# WC and MC Ch3 (Wireless Network Principle)

Wireless Communication
and
Mobile Computing
By: Tekalign B.
Chapter Three
Wireless Network Principles
Brainstorming
3 Why Mobile Computing?
 People are mobile
 Devices are mobile
Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Brainstorming
4
What is Mobility?
• A person who moves
– Between different geographical locations
– Between different networks
– Between different communication devices
– Between different applications
• A device that moves
– Between different geographical locations
– Between different networks

Brainstorming
5 What is Mobile Computing?
• What is computing?
Operation of computers (according to oxfords advance
learner’s dictionary)
• What is the mobile?
That someone /something can move or be moved easily
and quickly from place to place
• What is mobile computing?
Users with portable computers still have network
connections while they move

Brainstorming
6
Wireless vs Wired
 Wired network is described as a configuration that involves cables which

establish a connection to the Internet and other devices on the network.
 Data is transferred from one device to another or over the Internet using Ethernet
cables.
 Wireless network are configurations that operate on radio

frequency or microwave signals.
 The radio signals allow wireless enabled devices to communicate with one another
and the Internet without having to be connected to the network via an Ethernet
cable.
Wired network
7
Advantages of using a wired Disadvantages of using a wired
network? network?
 RELIABILITY AND STABILITY:
When configured properly wired networks
 Lack of mobility: Wired
provide reliability and stability. networks can be inflexible in
 VISIBILITY: Wired networks are not visible
terms of mobility.
by additional wired networks or there is no  Installation: Wired network
interference.
installations can take longer to set
Speed: Much faster than wireless networks. up
 Security: is well protected from un-authorized  Maintenance: the maintenance
access. could be potentially costly
 Cost: Depending upon the configuration, the  Wires: Cables can present falling
framework for a wired network can be rather hazards or become disconnected
inexpensive to install. by office workers or cleaning
crews.
Wireless network
8
ADVANTAGES OF USING A wireless DISADVANTAGES OF USING A wireless
NETWORK? NETWORK?
Cost: cost of implementing a  Visibility: With wireless networks, one

network is visible to the other which can
wireless network is relatively
affect the performance of your connection.
inexpensive.
 Security: wireless networks are less secure
Installation: installation of a than wired networks since the communication
signals are transmitted through the air.
wireless network is faster and easier
because it requires less equipment.  Speed: wireless networks lack the data
transmission speed capability of wired
Mobility: Wireless networks allow networks.
your office workers to be more mobile  Reliability and stability: wireless networks
with the flexibility to access the are prone to interference by other networks,
network from any location using any wireless enabled devices, and objects such as
walls that can obstruct the connection.
type of wireless enabled device.

3.1. Basics of Wireless
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Infrastructure Access
 Access Points
 Provide infrastructure access to mobile users.
 Cover a fixed area
 Wired into LAN

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 Access Points …
 Problems
 Access Point placement depends on wired network
availability
 Obstructions make it difficult to provide total coverage
of an area
 Site surveys are performed to determine coverage areas
 Security Concerns: rogue access points in companies etc..
 Each Access Point has limited range

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 Peer to peer Ad Hoc Mode

3.2. Electromagnetic Spectrum
20
 Wireless communication is deals the transmitting/receiving info

using EM waves in open space, basically free from wires
 What is Electromagnetic Wave?

 EM Waves carry the electromagnetic energy of electromagnetic field
through space.
 Electromagnetic Waves include Gamma Rays (γ – Rays), X – Rays,

Ultraviolet Rays, Visible Light, Infrared Rays, Microwave Rays and Radio
Waves.
 Electromagnetic Waves (usually Radio Waves) are used in wireless
communication to carry the signals.

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21
 The primary disadvantage of wireless transmission when

compared with wired transmission, it has a higher Bit Error Rate
(BER)
 Bit error rate is the degree of a receiving bits with error
 Data can be corrupted during transmission - many factors exist -
like transmission impairments
 What is the primary reason ?
 Atmospheric noise
 Physical obstructions found in the signal’s path
 Multipath propagation and Signal interference

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 Two types of bit errors
 Single-bit error: only one bit in a data unit (byte, character, packet, …) has
changed
Fig. 1 Example of single-bit error
 Burst error: 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed
Fig. 2 Example of burst error

5/25/2024
Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
Principles Systems 5/25/2024
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What is Wireless Signal?

 Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves travelling through the
air.
These are formed when electric energy travels through a

piece of metal -- for example a wire or antenna -- and waves
are formed around that piece of metal.
These waves can travel some distance depending on the strength

of that energy.
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Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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 Types of Wireless Signal?

 There are many, many types of wireless technologies.
 You may be familiar with AM and FM radio,
 Television,
 Cellular phones,
 Wi-Fi,
 Satellite signals such as GPS and television,
 two-way radio, and Bluetooth.
5/25/2024
Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
 is the complete set of EM waves or radiation
 EM waves travel through space just like ocean waves.
 These waves are created by the movement of electrons and have

the ability to propagate via space.
 They travel at speed of light in an empty space.
c = 3x10^8 m/s c = λf where c= speed of light
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Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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 Waves produced by the oscillation of electric and magnetic field at

90 degree is called Electric Magnetic Field
 When EM waves travel in the space energy transfer from
electric to nearby magnetic field and vice versa.
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Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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 The energy carrying TV and Radio signals,
 the heat from microwave oven,
 the light from the sun, or
 X-rays and Gamma – rays used in hospitals are all form of
EM Waves.
 Using appropriate antennas, transmission and reception of
electromagnetic waves through space becomes feasible
5/25/2024
Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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 The fundamental characteristics of an electromagnetic wave are:

Wavelength
(measured in meters) : is the distance from any point on one wave to the
same point on the next one.
 The signal generated in the transmitter is sent to the antenna

The electrons movement generate an electric field which is a wave
The size of the cycle pattern is called the wavelength.

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Amplitude
(measured in volts or watts):
 is about the strength of the wave or the power of wave’s vibration.
 The greater the amplitude of the wave the more energy it carries.
 great amplitude means strong signal.
Fig. Wavelength and Amplitude of an EM wave

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Amplitude …
Amplitude is the vertical distance, or height, between crests

For the same wavelength and frequency, different amplitude
can exist

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Frequency :
 the number of times a wave cycle repeats within a certain time.
 We use a Hertz to measure frequency.
 One hertz means a wave repeats one cycle within one second.
 Thus the above wave frequency is 3Hertz because it repeats 3 cycles per
second.
 We can say the wave below has higher frequency than above wave.
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 Example Frequency Ranges: Below we can see the span of
frequencies that are commonly used in communications.
 Broadcast transmitters for AM, FM and Television use frequencies below 1000 MHz,
 Wi-Fi uses two bands at higher frequencies - 2.4 and 5GHz.
 Cellular phones use many different frequencies.

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 The wave with longer wavelength has lower frequency.
 Shorter wavelength means higher frequency.
 Amplitude has nothing to do with frequency.
 Waves of different frequency can have the same amplitude.
 Waves of the same frequency can have different amplitudes.

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EM spectrum bands
 EM spectrum comprises a number of parts called bands. However, do not
exist naturally.
 Bands are used to explain the different properties of various spectrum
parts
Fig. 4 EM spectrum bands

5/25/2024
Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking) Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024
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Radio Waves
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 The most important bands for commercial communication
systems are radio and microwave bands
 Note: Bands above visible light are rarely used in wireless
communication systems due to the fact that they are difficult to
modulate and are dangerous to living creatures
 Radio waves occupy the lowest part of the spectrum, down to
several KHz
 They were the first to be applied for wireless communications
(Gugliemo Marconi sent the first radio message across the Atlantic
Ocean in the early 1900s)
5/25/2024
Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking) Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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 Lower frequency radio bands have lower bandwidth than

higher frequency bands.
 Thus, modern wireless communications systems favor the use

of high frequency radio bands for fast data services
 Uses:
 TV and radio (AM, FM) broadcasting
 heart rate monitors
Cell phone communication
 However, higher frequency radio signals have a shorter range

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Fig. 5 The various radio bands and their common use

