266
Medicare 266
Medicaid and the States 270
Debating the Future of the ACA 271
Controlling the Cost of Health Care 274
Cost Control Measures 276
Beginning and End of Life 277
Reform and Long-Term Care 278
Summary 279
Resources 279
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 9 Education: Conflict in Policy Direction 280

Issue Background: Historical Perspectives and the Onset
of Federal Involvement in Education 281
The Tradition of Free Public Education 281
The Tradition of Local Control 281
An Emerging Role for State and Federal Governments 282
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965:
Expanding the Federal Policy Role 283
The Federal Role in Higher Education 285
Contemporary Policy: Remedying Social Inequality
through Education 286
The Issue of Unequal Financial Resources 287
Equality in Education 290
Educational Inequality Outside the United States 290
Policy Evaluation: Educational Quality in the United States 291
Concern over Poor Student Achievement 291
Questioning Teacher Competency 295
Merit Pay and Master Teachers 296
Bilingual Education 297
Multiculturalism 298
Changing Priorities in Federal Education Policy 299
Continuing Debates: Community Control, Private Schools,
a Changing Federal Role, and Conf licting Priorities 300
Community Control and Decentralization 300
The Issue of Private Schools 301
Educational Concern 303
Education Policy Priorities in the Twenty-first Century 304
Education Policy Initiatives of President Obama 308
Unresolved Education Issues: Teachers and Curriculum 309
Unresolved Education Issues: Structural Questions 311
Issues in Higher Education 314
Summary 317
Resources 317
Chapter 10 Legal and Social Equality: The Struggle

against Oppression and Bigotry 318
Issue Background: The Idea of Equality 320
Equality under Law 320
Equality of Opportunity 325
xii CONTENTS
Equality of Material Well-Being 328

The Civil Rights Movement and Equality 329
Contemporary Policy: Strengthening Constitutional
Guarantees of Equality 330
The Erosion of the Fourteenth Amendment 330
Ending Segregation 331
Enforcing Integration 333
The Struggle for Racial Balance in Employment and
Higher Education 333
Equality and the Women’s Movement 336
Bias against Homosexuals, the Handicapped, and Native
Americans 341
Policy Evaluation: The Drive for Proportional Equality 344
Busing for Racial Balance 345
Retreat on Preference Programs: Weber and Title VII 345
Recent Assaults on Racial and Gender Preference 346
Continuing Debates: The Changing Conception of Equality 348
The Debate over Affirmative Action 348
Equality 349
Summary 352
Resources 352
Chapter 11 Immigration Policy: The Barely Open Door 353

Issue Background: From an Open Door to Increasing Limits 354
The Open Door 354
Use of Quotas 354
Transition to a Preference System 358
Illegal Immigration 359
Contemporary Policy: Responding to Changing
Immigration Dynamics 360
Policy Evaluation: Contrasting Perceptions 366
Current Policy Concerns 366
Economic Concerns 366
Impact on Public Services 367
Quality of Life 370
Continuing Debates: Openness or Restriction? 372
Summary 376
Resources 376
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 12 Foreign and Defense Policy: Security

and Interests in a Dangerous World 377
Issue Background: Competing Approaches to Foreign Policy 379
Realism or Classical Diplomacy 379
The Balance of Power 384
The American Style in Foreign Policy: Wilsonian Idealism 386
Universal Justice and the Nuremberg Principle 386
Diplomacy, Force, and American Optimism 388
Collective Security and Institutional Solutions to
World Conflict 389
Policy Past and Present: Cold War, Containment, and After 390
The Failure of Containment in Vietnam 392
The Search for a Comprehensive Peace in Palestine 393
Policy Evaluation: Realism versus Idealism in the
Middle East 394
The Emerging Threat of Iran’s Nuclear Ambitions 395
Oil, U.S. Foreign Policy, and the Middle East 396
Palestinian Nationalism 398
American Options in the Area: A Ray of Hope Dashed 404
Continuing Debates: Responding to Terrorism and
Nuclear Proliferation 405
Defining Terrorism 406
Options for Confronting Terror 406
The War in Iraq and the Struggle with Terror 410
Prewar Intelligence on WMDs and on a Connection
between Iraq and Terrorism 411
Rogue Regimes and WMDs 413
America Faces a Changing Middle East 414
Continuing Debates: Issues on the Foreign Policy Horizon 415
Summary 416
Resources 416
Chapter 13 Private Morality and Public Policy: Moral

Values, the Constitution, and the
Open Society 417
The Idea of the Open Society 418
The Neopopulism Emergence on the Right and Its
Challenge to the Open Society 418
Challenges to the Open Society on the Left 420
xiv CONTENTS
The Open Society and Tolerance of Diverse Ideas 421

Community and Family Values versus the Open Society 423
The Courts and Social Policy 425
Abortion, Birth Control, and the Law 427
End-of-Life Care, Assisted Suicide, and the Preservation
of Life 434
The First Amendment and Public Morality: Suppressing
Obscenity and Offensive Speech 436
Freedom of Speech 436
Fighting Words and Regulating Insensitive Speech 438
Obscenity and the Marketplace of Ideas 443
Censorship, Obscenity, and the Law: The Roth Rule 444
The Conflict between Pornography and Public Morality 448
Conf lict over the Role of Religion in the United States 454
Freedom of, and from, Religion 455
The Establishment Clause 455
The Free Exercise Clause 462
Summary 466
Resources 467
GLOSSARY 468
REFERENCES 478
INDEX 506
JOHN GRESS/Reuters/Corbis
Preface
American Public Policy is an introductory undergraduate text that focuses on the

substantive issues of public policy. Most texts stress methods of policy analysis,
models of policy, or the policymaking process. Although these topics are impor-
tant, their dominance at the introductory level often makes the subject too
abstract to engage students’ imaginations. In our own teaching, we have found
that an interest in more rigorous analysis grows most naturally out of a lively
classroom discussion of specific policy debates—for example, welfare, abortion,
tax reform, immigration, or crime control. American Public Policy is unique in its
emphasis on such issues, combining history and description with presentation of
alternative solutions.
This text is intended for the first undergraduate course in public policy,
either a one-semester course or part of a two-semester sequence that includes
both political institutions and public policy. We do not assume any prior knowl-
edge of public policy on the student’s part, although we do presume an under-
standing of the structure of American government. Therefore, we present the
policy material step by step, building a picture of existing policy that students
can use to evaluate alternatives.
APPROACHES TAKEN BY THIS BOOK
This text covers areas that are of permanent major interest and controversy.
Though other issues occasionally rise to prominence, the issues we discuss—
welfare, health, education, economic regulation, crime, immigration, foreign
and defense policy—are issues of long-range interest and controversy.
Chapter Plan
The chapters that follow present the major policy issues in American politics.
Each chapter (except Chapters 2 and 13) follows a similar pattern. This pattern
assumes that students need to know the history of policies and the most funda-
mental facts about them before evaluation is possible. Also vital is an
xv
xvi PREFACE
understanding of the ways the policies work (or do not work). Then it is possible
to speculate intelligently about possible modifications that the future will present.
Issue Background. Each chapter discusses the basic issue, problem, or dilemma
toward which public policy is directed, that is, the general background. Policies
do not arise in a vacuum, as we have already noted, but, rather, grow in response
to developments that the public, or some part of it, perceives as requiring gov-
ernment action.
Contemporary Policy. Each chapter describes the evolution of present public

policies in their areas of concern. They sketch the major features of substantive
public policies, as adopted and implemented. The principal goals and target
populations intended by the policymakers are also outlined, and some of the
political factors surrounding adoption are described. Although absolute neutrality
and objectivity are impossible, we have tried to be as unbiased as possible.
Policy Evaluation. The third section of each chapter evaluates policy outputs
and impacts empirically and normatively. Here our concern centers on the
major successes and failures of policy in responding to the dilemmas specified.
We focus on the ability of existing policies to reach their goals and to have max-
imum effect, and we discuss the main differences of opinion on the good and
bad effects of the policies. Our level of analysis is the general shape of the policy
and its alternatives, not the detailed cost–benefit or other evaluation analysis dis-
cussed previously.
Continuing Debates. Each chapter lists the major policy alternatives and their
supporting arguments. Here again, we present different values, different defini-
tions of the issue, and different predictions for policy options. The authors do
not put forth their own proposals but, rather, attempt to help the reader make
sense of the welter of policy proposals, statistics, and competing values. The
arguments of conservatives, radicals, and liberals, as well as a variety of other
interested parties, find their way into the following pages in order to illustrate
the range of alternatives from which policy selections may be made.
Policy Dilemmas. This new feature is designed to offer students a chance to