Microwaves
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 The high frequency radio bands (UHF, SHF and EHF) are referred to as
microwaves.
 Microwaves get their name from the fact that they have small wavelengths
compared to the other radio waves
 Uses
 Is also used to transmit mobile phone signal.
 Microwave ovens
 Bluetooth headset, radar, GPS, …
 However, they have the disadvantage of being easily attenuated by objects

found in their path
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Lecture 1:Lecture
An Overview
3: Wireless
of Wireless
Network
Communication
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Fig. 5 The various microwave bands and their common use
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Infrared
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 Infrared is located below the spectrum of red visible

light.
Is absorbed by the skin and we feel it as heat.
 Uses
 It is used in heaters, toasters and grills.
 And also used for TV remote control.
 Night vision goggles
 It is applicable in some wireless communication systems. For instance,
infrared-based IEEE 802.11 WLAN

5/25/2024
Visible Light
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 Visible light is a tiny part of the spectrum between UV and

Infrared
 Only type of EM wave able to be detected by the human eye
 All the lights we can see fits in here.

5/25/2024
Ultraviolet
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 Ultraviolet (UV) is produced naturally by the sunlight and

ultraviolet lamps, it is dangerous to human.
 We can’t see or feel it, but our skin responds to it by turning darker.
Can cause skin cancer and blindness in humans
Used in tanning beds and sterilizing equipment
Used in sun beds, security pens, fluorescent lights.

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X - Rays
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X-ray is known as Rontgen ray,

are characterized by shorter frequency (longer
wavelength) than gamma rays,
 it is also dangerous to human and widely applicable for medical
examination and airport security.
 Mostly pass through skin and soft tissue, but they don’t easily pass
through bone or metal.
 Used in medicine, industry and astronomy
 Can cause cancer

5/25/2024
Gamma rays
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 Is the most shortest wavelength (Highest frequency and

energy).
 Can’t seen or felt
 It mostly passes through skin and soft tissue, but some of it is absorbed by
cells.
 We use gamma-ray for sterilizing surgical instruments, and to kill harmful
bacteria in food.

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 Used in the right way gamma-ray can target and kill cancer cell.
 Exposure to gamma-ray is dangerous , as it can make cells
cancerous.
 The Incredible Hulk was the victim of gamma
radiation.

5/25/2024
Spectrum Regulation (Reading Ass 1)
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 Wireless network does not use a specific medium
 The medium will be shared by multiple users/systems, so it

will leads to signal interference
 To reduce the interference, spectrum regulation is mandatory
 The regulation can be conducted whether by government-

controlled national organizations and/or international
organization
Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking) Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles

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 ITU stands for international telecommunications union,

 it responsible to formulated a world-wide regulation guidelines
of EM spectrum.
 These guidelines should be followed by national regulation
organizations in order to allow use of the same equipment in
any part of the world.
 However, following the ITU guidelines is not mandatory
 Every couple of years the ITU holds a World Radio
communication Conference (WRC) to discuss spectrum
regulation issues by taking into account industry and consumer
needs as well as social issues
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Explain the difference b/n licensed and unlicensed bands ?
(Reading ass… 2)
 Licensed spectrum refers to bands reserved by the FCC

(Federal Communications Commissions) for organizations like radio
stations, cellular companies, and television providers.
 Unlicensed spectrum is free and open for anyone to use, and it

is where Wi-Fi lives.
 In 2020, the FCC opened up a significant amount of unlicensed

spectrum within the 6 GHz band.
5/25/2024
Location Management in Wireless System
50 (Reading Ass 3)
 People carrying a mobile computer will be able to access
information regardless of the time and their current position
 Location Management (LM) will be an important issue in these situations
because wireless devices can change location while connected to a wireless
network
 There are two basic questions that must be answered when looking at a LM
scheme
 What happens when a mobile user changes location?
 Who should know about the change?
 The main task of LM is to keep track of a users’ location all the time while operating
 LM has two chief functions. Those are:
1) Location Tracking and Updating (Registering)
2) Location Finding (Paging)
5/25/2024
3.3. Antennas
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 An antenna is a specialized device designed to receive or transmit radio

waves.
 is an electrical conductor or system of conductors to send or receive RF signals.
 Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
 Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission

and reception (as transceiver)

Basic Types of Antennas
52 (Based on Direction)
1. Omni Directional Antenna
 provide power signals in all directions,
 covering all 360 degrees, at an equal radial distance.
 has the simplest design and it is also called a rod antenna.
 involve TV antennas, dipole antennas, quad antennas, GPS
antennas, radio antennas, and many more.