exercise their critical thinking skills. It provides a current event or recent policy
action and asks students to analyze the benefits or concerns brought about by the
issue at hand.
Summary. Each chapter discussion concludes with a brief summary of the most
important topics that are addressed. This is designed to provide students with a
concise recap and an understanding of underlying issues.
Resources. Finally, each chapter ends with a list of websites to assist study and
reflection. To facilitate study and reference, a glossary of major terms and con-
cepts from each chapter appears at the end of the book.
PREFACE xvii
National Focus
Although the chapters on education and the section on intergovernmental rela-
tions discuss state and local government activity extensively, our attention is on
the national arena, for the issues at stake on the state and local level, given the
tremendous variation in their social, political, and economic climates, are less
clear and less easily presented than those at the national level. Therefore,
although state and local policies are obviously important, here they are discussed
as they relate to national policies.
Comparative Information
Many chapters discuss comparable policies in other modern industrial nations.
Noting international trends is essential to evaluate U.S. public policy properly.*
To discuss American health care policies as though they were the best possible
policies would be like discussing American wine as though France and Germany
grew no grapes. Moreover, issues of crime, employment, economic stagnation,
immigration, social welfare spending, and cultural change have begun to affect
other advanced nations in ways similar to those occurring in the American con-
text. But the focus of this book is on American public policy.
We have made a variety of changes for the eleventh edition of American
Public Policy. Having completed this edition in April 2014, we have tried to
keep our text current with the issues most prominent in the political debate,
particularly the dynamics leading up to the 2014 midterm election, without sim-
ply focusing on “current events.” Some issues, such as the outcome of the chal-
lenge of the Iranian, Syrian, and Ukrainian crises, tax reform, immigration
reform, and increased attention on global climate change, were not clear in
their full effects at the time of writing. The chapter on crime considers the con-
tinued decline in crime rates and the reasons for them. Chapter 8 covers the
major changes in health policy, especially the implementation of the 2010
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). Immigration remains a
topic of intense passions, which are covered in Chapter 11. Each chapter high-
lights, in bold, terms that appear in the Glossary.
We have also reduced the detail in the historical background of issues, thus
shortening each chapter and leaving more room for current debates on issues.
We hope these changes improve the readability of the book.
Chapter 1 introduces the study of public policy. Major policy concepts are
defined, illustrated, and explained. Chapter 2 focuses on the contexts in which
contemporary public policy operates—institutional, economic, demographic,
cultural, and ideological. This chapter continues the structural introduction of
Chapter 1. Each succeeding chapter examines an individual policy arena.
*See Richard Rose, Lesson-Drawing in Public Policy: A Guide to Learning across Time and
Space (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1993); and Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Hugh Heclo,
and Carolyn Teich Adams, Comparative Public Policy, 3rd ed. (New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1990).
xviii PREFACE
Chapter 3 gives attention to economic theory, economic regulation, changes

in the economy, and international competition, leaving the entirety of Chapter 4
for macroeconomic policy, including the federal budget, taxes, and spending.
Chapter 5 deals with environmental and energy policy, highlighting the impor-
tant interaction between these two policy areas.
Chapter 6 considers fluctuation in rates of crime, including speculation about
the causes of crime. This chapter evaluates the impact of policies specifying
an individual’s constitutional rights: confessions and the right to counsel, the
exclusionary rule and search and seizure, and capital punishment. It considers
alternative methods of responding to crime, including gun control, capital pun-
ishment, and sentencing reform.
Chapter 7 looks at the bifurcated nature of social welfare policy by consid-
ering the definition of poverty and the evolution of the U.S. welfare state. This
chapter examines the distinction between social insurance and social assistance
and describes the various programs and policies that make up the U.S. system,
concluding with an assessment of effectiveness and shortcomings.
Chapter 8 describes the nation’s health care system at a crossroads. The rising
cost of health care has been on an unsustainable trajectory. Access to care and the
quality of care delivered have major gaps. The Affordable Care Act aimed to
address these shortcomings, but became the subject of intense political contro-
versy. This chapter addresses the Act and whether it will transform health care
or whether the system will remain in crisis.
Chapter 9 shows the tradition of free public education in the United States
to be in jeopardy. This chapter considers such problems as poor student achieve-
ment, teacher competence, inequities resulting from the system of local control,
and the role of the federal government in education. The idea of equality, both
legal and social, is discussed in Chapter 10. Programs of the 1960s and 1970s—
those aimed at achieving equality in the schools and in employment—are now
questioned seriously. Chapter 11 is then devoted to the issue of immigration and
the challenges that the American government continues to face on the issue.
Chapter 12 describes the challenges to American foreign policy. Chapter 13
focuses on issues involving strong moral content—abortion, freedom of speech
and censorship, the right to die, the role of religion in society and politics, and
feminism and family values.
American Public Policy may be used in a variety of ways. Instructors may
choose to consider all of the policy areas presented or to select a group of them
for special emphasis. Chapters 1 and 2 should be read first, but the rest of the
chapters can be assigned in any sequence the instructor prefers. Supplementary
readings focusing on particular issues may be conveniently added, or the text
may be used in conjunction with other texts focusing on political institutions
or the policy process. Cengage Learning also offers an Instructor’s Manual with
Test Bank (ISBN-13: 9781285869797) that provides suggestions for critical
thinking questions, lecture launchers, in-class activities, and exam questions to
make course preparation easier. Access the Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank
on the companion website at cengage.com/login.
PREFACE xix
We would like to thank the following reviewers for their helpful feedback
on this edition: John Barkdull, Texas Tech University; William E. Carroll,
Sam Houston State University; Patricia Freeman, University of Tennessee; and
Mordu Serry-Kamal, Winston-Salem State University. Our thanks also go to the
following instructors who reviewed earlier editions: Justin Halpern, Northeastern
State University; Rebecca C. Hams, Washington and Lee University; Gary Klass,
Illinois State University; John Lofton, Arkansas State University; Pachard Paley,
Baylor University; Christine H. Rossell, Boston University; Timothy Sherratt,
Gordon College; and Kim Spiezio, Cedar Crest College.
Matthew Young provided help on tables and figures. Carolyn Merrill of
Cengage Learning provided invaluable editorial assistance and Lauren Athmer
of LEAP Publishing Services, Inc. demonstrated immense patience and profes-
sionalism in working with our draft chapters, helping us to mold them into
the finished products. Preeti Longia Sinha handled the copyediting efficiently.
Romona Saunders of Arizona State University expertly authored this edition’s
Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. Our thanks to all of them.
We want to express particular appreciation to colleagues in the Political
Science Department at Texas Tech who use the book and have been forthcom-
ing with helpful comments that have helped us to improve the text. In particu-
lar, we thank John Barkdull, chair of the Undergraduate Committee and Greg
R. Murray, a member of the committee. We also thank Dennis Patterson,
department chair and Frank Thames, associate chair of the department. Kristina
Mitchell, Lecturer, helped in the construction of the online course using the
book.
Clarke E. Cochran
Lawrence C. Mayer
T.R. Carr
N. Joseph Cayer
Mark J. McKenzie
Laura R. Peck
About the Authors
Clarke E. Cochran retired as Vice-President of Mission Integration at Covenant

Health System in Lubbock, Texas, in 2013. He is also Professor Emeritus of
Political Science at Texas Tech University, where he specialized in religion and
politics, political philosophy, and health care policy. Dr. Cochran received his
Ph.D. from Duke University in 1971 and taught at Texas Tech from 1970 to
2007. He is the author of four books and numerous journal articles. Dr. Cochran
held the position of Research Fellow in the Erasmus Institute at the University
of Notre Dame (1998–1999) and the Shannon Chair in Catholic Studies at
Nazareth College (Spring 2001). His research interests include religious institu-
tions and health care policy, Catholic social theory and health care reform, and
church and state controversies.
Lawrence C. Mayer is Professor of Political Science at Texas Tech University
specializing in Comparative Politics and the Politics of Advanced Western
Democracy. In addition to American Public Policy: An Introduction, he is the author
of Comparative Political Inquiry, The Politics of Industrial Societies, Redefining Compar-
ative Politics: Promise versus Performance, Comparative Politics: Nations and Theories in
a Changing World, Comparative Politics: The Quest for Theory and Explanation, Con-
flicting Perspectives in Comparative Politics: A Reader, Identity Politics: The Emergence
of Neo Volkism in Advanced Western Societies, and The Changing Basis of Political
Conflict in Advanced Western Democracy. His current research is on the determi-
nants of tolerance in Western societies.
T.R. Carr is Professor of Public Administration and Policy Analysis and Senior
Research Fellow in the Institute for Urban Research at Southern Illinois Univer-
sity Edwardsville. He teaches primarily in the area of quantitative methods and
policy analysis. In addition to American Public Policy, he has published chapters
and articles focusing on public management issues. He is active in academic and
professional associations and has served in numerous offices in state and local
chapters of the American Society for Public Administration. He serves as a Police
Commissioner for St. Louis County, Missouri, and has served as the Mayor of
Hazelwood, Missouri.
xx
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi
N. Joseph Cayer is Professor Emeritus of Public Administration at Arizona State

University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, and a B.A. and M.P.A. from the University of Colorado, Boulder.
He also has taught at Lamar University, the University of Maine, Orono, and
Texas Tech University. He is the author or coauthor of seven books and numer-
ous chapters and articles on public management and policy, with an emphasis
on issues of human resources management in the public sector. Books he has
authored or coauthored include Public Administration: Social Change and Adaptive
Management, American Public Policy: An Introduction, Managing Human Resources,
Handbook of Training and Development for the Public Sector, and Supervision for Success
in Government.
Mark J. McKenzie is an Associate Professor of Political Science at Texas Tech
University. He specializes in judicial decision making (particularly in the areas of
national security, crime, redistricting and electoral law), judicial campaigns and
elections, and public opinion and the courts. Dr. McKenzie received his Ph.D.
in government from the University of Texas at Austin in 2007 and a Doctor of
Jurisprudence from the University of Texas School of Law in 1998. Between
1998 and 2001, he practiced general litigation in Texas at the law firm of
Ross & Matthews He has published articles in such journals as Political Research
Quarterly, Judicature, Justice System Journal, Politics & Policy, and American
Politics Research.
Laura R. Peck is a Principal Scientist at Abt Associates and has over eighteen
years of experience evaluating social welfare and employment policies and
programs, both in research and academic settings. Prior to joining Abt in 2011,
Dr. Peck had been a tenured Associate Professor at the Arizona State University
School of Public Affairs, where she taught public policy analysis, program evalu-
ation, and research methods; and served as Associate Dean for Barrett, The
Honors College. At Abt Associates, Dr. Peck is the Principal Investigator,
Co-PI and Director of Analysis for several major national evaluations for the
U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services, Labor, Agriculture, and
Housing and Urban Development. Dr. Peck is well published (and cited) on
program evaluation topics in respected journals such as Evaluation Review, the
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, the Policy Studies Journal, and the Journal
of Poverty. Dr. Peck was elected to the Policy Council (2012–2015 term) for the
Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (APPAM); and recently
completed her term as Associate Editor (2009–2013) for the American Journal of
Evaluation.
Chapter 1
Public Policy: An Introduction
P ublic policy affects each citizen in hundreds of ways, some of them familiar
and some unsuspected. Citizens directly confront public policy when they
are arrested for speeding, but they seldom remember that the advertising on the
television shows that they watch is regulated by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Many citizens
who complain loudly at tax time about government bureaucracy and overregu-
lation have forgotten about the fire and police protection or the paved streets
that those revenues provide. Indeed, public policy in America affects a vast
range of activities, from nuclear warheads to bathroom plumbing, from arresting
lawbreakers to providing medical care for the elderly. Indeed, the expanding
reach of government and the threatened dominance of the public sector over
the private sector with accompanying record budget deficits for the national gov-
ernment constituted a major political issue toward the end of the first year of the
Obama administration. By the middle of President Obama’s second term, Amer-
ica’s debt totaled over $17 trillion. This book aims to clarify key dimensions of
this ubiquitous influence on American life and to introduce the debates swirling
around its major controversies. It takes an issue-oriented approach to the beginning
study of public policy.
STUDYING PUBLIC POLICY
What Constitutes Public Policy?

Even though examples of public policy come readily to mind, defining public
policy in clear and unambiguous terms is not easy. Political scientists have
devoted considerable attention to the problem without reaching a consensus.1
In this text, the term public policy refers to a set of actions taken by the gov-
ernment that includes, but is not limited to, making laws and is defined in terms
of a common goal or purpose. For example, a policy to stimulate economic
1
2 CHAPTER 1
growth in a time of economic stagnation may include tax cuts for businesses,
increased spending to put money into the economy, or actions by the Federal
Reserve System to increase the money supply. A policy to secure the country
from possible terrorist attacks may include a law, such as the USA Patriot Act,
which enables the government to listen to the phone conversations of potential
terrorists; an invasion of putative terrorist strongholds in Iraq and Afghanistan;
encouraging dissidents in Iran to effect regime change; searching prospective pas-
sengers boarding airplanes; or assassinating known terrorist leaders with “drone
strikes.” Making policy requires choosing among goals and alternatives, and
choice always involves intention. The federal government under President
Obama, for example, chose to pursue a wholesale restructuring of our system
of delivering health care. The intention was to have everyone insured, including
the 15 percent or so who were not already, or chose not to be, insured. Policy
is not a single action, but is a set of actions coordinated to achieve a goal. Such
an action may be manifested in laws, public statements, official regulations, or
widely accepted and publicly visible patterns of behavior, such as the vigorous
implementation of existing laws to control and deter crime, or having the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) issue bureaucratic regulations. Public policy,
however, is ultimately rooted in law and in the authority and coercion associated
with law. (The terms public policy and policy will be used interchangeably.)
Three qualifications are necessary, however, for this definition of public pol-
icy. First, the idea of an intentional course of action also includes decisions made
not to take a certain action. In 2013, for example, some leading members of
the Republican Party sought unsuccessfully to stop Congress from funding the
Affordable Care Act (ACA). Second, the requirement that official actions be
sanctioned by law or accepted custom is necessary because public officials often
take courses of action that step outside of public policy—for example, they
sometimes take bribes or exceed their legal authority. Such deeds should not be
considered public policy—that is, unless they are openly tolerated in a particular
political system. Third, laws or official regulations should not be mistaken for the
whole realm of policy; nor does policy always meet intended goals. Lawmaking
is not enough to establish a policy; the implementation, interpretation,
enforcement, and impact of policies are also part of the policymaking process.
Moreover, as we shall see later in this chapter, quite often there are unintended
impacts to public policies. What actually happens when policy is put into effect
(or implemented ) is called policy impact. Although some political scientists argue
that these unintended impacts are part of the policy, we believe that it is concep-
tually clearer to consider policy and its impacts separately. For example, a major
issue erupted in November 2013 when millions of Americans lost the health
plans that they could afford and that served their needs because the Obama
administration sought to impose higher standards for what should be covered in
health insurance plans. This issue raised the question of whether the government
was over-reaching the limits of what could be effectively shaped through public
policy. Next, we shall consider the strategies and factors that make it more or less
likely that the impact of a policy will be what the policymakers intended.
PUBLIC POLICY: AN INTRODUCTION 3
Why Study Public Policy?

Students of political science and public administration have several reasons for
studying public policy. The first is theoretical: Political scientists seek to understand
and explain the world of politics—that is, they attempt to develop and test
explanatory generalizations about the political behavior of individuals and insti-
tutions. Because public policy is a part of politics, political scientists are con-
cerned with how it is related to such things as political party structure, interest
groups, interparty competition, electoral systems, and executive-legislative rela-
tions. Political scientists who seek explanation call for the discipline to develop
and test explanatory theory.2
A second reason for studying public policy is practical. Political scientists and
students of policy apply knowledge to solve practical problems. Public policy has
become increasingly pervasive over time as measured by such data as the percent
of the gross domestic product (GDP), which is the value of all the goods and
services produced in the United States in a year and spent by the federal govern-
ment. This figure has risen from about five percent at the turn of the century to
about a quarter of the GDP in 2010. With the heavy indebtedness and an
expensive health care bill passed at the end of the first year of the Obama admin-
istration, the percent of the gross domestic product in the public sector reached
40 percent by 2012 as government assumed the responsibility and power to
“transform” much of the American political and economic system; hence, citi-
zens are continually confronted with impact of public policy on their lives and
well-being.
A third reason for studying public policy, related to the second, is political.
Debate and controversy over public policy in America are not new, but today
the range of issues over which serious disagreement occurs is far greater than in
the past. This is due in large part to the spread of education, which is strongly
related to political involvement and to the mobilization of the population
through the mass media. Participation in, and awareness of, government and its
policies are greater than any time in our history. The Tea Party movement of
2010 exemplifies the extent to which more people are involved with politics and
policy than ever before. It makes sense to channel this new mobilization of the
population into paths guided by understanding and information.
The emphasis of this book is on the second and third reasons for studying
policy—the practical and political—but it draws on the first as well, for intelli-
gent policy selection depends on the analysis and understanding developed by
the theoretical findings of political science.
Reasons for the Growing Pervasiveness of Public Policy

The growing pervasiveness of public policy is primarily a consequence of mod-
ernization. Modernization entails the development of technology and knowledge
and the consequent role specialization and division of labor. This makes us all
interdependent. The pioneer could erect a log cabin without outside assistance,
4 CHAPTER 1
but the erection of a modern dwelling requires the expertise of a cement con-
tractor, a carpenter, an electrician, a plumber, a bricklayer, a roofer, etc. We can
rely on the competence and performance of these tradespeople, whose work we
are not qualified to judge, because they are given their credentials by an agency
of the state. We are usually even more unqualified to independently judge the
work of professionals such as physicians or attorneys. Whenever new technology
is developed, we need a new agency to regulate it.
Modernization requires the concentration of a workforce that was not
needed in an agrarian society. This means an urbanization of modern society,
with its concomitant issues of traffic, public health and sanitation, sewage and
garbage disposal, crime, and the myriad ways in which the choices that people
make affect others in patterns of close interaction.
This expansion of the role of public policy is frustrating to many because
each new regulation emanating from a government agency circumscribes our
freedom to some extent. The needs and desires of each person must be balanced
against the needs and desires of others with whom one interacts. Hence, govern-
ment treats people according to impersonal principles and rules that may offend
one’s sense of justice for one particular case.
Because of this frustration with an expanding public sector, many people feel
that government has become too big and too intrusive. The Tea Party move-
ment mobilizing large numbers of ordinary people in demonstrations against
big government (which they saw as allegedly out of touch with ordinary folk)
exemplifies this frustration. Some people yearn for a return to the seemingly sim-
pler times of the good old days. Yet, in many ways “the good old days” were
not so good. Life tended to be shorter and less comfortable and convenient.
Opportunities for travel and communication were significantly fewer. To return
to an era of a much smaller public sector, we would have to “un-invent” much
of the technology that has made life longer and more enjoyable.
Policy Impact: The Frequent Failure