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2. Semi Directional Antenna

 radiate the signal to a single, particular direction for
communication from one point to another.
 They can connect both the indoor and outdoor communication
for both small area and large distance coverage,
 such as in Hallways/Corridors, Wireless ISPs, since in all
these mentioned spaces a specific directional coverage is
required.
 can also be used to radiate 360-degree coverage by arranging
multiple of them into an array.

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 Semi Directional Antenna …

 Mainly there are 3 types of semi-directional antennas based on
their design and structure. (Patch, Yagi, Panel)

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3. Highly Directional Antenna

 used for directing signals from one point to another but they
have a narrow beam with a high focus which is why they can
reach much larger distances.
 are used in outdoor areas, for example from one building to
another like in a huge office, university area.

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 Highly Directional antennas are of two types:

 Parabolic Dish: They have short side lobes, acute radiation angles,
and a high front-back ratio, parabolic antennas have been the most
efficient kind of directional antenna.
 Grid Antenna: Since directional antennas direct signals for large distances
outside, the grid antennas have a grid-like structure so as to let air pass
through them so that the signal is not directed elsewhere during a windy day.

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 Isotropic Antenna (idealized)
 Radiates power equally in all directions
 Dipole Antenna
 Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
 Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
 Parabolic Reflective Antenna
 Used for terrestrial microwave and satellite applications
 Larger the diameter, the more tightly directional is the beam

3.4. Signal Propagation Modes
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Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-Sight propagation
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1. Ground-wave propagation
 Follows contour (shape) of the earth
 Can Propagate considerable distances
 Frequencies up to 2 MHz
 Example፡- AM radio
Fig. 7 Ground-wave propagation mode

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2. Sky-wave Propagation
 Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down
to earth
 Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth’s surface
 Example: Amateur radio
Fig. 8 Sky-wave propagation mode

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3. Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation

 It operates on above 30 MHz neither ground nor sky wave
propagation operates
 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within LOS

 Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere
 Ground Communication – antennas within effective LOS due to refraction
 Refraction – bending of microwaves by the

atmosphere/objects
When wave changes medium, speed changes

Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
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Cont’d…
Signal
Earth
Fig. 9 Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation Mode

5/25/2024
3.5. Modulation and Multiplexing
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Modulation and multiplexing are electronic

techniques for transmitting information efficiently
from one place to another
Modulation makes the information signal more

compatible with the medium
Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be

transmitted concurrently over a single medium

Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking) 5/25/2024
Cont’d…
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Modulation is the process of converting data into

radio waves by adding information to an
electronic or optical carrier signal.

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 Why using modulation?
 To reduce the Antenna Size
 lower frequency signal would require a much larger-size antenna at the
receiving end.
 To reduce the noise and interference:
 lower frequency wave is more susceptible to interference than higher-frequency wave.
So, modulation make the data signal wave a higher frequency wave.
 for security
 With modulation, data signal is kind of hidden inside carrier wave.
 Higher - frequency wave would have more bandwidth and thus carrying
more data.
 Allow multiplexing

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 Types of modulation?
 Analog Modulation
Continues wave modulation
 AM, FM and Phase Modulation
Pulse modulation
 Pulse Amplitude modulation
 Pulse width modulation
 Pulse position modulation
 Pulse code modulation
 Digital Modulation
 ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying
 PSK – Phase Shift Keying
 FSK – Frequency Shift Keying
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 There are many types of modulation, and different technologies

can use one or more types to send and receive information.
 In the two examples below -- AM and FM radio -- the M stands for
modulation.
 The type of modulation is what makes them different.
Example one: AM radio. The A in AM comes from Amplitude - the
energy or strength of the signal, operating at a single frequency.
An un-modulated AM wave might look like:

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 And a modulated AM radio wave has higher and lower energy (amplitude) waves
indicating higher and lower audio frequencies in the signal:
 From left to right, we have the normal, un-modulated wave, then the lower
amplitude wave (representing low points in audio waves), then the higher
amplitude wave (representing crests or high points in audio waves).
 A more detailed version of an AM signal is below:
 The audio signal is the wave on the top, with the corresponding Amplitude
Modulated wave below it.
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 Example two: FM radio. The F in FM comes from Frequency - defined
by how quickly the wave vibrates every second.
 An un-modulated FM wave might look like:
 And a modulated FM radio wave has higher and lower frequencies indicating
higher and lower audio frequencies in the signal:
 From left to right, we have the normal, un-modulated wave, then the lower frequency
wave (representing lower audio amplitudes), then the higher frequency wave
(representing higher audio amplitudes).

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Reading Ass … 4
 What is the variation b/n AM and FM radios ?

71
Fig. 10 Modulation at the Transmitter
 Amplifier: is an electronic device used for increasing the amplitude of

electrical signal.
 A type of amplifier which is designed to boost the power level of the input
signal is called a power amplifier.
72 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the

same medium or channel
 Is the set of technique that allows simultaneous transmission of multiple

signals, through a single physical link.
Advantages:
Efficient use of available bandwidth of the link.
Avoid any wastage of available bandwidth.

Multiplexing
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 The three basic types of multiplexing are:
 Frequency Division
Time Division
Code Division

74 Multiplexing
Fig. 11 Multiplexing at the Transmitter

3.6. Classification of Wireless Networks
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 Wireless body area networks
 Wireless personal area networks
 Wireless local area networks
 Wireless Metropolitan area networks and
 Wireless wide area networks such as GSM or CDMA cellular

networks
 Satellite networks and access networks broadband

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 Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN).

 Max. signal range 2 meters
 interconnecting respective devices within the surface of the
body.

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 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN).

 Max. signal range 10 meters

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 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).

 Max. signal range ≈ 100 meters
 also called the Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi or IEEE 802.11)
A WLAN uses radio technology instead of wires to connect
nodes along the network.
Wi-Fi is the transmission method used to communicate over a
WLAN via wireless access points (APs) that enable
connectivity with endpoint devices, using standards set by the
IEEE.

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 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). …

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 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).
Signal range of approximately 5 km to 20 km (recently up to

50 )
Often called Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave

Access (WiMAX or IEEE 802.16)
 A WMAN provides access outside office and home networks.
It is larger than a WLAN but smaller than a WWAN.

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 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)…
WiMAX BS Wi-Fi users

may be
connected
to the
WiMAX
network
Mobile
devices
might have WMAN might
built in be owned
WiMAX and operated
adapter or by
may be organization
externally s or public
plugged institutions
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 Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN).
 Use network infrastructure of mobile operators.

 Cover wide area much wider than groups mentioned above.
 A WWAN is sometimes referred to as mobile broadband.
 WWANs use cellular technologies to create a wireless
network that spans a large geographic distance and supports a
variety of services.
 use cellular network technologies such as WI-MAX, GSM,
GPRS, 3G and others.

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Cont’d…
84
 Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) …

5/25/2024
Cont’d…
85  Other types of wireless networks include the following:
 Fixed wireless. is a way to deliver last-mile internet connectivity to

households and businesses over airwaves rather than through wired fiber or
cable television connections.
 Municipal wireless network. An MWN is a wireless network operated by

a local government authority. It provides access to users across a given
geography.
 Citizens Broadband Radio Service. CBRS signals can cover many miles and
aren't limited to line-of-sight limitations -- which is different than Wi-Fi
networks.
 Wireless mesh network. A WMN is created by connecting the wireless nodes
installed at each user's location. This design is decentralized and is more
straightforward because each node only has to transmit as far as the next node.
 Wireless ad hoc network. A WANET is a wireless network that can be
created spontaneously without requiring the use of a router or wireless AP.
5/25/2024
86
3.7. Medium Access Control
 Implemented by hardware, typically in the computer NIC.
 The MAC Sublayer: in a network, two devices can be
connected by a dedicated link (like a P2P wired cable) or a
shared link (like a wireless connection)
 Point-to-Point Access: when two devices are connected by a

dedicated link and this link can be used by them at any time; PPP is
used.
 Multiple Access: when two devices are connected by a shared link;
when two devices in a multiple access situation get access to the link or a
86
channel in the link, they may need to use a point-to-point access

protocol to exchange data
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Cont’d…
87
 Multiple Access Protocols