of Public Policies to Achieve Their Goals
Americans are by and large an optimistic people who tend to believe that for
every identified problem there must be a solution if we simply have the will to
find it. Yet despite the growing pervasiveness and expansion of government, the
actual impact of policies is all too frequently not what those who formulated the
policy intended. This frequent failure of policies to achieve their intended impact
is due to the following factors.
First, there is disagreement about the issues of society and what constitutes a
social or political problem that must be addressed by policymakers. One of the
core issues dividing the social and political Left from the Right regards the
imperatives of social justice. In December 2013, President Obama proclaimed
that income inequality was the defining issue of our time. Does the fact that
some people have a great deal more than others, either through inheritance,
hard work, creativity, or just luck, constitute a problem that must be rectified?
What are one’s entitlements in one’s society? The subprime lending crisis of
2009–2010 was a result of elevating home ownership to an entitlement. Does
social justice require that we “spread the wealth” around?
Second, for some issues there is no plausible scenario on which the contend-
ing parties conceivably agree. For example, the attempts to engineer a two-state
solution to the tensions in the Middle East between the Israelis and the Palesti-
nian Arabs have resulted in failure despite continued efforts for over sixty years.
The conflict is not about borders or what lands will be set aside for Palestinian
statehood. The Arab leaders were formally offered such a state on five separate
occasions (see Chapter 12 for details) and they eschewed the offer each time.
Clearly, their ultimate goal is not just statehood. Many Arab leaders have reiter-
ated over and over that they will never accept the existence of Israel as a Jewish
state. Obviously, one’s extermination is not a scenario to which one will ever
agree as a result of negotiation. Hence, no plausible resolution to the conflict
exists to which both parties might possibly agree. Similarly, the odds seem
strongly against the achievement of an agreement with Iran in the 2013–2014
global discussions regarding the nation’s nuclear ambitions. Critics suggest that
one would have to stretch beyond the limits of credulity to believe that Iran
would settle for less than a deliverable nuclear warhead, an outcome that the
Saudis and Israelis would never accept.
Third, a solution that is socially acceptable may simply not exist for a prob-
lem. Assume, for example, that society agrees that greater socioeconomic equal-
ity must be engineered. One should then address the causes of such inequality.
The strongest predictor of one’s ultimate socioeconomic well-being is academic
achievement. Each step up the academic ladder brings significantly greater life-
time earnings, regardless of one’s academic specialty. One should therefore engi-
neer greater equality of academic achievement, as with President George W.
Bush’s policy of “no child left behind.” This policy assumes that everyone is
educable. President Obama’s “Race to the Top” initiative offers incentives to
states willing to spur systemic reform to improve teaching and learning in
America’s schools. An important massive study of the causes of educational
achievement, the Coleman Report, found that the best single predictor of educa-
tional achievement is the academic achievement level of one’s parents.3 Thus, to
best engineer equality of educational achievement, the state would have to spec-
ify that only educated people would be allowed to reproduce. Obviously, no
reasonably free society is going to specify who can or cannot have children.
Hence, the solution to our hypothetical problem may theoretically exist, but
would be socially unacceptable.
Fourth, fall 2013 brought another lesson on the limits of government’s
ability to effectively regulate and control large segments of a complex modern
society with the attempt to implement President Obama’s signature health
care system, the ACA. (See Chapter 8 for a more detailed discussion.) While at
the time of this writing the final outcome of the Act has yet to be observed,
some serious problems in the projected structure and operation of the system
6 CHAPTER 1
have already appeared. Despite the individual mandate backed by a fine, there is
a shortfall in the number of young and healthy people joining and paying into
the system, which is needed in order to meet the greater health care needs of the
older generation. Because of the extensive requirements for coverage, many
existing health care policies were deemed unacceptable to the ACA, causing
millions of existing policies that served the needs of their beneficiaries to be
canceled, which forced these people to try to purchase more extensive policies
that they could not afford. Third, there was a failure to clearly calculate the
amount of the subsidies to be paid to insurance companies for insuring low-
income citizens trying to become insured. This left the insurance companies
with the task of determining their own compensation. These structural problems,
combined with failures in setting up functioning websites, have caused great
concern and hesitation among citizens and officials alike. The authors of the
ACA did not take into account the diminishing supply of health care providers
in the face of increasing demands for health care. The problems facing the ACA
demonstrate the limited capacity of the government. It is unable to take account
of, and to predict, the myriad of factors, as well as the interaction among those
factors, that make up the complex American health care system. In an attempt to
regulate such a large and complex segment of our economy, it must be assumed
that a large number of factors will operate according to plan. The failure of any
one of these factors will prevent the realization of the desired outcome. The
struggle to implement the ACA epitomizes the principle that unnecessary com-
plexity in the implementation of policy increases the likelihood of the failure of
the policy.
Fifth, policies are usually ambiguous enough to permit various interpreta-
tions of them. The more actors involved in the process of implementation, the
more that the original intended meaning of the law or policy will be distorted.
In this technologically advanced society, lawmakers are frequently generalists. As
an example, consider the lawyers or business people who lack the technical
expertise to determine how much of which emissions could be allowed to pro-
tect air quality. They set up the EPA to make those rules. Appointed bureaucrats,
selected according to the standard of specialization and division of labor, are
more likely to have such expertise. Accordingly, the politically accountable
parts of the government—Congress and the presidency—pass general authoriza-
tions to some agencies to actually make the specific decisions about who gets
how much of what, where, and why.
The attributes of the administrative sector that make it effective in imple-
menting policy are undesirable attributes for policymaking. The attributes of
the civil service or public bureaucracy are a hierarchical structure; speciali-
zation and the division of labor; an elaborate set of impersonal rules, which
enhance predictability but stifle creativity and adaptability; and tenure of office,
which insulates the bureaucrats from the public. Moreover, the discretion
that bureaucrats inevitably have in interpreting the law means that the intent
of the original policymakers will likely be changed in the implementation
process.
POLICY DILEMMAS The Ongoing Issue of the Role of Government
Throughout the second term of the Obama presidency, the approval ratings for both
the president and Congress plummeted to almost historic lows, indicating a growing
impatience with these institutions on the part of the citizenry. This impatience grows
from a perception of failure to resolve major issues that have been plaguing the
United States for years—issues that include long drawn-out wars, a persisting stag-
nant economy, a massive national debt, soaring costs for health care and insurance
despite a new health care bill, and the perception of government cover-ups of seri-
ous malfeasance. The public does not appreciate the complexity of these kinds of
issues and the array of factors that must be taken into account in addressing them.
The difficulty in constructing solutions to these issues is compounded by the fact
that we live in a free society in which many of the factors affecting these issues are
beyond the reach of government. This book will address this complexity and the
extent to which government should be held responsible for finding solutions to these
issues.
1. What can government do to increase the chances for a policy to reach its
objectives?
2. What principles can help government to decide what issues ought to be
addressed at what level in the public sector and what issues should best
be left to the private sector?
DEFINING MAJOR CONCEPTS
People acquire interests out of the roles that they play in the social and economic
system. These interests often come into conflict. For example, what is good for
the blue-collar working class may not be good for the entrepreneurs who
employ them. The interests of people who live in one geographical setting may
conflict with the interests of people in another setting. The point is that the dis-
tinction between “the special interests” and the good of “the people” is a false
one. All interests are special because no one can rise completely above his or her
socioeconomic role to promote the “general interests.”
Because interests conflict, policies that benefit some will harm or impede
others. This idea that because the resources of society are finite, that one cannot
allocate values to some groups without taking them from others, is known as a
zero-sum society. Hence, it seems laudable to place members of underrepre-
sented groups in desired roles that they otherwise would not have attained, such
as admission to medical school or a place in corporate management. For each indi-
vidual so placed, however, another individual who otherwise would have attained
the coveted role is excluded. Thus, in a zero-sum society, the allocation of values
to members of one underrepresented group requires that members of other groups
will have to pay the costs. This of course increases the intensity of partisanship.
Some values, such as clean, unpolluted air, are at first glance good for every-
one. These are known as public goods. These are values that are shared by
8 CHAPTER 1
everyone concerned. They cannot be allocated according to some criterion of

merit or justice. But the costs of such values are not equally shared. The owner
of a factory who cleans up the factory’s emissions at a considerable cost has paid a
disproportionate share of the costs of the clean air. He or she does not, however,
get a disproportionate amount of that air to breathe. It would therefore be ratio-
nal for that factory owner to not clean up the emissions.
Private rationality, when pursued by all the members of a collectivity, can
lead to disaster for that collectivity. California, for example, requires that each
motor vehicle have a catalytic converter attached to the exhaust system. When
most people began to obey that requirement, the air quality over the state’s cities
greatly improved. The converter lowers the performance of the vehicle, how-
ever, and increases its fuel consumption. It would therefore be rational for any
one motorist to have the device removed. If everyone did that, however, the
cities would again be enveloped in smog. This is a case when private rationality
conflicts with public necessity. In such cases, government may step in to coerce
people to violate private rationality for the public good.
Private goods are the opposite. These are goods that can be divided and
given to some persons, but not others. Most distribution and redistribution poli-
cies fall into this classification. Some persons qualify for food stamps while others
do not. Some students qualify for admission to a selective state university while
others may be admitted to second-tier colleges or to junior colleges. Liberals,
conservatives, and other ideological groups strongly disagree about the range of
private goods that is appropriate for government to distribute.
Models of the Policy Process