 The problem of controlling the access to the medium is
similar to the rules of speaking in an assembly (the right
to speak is upheld; two people do not speak at the same
time; do not interrupt each other; do not monopolize the
discussion; ...)
87
5/25/2024
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88
 Three categories of multiple access protocols
1. Random Access Protocols - try your best like taxis do
i. MA - Multiple Access
ii. CSMA - Carrier Sense MA
iii. CSMA/CD - CSMA with Collision Detection
iv. CSMA/CA - CSMA with Collision Avoidance
2. Controlled-Access Protocols - get permission
i. Reservation
ii. Polling
iii. Token Passing
3. Channelization Protocols - simultaneous use
i. FDMA - Frequency-Division MA
88 ii. TDMA - Time-Division MA
iii. CDMA - Code-Division MA
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
89
1. Random Access Protocols
 each station has the right to use the medium without being
controlled by any other station
 collision may occur if more than one station tries to send
i. MA - Multiple Access
 ALOHA is the earliest RA method developed at the
University of Hawaii in the early 1970s
 Originally designed to be used on a radio LAN with a data
rate of 9600 bps
 Can also be used in satellite and wireless transmissions
89 Aloha (in Hawaiian language) means hello and goodbye
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
90
 A base station serves as a central controller; each station

sends a frame to the base station with an uploading frequency
of 407 MHz (the solid line in the figure); the base station
sends it to the receiver using a downloading frequency of 413
MHz (the dashed line in the figure)
90
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
91
 Versions of ALOHA
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 Time is divided into discrete intervals of one packet
duration
 Transmitting a frame is allowed only at the beginning
of a slot
 Still collision is possible; collided packet are
retransmitted after a random delay
91
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
92
ii. CSMA - Carrier Sense MA - polite version of ALOHA

 to minimize the chance of collision, each station first
listens to the medium before sending; “listen before talk”
 if the channel is busy, it waits until it is idle
 otherwise it transmits; if a collision occurs, it waits a
random amount of time and starts listening again
 the chance of collision is minimized, but may still occur
because of the propagation delay (a station doesn’t know if
another one has just started transmitting); or if two or
more stations start transmitting at the same time
92
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
93
93
t1 < t2 < t3 < t4 < t5

5/25/2024
Cont’d…
94
 CSMA - Carrier Sense MA has a persistent strategy
1. Persistence Strategies: two sub-strategies have been defined

 Non-persistent: sense a line and send if it is idle; otherwise
wait a random amount of time; reduces the chance of
collision, but also reduces the efficiency of the network
and has longer delays
94
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
95
2. Persistent: sense a line and “send” if it is idle; otherwise listen

 It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency
95
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
96
iii. CSMA/CD - CSMA with Collision Detection
 Adds a procedure to handle a collision

 If a collision is detected and to reduce the probability of
collision the second time, the sender waits; it has to back off
 It waits a little the first time, more if a collision occurs
again, much more if it happens a third time, and so on;
finally gives up
 Line sensing is done using one of the persistence strategies
 Used in Ethernet (Wired Networks)
96
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
97
iii. CSMA/CA - CSMA with Collision Avoidance

 Avoids collision
 Uses one of the persistence strategies; after it finds the line
idle, it waits an IFG (inter-frame gap) amount of time; it then
waits another random amount of time; after that it sends the
frame and sets a timer
 If it receives an ACK before the timer expires, the
transmission is successful; otherwise something is wrong (the
frame or the ACK is lost); waits for a back off amount of time
and re-senses the line
 Used in wireless LANs
97
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
98
2. Controlled-Access Protocols
 The stations consult one another to find which station has
the right to send; a station can not send unless it has been
authorized by other stations
i. Reservation
 A station needs to make a reservation before sending
data
 Time is divided into intervals; in each interval, a
reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that
interval; if there are N stations in the system, there are
exactly N reservation mini-slots in the reservation frame
98
5/25/2024
Cont’d…
99
ii. Polling
 For topologies in which one device is designated as a primary
station and the other stations are secondary stations
 The primary asks the secondaries if they have data to send
(polling); when it has data to be sent, the primary tells the
secondary to get ready to receive (selecting)
99
a. Poll b. Select 5/25/2024

10 Cont’d…
0
iii. Token Passing

 A station is authorized to send data when it receives a special
frame called a token
 The stations are arranged around a ring (each station has a
predecessor and a successor)
 A token circulates around the ring when no data is transmitted
 Token is a bit sequence
 Free token: 01111110
 Busy token: 01111111
 When a node wants to transmit

 Wait for a free token (01111110)
100
 Remove token from ring (replace with busy token)
 Transmit message
 When done transmitting, replace free token on ring 5/25/2024
10 Cont’d…
1
Example
 FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface - is a 100 Mbps
fiber optic token ring local area network standard
 It is also used for MANs 5/25/2024
10 Cont’d…
2
3. Channelization Protocols
 The available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations
102
5/25/2024
10 Reading ass… 5
3
Multiple Access Schemes
3 Orthogonal Schemes:
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
104 Tips of Chapter Three
What is Li-Fi ?
 Li-Fi, as coined by Prof. Harald Haas during his TED Global

talk, is bidirectional, high speed and fully networked wireless
communications similar to Wi-Fi
 Li-Fi is a subset of optical wireless communication (OWC)

and can be supplement to RF communication (Wi -
Fi or Cellular network), or a replacement in contexts of data
broadcasting

5/25/2024
Why do we need an alternate technology?
 Capacity
 Efficiency
 Availability
 Security

5/25/2024
Visible Spectrum
5/25/2024
Li-Fi vs Wi-Fi

5/25/2024
Li-Fi Working Principle

5/25/2024
Li-Fi Applications
 Underwater Communications: Since radio waves cannot be used
under water because these waves are strongly absorbed by sea water
within feet of their transmission and this renders it unusable
underwater but Li-Fi is suitable for underwater communication
 Health Sector: Since Wi-Fi is not safe to be used in hospitals and
other various health care sectors because it penetrates human body.
Li-Fi can be implemented and well suit in this sector
 Internet Anywhere: street lamps, light of vehicles can be used to
access internet anywhere in footpaths, roads, malls, anywhere where
light source is available
 Safety and Traffic Management: it can be used to update traffic
information at almost every instant and it will be easy for traffic
police to deal with traffic and catch the one who breaks the rule
5/25/2024
 Finding the location of a person (Navigation System): Li-Fi uses

visible light and this property can be exploited in finding the location
of people
 Suppose if a child is misplaced and he/she is wearing an earing

which is made of Led’s. And this led can constantly
communicate with the visible light available and reveal the
location of the child

5/25/2024
End of Chapter Three

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Wireless Communication

 People are mobile

 Devices are mobile

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

 Wired network is described as a configuration that involves cables which

 Wireless network are configurations that operate on radio

Cost: cost of implementing a  Visibility: With wireless networks, one

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

 Peer to peer Ad Hoc Mode

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

 Wireless communication is deals the transmitting/receiving info

 What is Electromagnetic Wave?

 Electromagnetic Waves include Gamma Rays (γ – Rays), X – Rays,

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

 The primary disadvantage of wireless transmission when

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Fig. 1 Example of single-bit error

 Burst error: 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed

Fig. 2 Example of burst error

What is Wireless Signal?

These are formed when electric energy travels through a

These waves can travel some distance depending on the strength

 Types of Wireless Signal?

 EM waves travel through space just like ocean waves.

 These waves are created by the movement of electrons and have

 They travel at speed of light in an empty space.

c = 3x10^8 m/s c = λf where c= speed of light

 Waves produced by the oscillation of electric and magnetic field at

 The energy carrying TV and Radio signals,

 the heat from microwave oven,

 the light from the sun, or

 X-rays and Gamma – rays used in hospitals are all form of

 The fundamental characteristics of an electromagnetic wave are:

 The signal generated in the transmitter is sent to the antenna

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

 great amplitude means strong signal.

Fig. Wavelength and Amplitude of an EM wave

Amplitude is the vertical distance, or height, between crests

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Lecture 3: Wireless Network Principles 5/25/2024

Fig. 4 EM spectrum bands

 Lower frequency radio bands have lower bandwidth than

 Thus, modern wireless communications systems favor the use

 However, higher frequency radio signals have a shorter range

Fig. 5 The various radio bands and their common use

 Bluetooth headset, radar, GPS, …