Making public policy is extraordinarily complex. It involves public opinion,
media attitudes, expert ideas, active citizens, business and labor leaders, elected
representatives, presidents and governors, judges, and bureaucrats. Policymaking
calls on political resources, economic conditions, popular cultural attitudes, and
international conditions. When political scientists do research in an attempt to
understand public policy, they try to reduce the complexity of the policymaking
process to a manageable degree by creating models of policymaking that sum-
marize the primary forces at work. None of these models is complete and none
captures all of the relationships that are important. It is indeed the purpose of
such models to simplify aspects of the reality they represent. No one model
best describes the features of policymaking in every area. Although the chapters
that follow do not adhere strictly to any of these models, they draw upon the
primary qualities of some political science models.
Features of the institutional model appear in the description of the insti-
tutional context of public policy in Chapter 2. This model stresses the opportu-
nities and constraints on policy that are part of the very structure of the
American constitutional order: judiciary, bureaucracy, executives, legislatures,
separation of powers, federalism, and so forth. A variant of the institutional
model is historical institutionalism, which combines the institutional focus
with the effect of long-term patterns of development. Here there is recognition
that early policy decisions carry large effects through time, so that policies
become path dependent. The cost of changing policy direction increases over
time. Once, for example, a state legislature takes a get-tough approach to crime
by building more prisons, these very prisons become institutional forces that pre-
vent different approaches in the future. What would the state do with empty
prisons if it decided on a different approach?4
The elite model focuses on the influence over policy exercised by powerful
individuals or groups to maximize their own interests at the expense of compet-
ing groups. Scholars who claim this model describes American society paint a
scenario in which the country is controlled by a single coherent elite sharing a
distinct set of values.5 Members of this elite possess similar attributes (white,
male, and mostly Protestant), come from the same background (prestigious
prep school, Ivy League university), and move from one leadership role to
another (from corporate boards of directors, to academia at our most prestigious
universities, to the highest ranks in the military).
This model contrasts with the pluralist model, which stresses that many
elites with competing interests bargain with one another to affect policy. Gener-
ally no one group gets all of what it wants. Hence, policy is an impersonal out-
come of the bargaining process. Each of these group’s interests and ideas must be
taken into account. Both of these models picture these individuals and groups
being active and influential across many policy areas. The group or subgovern-
ment model recognizes that different policy areas, such as crime, must be
treated differently than social or economic policy. Legislators, bureaucrats,
experts, and interest groups that are active in one area are often quite different
from those active in a different policy arena. These groups form advocacy coali-
tions that are active in particular policy areas, but not in others. Under these
conditions, policy networks develop webs of lobbyists, committee staff members,
and policy administrators all deeply involved in a particular policy domain, but
not active in other policy areas.
Some political scientists model policy as a rational process. Policymakers in
the rational-comprehensive model take account of all information about the
policy problems and of all policy options, then select the options that best fulfill
the policymaker’s goals. This model assumes rationality and perfect information
about choices available and their impact. The public choice model thinks of
those active in policymaking as actors attempting to choose options that maxi-
mize their self-interest. They select policy options that help them realize their
interests. Game models are a variation of this idea, focused on situations of policy
choice with options that cannot be compromised.6
Policy Analysis
Policy analysis is principally concerned with describing and investigating how
and why particular policies are proposed, adopted, and implemented. This is the
theoretical side of policy studies. A policy option must be evaluated in light of
what policy analysis reveals about its chances of being adopted, the probable
effectiveness or impact of the option, and the difficulties of implementation.
10 CHAPTER 1
A proposal for increased spending for high school education, for example, would
need to be tested against data from the Coleman Report, which concluded that
increased spending had no significant impact on student achievement levels.
Policy analysis is not, however, value neutral. Policy analysts want to dis-
cover which policy proposals best fulfill important public values.7 Thus, policy
analysis invokes such principles as freedom, equality, justice, decency, and
peace. Indeed, politics often concerns debates about the very meaning of these
terms. Those who would sharply separate policy analysis from fundamental social
values make a grave mistake. Policy analysis without awareness of ethical per-
spectives is incomplete. This is particularly true when evaluating the impact of
policy. Ethical principles must be brought to bear on the discovery of the good
and bad effects of policy. Such principles not only measure success and failure.
They also provide insight into consequences that otherwise would not be
revealed.
Policy analysis carried out by political scientists can be distinguished from
policy advocacy by politicians, partisans, or interest groups. Advocacy differs
from analysis, because advocacy begins with a commitment to economic interests
or to principles as interpreted by specific ideological systems, such as liberalism,
conservatism, and environmentalism. Analysis should better equip policymakers
to make policy choices while advocacy attempts to impose such choices on
others. Nevertheless, both advocacy and analysis draw upon similar principles
and goals, and the two intertwine in the real world of politics. Although ideo-
logical commitments can bring important overlooked values to policy analysis,
policy advocates are more concerned to advance their ideology than to under-
stand the policy process, which is the goal of policy analysis. The following
chapters will discuss different ideological perspectives on policy at some length
because the policy debates are often framed by ideology.
Stages of Policy Development

Political scientists often use a model of the policymaking process that focuses on
the stages through which ideas and proposals move before becoming public pol-
icy. Some political scientists criticize these models as overly rigid. They argue
that politics does not follow the clear lines and divisions of the stages model.
Windows of opportunity for policy creativity open many times in unexpected
ways, so that policy entrepreneurs have to be ready at any time to jump or to
move through stages of the process rapidly. Multiple streams of policy proposals
and political forces can converge and overwhelm careful policy deliberation.8
Moreover, these models have not generated important theoretical insights into
policymaking.9 Despite the importance of such criticisms, the stages model is a
suggestive tool. It isolates various aspects of public policy and helps to focus
attention on them. Some of these aspects are widely recognized and need to be
part of any introduction to public policy.10 Different scholars label the stages dif-
ferently and place different emphasis on them, but the terms in Figure 1.1 are
common.
Prepolicy Stages
Problem definition
(issues formation) Policy demands Agenda formation
Problem redefinition Policy Stages
Policy evaluation
Normative/empirical Policy implementation
Intended/unintended Outputs Policy adoption
Consequences Impacts (outcomes)
Direct/indirect impacts Tangible and symbolic
Direct/indirect costs
F I G U R E 1.1 Stages of the Policy Process

SOURCE: American Public Policy: An Introduction 9e; Cengage Learning © 2009.
The development of a public policy begins with a public belief that a prob-
lem exists. The three prepolicy stages are (1) problem definition or issues forma-
tion, (2) policy demands, and (3) agenda formation. Before a policy issue is
defined or adopted, a problem of public concern must be perceived. For exam-
ple, in the health care debate that dominated politics in the fall of 2013, one of
the points at issue was whether it was a violation of social justice that 15 percent
of our population of some 300 million did not have health insurance. The eco-
nomic crisis of 2008 was brought about in part by elevating home ownership to
an entitlement under the imperatives of social justice. Reasonable people disagreed
on these questions. Thus, ethical and ideological perspectives play an important
role during this problem perception stage because different perspectives will see
and define problems differently. Due to the contrasting opinions of different
groups, different formulations of the issue will result. Similarly, people with differ-
ent values disagree as to whether socioeconomic inequality violates the concept of
social justice and is therefore a problem that must be rectified.
Thus, the issues formation stage leads to the next stage: policy demands.
Opposing demands are now made for government action. Gradually, a social
give-and-take may coalesce into a perception that policymakers must deal with
a given problem, and it competes with other problems for the attention of pol-
icymakers. Some problems fail to sustain attention in this competition while
others rise to prominence. Various demands and perspectives create an agenda
of alternative proposals for dealing with an issue. Some proposals and demands
never make it to the agenda, while others are put on the agenda in altered form.
Agenda setting is always a political process—groups struggle for power to
control the agenda. Because all legislative and executive bodies are limited in
the issues that they can address at any given time, the power to have attention
paid to “your” issue on the agenda is invaluable. Therefore, ideological and
interest groups compete to broaden the agenda to include their issues or to
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softly-opened body, and that would be death. She clung in a sudden
anguish of terror. But it came with a strange slow thrust of peace, the
dark thrust of peace and a ponderous, primordial tenderness, such
as made the world in the beginning. And her terror subsided in her
breast, her breast dared to be gone in peace, she held nothing. She
dared to let go everything, all herself, and be gone in the flood.
And it seemed she was like the sea, nothing but dark waves rising
and heaving, heaving with a great swell, so that slowly her whole
darkness was in motion, and she was ocean rolling its dark, dumb
mass. Oh, and far down inside her the deeps parted and rolled
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the depths parted and rolled asunder, from the centre of soft
plunging, as the plunger went deeper and deeper, touching lower,
and she was deeper and deeper and deeper disclosed, and heavier
the billows of her rolled away to some shore, uncovering her, and
closer and closer plunged the palpable unknown, and further and
further rolled the waves of herself away from herself, leaving her, till
suddenly, in a soft, shuddering convulsion, the quick of all her plasm
was touched, she knew herself touched, the consummation was
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was born: a woman.
Ah, too lovely, too lovely! In the ebbing she realised all the
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man, and blinding to the wilting penis, as it so tenderly, frailly,
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unconscious cry of pure loss, and she tried to put it back. It had been
so perfect! And she loved it so!
And only now she became aware of the small, bud-like reticence and
tenderness of the penis, and a little cry of wonder and poignancy
escaped her again, her woman's heart crying out over the tender
frailty of that which had been the power.
"It was so lovely!" she moaned. "It was so lovely!" But he said
nothing, only softly kissed her, lying still above her. And she moaned
with a sort of bliss, as a sacrifice, and a new-born thing.
And now in her heart the queer wonder of him was awakened. A
man! the strange potency of manhood upon her! Her hands strayed
over him, still a little afraid. Afraid of that strange, hostile, slightly
repulsive thing that he had been to her, a man. And now she touched
him, and it was the sons of god with the daughters of men. How
beautiful he felt, how pure in tissue! How lovely, how lovely, strong,
and yet pure and delicate, such stillness of the sensitive body! Such
utter stillness of potency and delicate flesh! How beautiful! How
beautiful! Her hands came timorously down his back, to the soft,
smallish globes of the buttocks. Beauty! What beauty! a sudden little
flame of new awareness went through her. How was it possible, this
beauty here, where she had previously only been repelled? The
unspeakable beauty to the touch, of the warm, living buttocks! The
life within life, the sheer warm, potent loveliness. And the strange
weight of the balls between his legs! What a mystery! What a
strange heavy weight of mystery, that could lie soft and heavy in
one's hand! The roots, root of all that is lovely, the primeval root of all
full beauty.
She clung to him, with a hiss of wonder that was almost awe, terror.
He held her close, but he said nothing. He would never say anything.
She crept nearer to him, nearer, only to be near to the sensual
wonder of him. And out of his utter, incomprehensible stillness, she
felt again the slow, momentous, surging rise of the phallus again, the
other power. And her heart melted out with a kind of awe.
And this time his being within her was all soft and iridescent, purely
soft and iridescent, such as no consciousness could seize. Her
whole self quivered unconscious and alive, like plasm. She could not
know what it was. She could not remember what it had been. Only
that it had been more lovely than anything ever could be. Only that.
And afterwards she was utterly still, utterly unknowing, she was not
aware for how long. And he was still with her, in an unfathomable
silence along with her. And of this, they would never speak.
When awareness of the outside began to come back, she clung to
his breast, murmuring: "My love! my love!" And he held her silently.
And she curled on his breast, perfect.
But his silence was fathomless. His hands held her like flowers, so
still and strange. "Where are you?" she whispered to him. "Where
are you? Speak to me! Say something to me!"
He kissed her softly, murmuring: "Ay, my lass!"
But she did not know what he meant, she did not know where he
was. In his silence he seemed lost to her.
"You love me, don't you?" she murmured.
"Ay, tha knows!" he said.
"But tell me!" she pleaded.
"Ay! Ay! 'asn't ter felt it?" he said dimly, but softly and surely. And she
clung close to him, closer. He was so much more peaceful in love
than she was, and she wanted him to reassure her.
"You do love me!" she whispered, assertive. And his hands stroked
her softly, as if she were a flower, without the quiver of desire, but
with delicate nearness. And still there haunted her a restless
necessity to get a grip on love.
"Say you'll always love me!" she pleaded.
"Ay!" he said, abstractedly. And she felt her questions driving him
away from her.
"Mustn't we get up?" he said at last.
"No!" she said.
But she could feel his consciousness straying, listening to the noises
outside.
"It'll be nearly dark," he said. And she heard the pressure of
circumstance in his voice. She kissed him, with a woman's grief at
yielding up her hour.
He rose, and turned up the lantern, then began to pull on his clothes,
quickly disappearing inside them. Then he stood there, above her,
fastening his breeches and looking down at her with dark, wide eyes,
his face a little flushed and his hair ruffled, curiously warm and still
and beautiful in the dim light of the lantern, so beautiful, she would
never tell him how beautiful. It made her want to cling fast to him, to
hold him, for there was a warm, half-sleepy remoteness in his beauty
that made her want to cry out and clutch him, to have him. She
would never have him. So she lay on the blanket with curved, soft
naked haunches, and he had no idea what she was thinking, but to
him too she was beautiful, the soft, marvellous thing he could go
into, beyond everything.
"I love thee that I can go into thee," he said.
"Do you like me?" she said, her heart beating.
"It heals it all up, that I can go into thee. I love thee that tha opened
to me. I love thee that I came into thee like that."
He bent down and kissed her soft flank, rubbed his cheek against it,
then covered it up.
"And will you never leave me?" she said.
"Dunna ask them things," he said.
"But you do believe I love you?" she said.
"Tha loved me just now, wider than iver tha thout tha would. But who
knows what'll 'appen, once tha starts thinkin' about it!"
"No, don't say those things!—And you don't really think that I wanted
to make use of you, do you?"
"How?"
"To have a child—?"
"Now anybody can 'ave any childt i' th'world," he said, as he sat
down fastening on his leggings.
"Ah no!" she cried. "You don't mean it?"
"Eh well!" he said, looking at her under his brows. "This wor t' best."
She lay still. He softly opened the door. The sky was dark blue, with
crystalline, turquoise rim. He went out, to shut up the hens, speaking
softly to his dog. And she lay and wondered at the wonder of life,
and of being.
When he came back she was still lying there, glowing like a gypsy.
He sat on the stool by her.
"Tha mun come one naight ter th' cottage, afore tha goos; sholl ter?"
he asked, lifting his eyebrows as he looked at her, his hands
dangling between his knees.
"Sholl ter?" she echoed, teasing.
He smiled.
"Ay, sholl ter?" he repeated.
"Ay!" she said, imitating the dialect sound.
"Yi!" he said.
"Yi!" she repeated.
"An' slaip wi' me," he said. "It needs that. When sholt come?"
"When sholl I?" she said.
"Nay," he said, "tha canna do't. When sholt come then?"
"'Appen Sunday," she said.
"'Appen a' Sunday! Ay!"
He laughed at her quickly.
"Nay, tha canna," he protested.
"Why canna I?" she said.
He laughed. Her attempts at the dialect were so ludicrous, somehow.
"Coom then, tha mun goo!" he said.
"Mun I?" she said.
"Maun Ah!" he corrected.
"Why should I say maun when you said mun," she protested. "You're
not playing fair."
"Arena Ah!" he said, leaning forward and softly stroking her face.
"Tha'rt good cunt, though, aren't ter? Best bit o' cunt left on earth.
When ter likes! When tha'rt willin'!"
"What is cunt?" she said.
"An' doesn't ter know? Cunt! It's thee down theer; an' what I get
when I'm i'side thee, and what tha gets when I'm i'side thee; it's a' as
it is, all on't."
"All on't," she teased. "Cunt! It's like fuck then."
"Nay nay! Fuck's only what you do. Animals fuck. But cunt's a lot
more than that. It's thee, dost see: an' tha'rt a lot beside an animal,
aren't ter? even ter fuck! Cunt! Eh, that's the beauty o' thee, lass!"
She got up and kissed him between the eyes, that looked at her so
dark and soft and unspeakably warm, so unbearably beautiful.
"Is it?" she said. "And do you care for me?"
He kissed her without answering.
"Tha mun goo, let me dust thee," he said.
His hand passed over the curves of her body, firmly, without desire,
but with soft, intimate knowledge.
As she ran home in the twilight the world seemed a dream; the trees
in the park seemed bulging and surging at anchor on a tide, and the
heave of the slope to the house was alive.
CHAPTER XIII
On Sunday Clifford wanted to go into the wood. It was a lovely
morning, the pear blossom and plum had suddenly appeared in the
world, in a wonder of white here and there.
It was cruel for Clifford, while the world bloomed, to have to be
helped from chair to bath-chair. But he had forgotten, and even
seemed to have a certain conceit of himself in his lameness. Connie
still suffered, having to lift his inert legs into place. Mrs. Bolton did it
now, or Field.
She waited for him at the top of the drive, at the edge of the screen
of beeches. His chair came puffing along with a sort of valetudinarian
slow importance. As he joined his wife he said:
"Sir Clifford on his foaming steed!"
"Snorting, at least!" she laughed.
He stopped and looked round at the façade of the long, low old
brown house.
"Wragby doesn't wink an eyelid!" he said. "But then why should it! I
ride upon the achievements of the mind of man, and that beats a
horse."
"I suppose it does. And the souls in Plato riding up to heaven in a
two-horse chariot would go in a Ford car now," she said.
"Or a Rolls-Royce: Plato was an aristocrat!"
"Quite! No more black horse to thrash and maltreat. Plato never
thought we'd go one better than his black steed and his white steed,
and have no steeds at all, only an engine!"
"Only an engine and gas!" said Clifford.
"I hope I can have some repairs done to the old place next year. I
think I shall have about a thousand to spare for that: but work costs
so much!" he added.
"Oh, good!" said Connie. "If only there aren't more strikes!"
"What would be the use of their striking again! Merely ruin the
industry, what's left of it: and surely the owls are beginning to see it!"
"Perhaps they don't mind ruining the industry," said Connie.
"Ah, don't talk like a woman! The industry fills their bellies, even if it
can't keep their pockets quite so flush," he said, using turns of
speech that oddly had a twang of Mrs. Bolton.
"But didn't you say the other day that you were a conservative-
anarchist," she asked innocently.
"And did you understand what I meant?" he retorted. "All I meant is,
people can be what they like and feel what they like and do what
they like, strictly privately, so long as they keep the form of life intact,
and the apparatus."
Connie walked on in silence a few paces. Then she said, obstinately:
"It sounds like saying an egg may go as addled as it likes, so long as
it keeps its shell on whole. But addled eggs do break of themselves."
"I don't think people are eggs," he said. "Not even angels' eggs, my
dear little evangelist."
He was in rather high feather this bright morning. The larks were
trilling away over the park, the distant pit in the hollow was fuming
silent steam. It was almost like old days, before the war. Connie
didn't really want to argue. But then she did not really want to go to
the wood with Clifford either. So she walked beside his chair in a
certain obstinacy of spirit.
"No," he said. "There will be no more strikes, if the thing is properly
managed."
"Why not?"
"Because strikes will be made as good as impossible."
"But will the men let you?" she asked.
"We shan't ask them. We shall do it while they aren't looking: for their
own good, to save the industry."
"For your own good too," she said.
"Naturally! For the good of everybody. But for their good even more
than mine. I can live without the pits. They can't. They'll starve if
there are no pits. I've got other provision."
They looked up the shallow valley at the mine, and beyond it, at the
black-lidded houses of Tevershall crawling like some serpent up the
hill. From the old brown church the bells were ringing: Sunday,
Sunday, Sunday!
"But will the men let you dictate terms?" she said.
"My dear, they will have to: if one does it gently."
"But mightn't there be a mutual understanding?"
"Absolutely: when they realize that the industry comes before the
individual."
"But must you own the industry?" she said.
"I don't. But to the extent I do own it, yes, most decidedly. The
ownership of property has now become a religious question: as it
has been since Jesus and St. Francis. The point is not: take all thou
hast and give to the poor, but use all thou hast to encourage the
industry and give work to the poor. It's the only way to feed all the
mouths and clothe all the bodies. Giving away all we have to the
poor spells starvation for the poor just as much as for us. And
universal starvation is no high aim. Even general poverty is no lovely
thing. Poverty is ugly."
"But the disparity?"
"That is fate. Why is the star Jupiter bigger than the star Neptune?
You can't start altering the makeup of things!"
"But when this envy and jealousy and discontent has once started,"
she began.
"Do your best to stop it. Somebody's got to be boss of the show."
"But who is boss of the show?" she asked.
"The men who own and run the industries."
There was a long silence.
"It seems to me they're a bad boss," she said.
"Then you suggest what they should do."
"They don't take their boss-ship seriously enough," she said.
"They take it far more seriously than you take your ladyship," he
said.
"That's thrust upon me. I don't really want it," she blurted out. He
stopped the chair and looked at her.
"Who's shirking their responsibility now!" he said. "Who is trying to
get away now from the responsibility of their own boss-ship, as you
call it?"
"But I don't want any boss-ship," she protested.
"Ah! But that is funk. You've got it: fated to it. And you should live up
to it. Who has given the colliers all they have that's worth having: all
their political liberty, and their education, such as it is, their
sanitation, their health conditions, their books, their music,
everything. Who has given it them? Have colliers given it to colliers?
No! All the Wragbys and Shipleys in England have given their part,
and must go on giving. There's your responsibility."
Connie listened, and flushed very red.
"I'd like to give something," she said. "But I'm not allowed. Everything
is to be sold and paid for now; and all the things you mention now,
Wragby and Shipley sells them to the people, at a good profit.
Everything is sold. You don't give one heartbeat of real sympathy.
And besides, who has taken away from the people their natural life
and manhood, and given them this industrial horror? Who has done
that?"
"And what must I do?" he asked, green. "Ask them to come and
pillage me?"
"Why is Tevershall so ugly, so hideous? Why are their lives so
hopeless?"
"They built their own Tevershall, that's part of their display of
freedom. They built themselves their pretty Tevershall, and they live
their own pretty lives. I can't live their lives for them. Every beetle
must live its own life."
"But you make them work for you. They live the life of your coal
mine."
"Not at all. Every beetle finds its own food. Not one man is forced to
work for me."
"Their lives are industrialised and hopeless, and so are ours," she
cried.
"I don't think they are. That's just a romantic figure of speech, a relic
of the swooning and die-away romanticism. You don't look at all a
hopeless figure standing there, Connie my dear."
Which was true. For her dark-blue eyes were flashing, her colour
was hot in her cheeks, she looked full of a rebellious passion far
from the dejection of hopelessness. She noticed, in the tussocky
places of the grass, cottony young cowslips standing up still bleared
in their down. And she wondered with rage, why it was she felt
Clifford was so wrong, yet she couldn't say it to him, she could not
say exactly where he was wrong.
"No wonder the men hate you," she said.
"They don't!" he replied. "And don't fall into errors: in your sense of
the word, they are not men. They are animals you don't understand,
and never could. Don't thrust your illusions on other people. The
masses were always the same, and will always be the same. Nero's
slaves were extremely little different from our colliers or the Ford
motorcar workmen. I mean Nero's mine slaves and his field slaves. It
is the masses: they are the unchangeable. An individual may
emerge from the masses. But the emergence doesn't alter the mass.
The masses are unalterable. It is one of the most momentous facts
of social science. Panem et circenses! Only today education is one
of the bad substitutes for a circus. What is wrong today, is that we've
made a profound hash of the circuses part of the programme, and
poisoned our masses with a little education."
When Clifford became really roused in his feelings about the
common people, Connie was frightened. There was something
devastatingly true in what he said. But it was a truth that killed.
Seeing her pale and silent, Clifford started the chair again, and no
more was said till he halted again at the wood gate, which she
opened.
"And what we need to take up now," he said, "is whips, not swords.
The masses have been ruled since time began, and till time ends,
ruled they will have to be. It is sheer hypocrisy and farce to say they
can rule themselves."
"But can you rule them?" she asked.
"I? Oh yes! Neither my mind nor my will is crippled, and I don't rule
with my legs. I can do my share of ruling: absolutely, my share; and
give me a son, and he will be able to rule his portion after me."
"But he wouldn't be your own son, of your own ruling class; or
perhaps not," she stammered.
"I don't care who his father may be, so long as he is a healthy man
not below normal intelligence. Give me the child of any healthy,
normally intelligent man, and I will make a perfectly competent
Chatterley of him. It is not who begets us, that matters, but where
fate places us. Place any child among the ruling classes, and he will
grow up, to his own extent, a ruler. Put kings' and dukes' children
among the masses, and they'll be little plebians, mass products. It is
the overwhelming pressure of environment."
"Then the common people aren't a race, and the aristocrats aren't
blood," she said.
"No, my child! All that is romantic illusion. Aristocracy is a function, a
part of fate. And the masses are a functioning of another part of fate.
The individual hardly matters. It is a question of which function you
are brought up to and adapted to. It is not the individuals that make
an aristocracy: it is the functioning of the aristocratic whole. And it is
the functioning of the whole mass that makes the common man what
he is."
"Then there is no common humanity between us all!"
"Just as you like. We all need to fill our bellies. But when it comes to
expressive or executive functioning, I believe there is a gulf and an
absolute one, between the ruling and the serving classes. The two
functions are opposed. And the function determines the individual."
Connie looked at him with dazed eyes.
"Won't you come on?" she said.
And he started his chair. He had said his say. Now he lapsed into his
peculiar and rather vacant apathy, that Connie found so trying. In the
wood, anyhow, she was determined not to argue.
In front of them ran the open cleft of the riding, between the hazel
walls and the gay grey trees. The chair puffed slowly on, slowly
surging into the forget-me-nots that rose up in the drive like milk
froth, beyond the hazel shadows. Clifford steered the middle course,
where feet passing had kept a channel through the flowers. But
Connie, walking behind, had watched the wheels jolt over the
woodruff and the bugle, and squash the little yellow cups of the
creeping-jenny. Now they made a wake through the forget-me-nots.
All the flowers were there, the first bluebells in blue pools, like
standing water.
"You are quite right about its being beautiful," said Clifford. "It is so
amazingly. What is quite so lovely as an English spring!"
Connie thought it sounded as if even the spring bloomed by act of
Parliament. An English spring! Why not an Irish one? or Jewish? The
chair moved slowly ahead, past tufts of sturdy bluebells that stood up
like wheat, and over grey burdock leaves. When they came to the
open place where the trees had been felled, the light flooded in
rather stark. And the bluebells made sheets of bright blue colour,
here and there, sheering off into lilac and purple. And between, the
bracken was lifting its brown curled heads, like legions of young
snakes with a new secret to whisper to Eve.
Clifford kept the chair going till he came to the brow of the hill;
Connie followed slowly behind. The oak buds were opening soft and
brown. Everything came tenderly out of the old hardness. Even the
snaggy craggy oak trees put out the softest young leaves, spreading
thin, brown little wings like young bat wings in the light. Why had
men never any newness in them, any freshness to come forth with?
Stale men!
Clifford stopped the chair at the top of the rise and looked down. The
bluebells washed blue like floodwater over the broad riding, and lit
up the downhill with a warm blueness.
"It's a very fine colour in itself," said Clifford, "but useless for making
a painting."
"Quite!" said Connie, completely uninterested.
"Shall I venture as far as the spring?" said Clifford.
"Will the chair get up again?" she said.
"We'll try; nothing venture, nothing win!"
And the chair began to advance slowly, jolting down the beautiful
broad riding washed over with blue encroaching hyacinths. Oh last of
all ships, through the hyacinthian shallows! Oh pinnace on the last
wild waters, sailing on the last voyage of our civilisation! Whither, Oh
weird wheeled ship, your slow course steering! Quiet and
complacent, Clifford sat at the wheel of adventure: in his old black
hat and tweed jacket, motionless and cautious. Oh Captain, my
Captain, our splendid trip is done! Not yet though! Downhill in the
wake, came Constance in her grey dress, watching the chair jolt
downwards.
They passed the narrow track to the hut. Thank heaven it was not
wide enough for the chair: hardly wide enough for one person. The
chair reached the bottom of the slope, and swerved round, to
disappear. And Connie heard a low whistle behind her. She glanced
sharply round: the keeper was striding downhill towards her, his dog
keeping behind him.
"Is Sir Clifford going to the cottage?" he asked, looking into her eyes.
"No, only to the well."
"Ah! Good! Then I can keep out of sight. But I shall see you tonight. I
shall wait for you at the park gate about ten."
He looked again direct into her eyes.
"Yes," she faltered.
They heard the Papp! Papp! of Clifford's horn, tooting for Connie.
She "Coo-eed!" in reply. The keeper's face flickered with a little
grimace, and with his hand he softly brushed her breast upwards,
from underneath. She looked at him, frightened, and started running
down the hill, calling Coo-ee! again to Clifford. The man above
watched her, then turned, grinning faintly, back into his path.
She found Clifford slowly mounting to the spring, which was halfway
up the slope of the dark larch wood. He was there by the time she
caught him up.
"She did that all right," he said, referring to the chair.
Connie looked at the great grey leaves of burdock that grew out
ghostly from the edge of the larch wood. The people call it Robin
Hood's Rhubarb. How silent and gloomy it seemed by the well! Yet
the water bubbled so bright, wonderful! And there were bits of eye-
bright and strong blue bugle. And there, under the bank, the yellow
earth was moving. A mole! It emerged, rowing its pink hands, and
waving its blind gimlet of a face, with the tiny pink nose-tip uplifted.
"It seems to see with the end of its nose," said Connie.
"Better than with its eyes!" he said. "Will you drink?"
"Will you?"
She took an enamel mug from a twig on a tree, and stooped to fill it
for him. He drank in sips. Then she stooped again, and drank a little
herself.
"So icy!" she said gasping.
"Good, isn't it! Did you wish?"
"Did you?"
"Yes, I wished. But I won't tell."
She was aware of the rapping of a woodpecker, then of the wind,
soft and eerie through the larches. She looked up. White clouds
were crossing the blue.
"Clouds!" she said.
"White lambs only," he replied.
A shadow crossed the little clearing. The mole had swum out onto
the soft yellow earth.
"Unpleasant little beast, we ought to kill him," said Clifford.
"Look! he's like a parson in a pulpit," said she.
She gathered some sprigs of woodruff and brought them to him.
"New-mown hay!" he said. "Doesn't it smell like the romantic ladies
of the last century, who had their heads screwed on the right way
after all!"
She was looking at the white clouds.
"I wonder if it will rain," she said.
"Rain! Why! Do you want it to?"
They started on the return journey, Clifford jolting cautiously downhill.
They came to the dark bottom of the hollow, turned to the right, and
after a hundred yards swerved up the foot of the long slope, where
bluebells stood in the light.
"Now old girl!" said Clifford, putting the chair to it.
It was a steep and jolty climb. The chair plugged slowly, in a
struggling unwilling fashion. Still, she nosed her way up unevenly, till
she came to where the hyacinths were all around her, then she
balked, struggled, jerked a little way out of the flowers, then stopped.
"We'd better sound the horn and see if the keeper will come," said
Connie. "He could push her a bit. For that matter, I will push. It
helps."
"We'll let her breathe," said Clifford. "Do you mind putting a scotch
under the wheel?"
Connie found a stone, and they waited. After a while Clifford started
his motor again, then set the chair in motion. It struggled and faltered
like a sick thing, with curious noises.
"Let me push!" said Connie, coming up behind.
"No! Don't push!" he said angrily. "What's the good of the damned
thing, if it has to be pushed! Put the stone under!"
There was another pause, then another start; but more ineffectual
than before.
"You must let me push," she said. "Or sound the horn for the
keeper."
"Wait!"
She waited; and he had another try, doing more harm than good.
"Sound the horn then, if you won't let me push," she said.
"Hell! Be quiet a moment!"
She was quiet a moment: he made shattering efforts with the little
motor.
"You'll only break the thing down altogether, Clifford," she
remonstrated; "besides wasting your nervous energy."
"If I could only get out and look at the damned thing!" he said,
exasperated. And he sounded the horn stridently. "Perhaps Mellors
can see what's wrong."
They waited, among the mashed flowers under a sky softly curdling
with cloud. In the silence a wood-pigeon began to coo, roo-hoo hoo!
roo-hoo hoo! Clifford shut her up with a blast on the horn.
The keeper appeared directly, striding inquiringly round the corner.
He saluted.
"Do you know anything about motors?" asked Clifford sharply.
"I am afraid I don't. Has she gone wrong?"
"Apparently!" snapped Clifford.
The man crouched solicitously by the wheel, and peered at the little
engine.
"I'm afraid I know nothing at all about these mechanical things, Sir
Clifford," he said calmly. "If she has enough petrol and oil—"
"Just look carefully and see if you can see anything broken,"
snapped Clifford.
The man laid his gun against a tree, took off his coat and threw it
beside it. The brown dog sat guard. Then he sat down on his heels
and peered under the chair, poking with his finger at the greasy little
engine, and resenting the grease-marks on his clean Sunday shirt.
"Doesn't seem anything broken," he said. And he stood up, pushing
back his hat from his forehead, rubbing his brow and apparently
studying.
"Have you looked at the rods underneath?" asked Clifford. "See if
they are all right!"
The man lay flat on his stomach on the floor, his neck pressed back,
wriggling under the engine and poking with his finger. Connie
thought what a pathetic sort of thing a man was, feeble and small-
looking, when he was lying on his belly on the big earth.
"Seems all right as far as I can see," came his muffled voice.
"I don't suppose you can do anything," said Clifford.
"Seems as if I can't!" And he scrambled up and sat on his heels
again, collier fashion. "There's certainly nothing obviously broken."
Clifford started his engine, then put her in gear. She would not move.
"Run her a bit hard, like," suggested the keeper.
Clifford resented the interference: but he made his engine buzz like a
blue-bottle. Then she coughed and snarled and seemed to go better.
"Sounds as if she'd come clear," said Mellors.
But Clifford had already jerked her into gear. She gave a sick lurch
and ebbed weakly forwards.
"If I give her a push, she'll do it," said the keeper, going behind.
"Keep off!" snapped Clifford. "She'll do it by herself."
"But Clifford!" put in Connie from the bank, "you know it's too much
for her. Why are you so obstinate!"
Clifford was pale with anger. He jabbed at his levers. The chair gave
a sort of scurry, reeled on a few more yards, and came to her end
amid a particularly promising patch of bluebells.
"She's done!" said the keeper. "Not power enough."
"She's been up here before," said Clifford coldly.
"She won't do it this time," said the keeper.
Clifford did not reply. He began doing things with his engine, running
her fast and slow as if to get some sort of tune out of her. The wood
re-echoed with weird noises. Then he put her in gear with a jerk,
having jerked off his brake.
"You'll rip her inside out," murmured the keeper.
The chair charged in a sick lurch sideways at the ditch.
"Clifford!" cried Connie, rushing forward.
But the keeper had got the chair by the rail. Clifford, however, putting
on all his pressure, managed to steer into the riding, and with a
strange noise the chair was fighting the hill. Mellors pushed steadily
behind, and up she went, as if to retrieve herself.
"You see she's doing it!" said Clifford victorious, glancing over his
shoulder. There he saw the keeper's face.
"Are you pushing her?"
"She won't do it without."
"Leave her alone. I asked you not."
"She won't do it."
"Let her try!" snarled Clifford, with all his emphasis.
The keeper stood back: then turned to fetch his coat and gun. The
chair seemed to strangle immediately. She stood inert. Clifford,
seated a prisoner, was white with vexation. He jerked at the levers
with his hand, his feet were no good. He got queer noises out of her.
In savage impatience he moved little handles and got more noises
out of her. But she would not budge. No, she would not budge. He
stopped the engine and sat rigid with anger.
Constance sat on the bank and looked at the wretched and trampled
bluebells. "Nothing quite so lovely as an English spring." "I can do
my share of ruling." "What we need to take up now is whips, not
swords." "The ruling classes!"
The keeper strode up with his coat and gun, Flossie cautiously at his
heels. Clifford asked the man to do something or other to the engine.
Connie, who understood nothing at all of the technicalities of motors,
and who had had experience of breakdowns, sat patiently on the
bank as if she were a cipher. The keeper lay on his stomach again.
The ruling classes and the serving classes!
He got to his feet and said patiently:

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American Public Policy: An

Introduction 11th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

American Public Policy: Promise and Performance 11th

An Introduction to the Policy Process: Theories,

Electronic Media: An Introduction 11th Edition, (Ebook

An Introduction to Genetic Analysis 11th Edition,

American Corrections 11th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Scientific Farm Animal Production: An Introduction

Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology 11th

The Invented State: Policy Misperceptions in the

The Demographic Context 30

Chapter 3 The Economy: Changing

Chapter 4 Economic Issues: Taxing, Spending, and

Chapter 5 Energy and Environmental Policies:

Nuclear Power 104

Contemporary Policy: Constitutional Rights and

Chapter 7 Poverty and Social Welfare Policy 193

Policy Evaluation: Do Social Welfare Policies Reduce

Chapter 8 Health Care: Transformation or

Chapter 9 Education: Conflict in Policy Direction 280

Chapter 10 Legal and Social Equality: The Struggle

Equality of Material Well-Being 328

Chapter 11 Immigration Policy: The Barely Open Door 353

Chapter 12 Foreign and Defense Policy: Security

Chapter 13 Private Morality and Public Policy: Moral

The Open Society and Tolerance of Diverse Ideas 421

American Public Policy is an introductory undergraduate text that focuses on the

APPROACHES TAKEN BY THIS BOOK

Contemporary Policy. Each chapter describes the evolution of present public

Policy Dilemmas. This new feature is designed to offer students a chance to

Chapter 3 gives attention to economic theory, economic regulation, changes

About the Authors

Clarke E. Cochran retired as Vice-President of Mission Integration at Covenant

N. Joseph Cayer is Professor Emeritus of Public Administration at Arizona State

Public Policy: An Introduction

STUDYING PUBLIC POLICY

What Constitutes Public Policy?

Why Study Public Policy?

Reasons for the Growing Pervasiveness of Public Policy

Policy Impact: The Frequent Failure

POLICY DILEMMAS The Ongoing Issue of the Role of Government

DEFINING MAJOR CONCEPTS

everyone concerned. They cannot be allocated according to some criterion of

Models of the Policy Process

Stages of Policy Development

Problem redefinition Policy Stages

F I G U R E 1.1 Stages of the Policy Process

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