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 Automotive Maintenance
& Light Repair

Second Edition

Rob Thompson

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 Automotive Maintenance & Light ­Repair,
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Second Edition
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Rob Thompson
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D ed i c at i o n

Without the encouragement, support, and especially the patience of my wife, Vondra,
this would not have been possible. Thank you.

Thanks really need to go to my students. Over my years of teaching, through all the ups
and downs that are part of being an educator, I’ve been lucky enough to have many
great students who help inspire and motivate me to always try harder and do better
the next day.

I want to thank a long-time friend, colleague, and mentor, Jack Erjavec. It was Jack
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­Cengage, where I have been lucky to have worked on many different projects and meet
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 C o n te n ts
Preface.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
About the Author. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Supplements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the
Automotive Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Automotive Industry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER 2 Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Personal Safety and Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Shop Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chemical Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
CHAPTER 3 Shop Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Shop Orientation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Technician’s Tools and Their Use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fasteners and Torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Vehicle Lifting and Jacking.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Locating Vehicle Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Service Orders.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
CHAPTER 4 Basic Technician Skills.. . . . . . . . . 85
Employability Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Communication Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Math Skills.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Science Skills.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Computer Literacy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
CHAPTER 5 Wheels, Tires, and
Wheel Bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Purpose and Operation of Wheels and Tires. . . . . . . . . . 132
Wheel and Tire Diagnosis and Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Wheel Bearing Principles and Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
iv  
Wheel Bearing Diagnosis and Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
CHAPTER 6 Suspension System
Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Functions and Basic Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Front Suspension System Design
and Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Rear Suspension Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Electronic Suspension Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
CHAPTER 7 Suspension System
Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Tools and Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Inspection and Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Wheel Alignment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
CHAPTER 8 Steering System
Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Functions and Basic Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Steering Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
CHAPTER 9 Steering Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Tools and Safety .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Steering Columns.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Steering System Inspection and Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Power Assist Service .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
CHAPTER 10 Brake System Principles. . . . . . 273
Factors Involved in Brake System Design
and Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Hydraulics and Pascal’s Law.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Hydraulic System and Components .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

CHAPTER 11 Brake System Service.. . . . . . . 297
Tools and Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Determining Brake System Concerns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Hydraulic System Inspection and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
CHAPTER 12 Drum Brake System
Principles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Drum Brake Systems and Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
CHAPTER 13 Drum Brake System
Inspection and Service. . . . . 331
Service Tools and Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Drum Brake Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Drum Brake Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
CHAPTER 14 Disc Brake System
Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Disc Brake Systems and Components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Disc Brake Components and Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
CHAPTER 15 Disc Brake System
Inspection and Service. . . . . 375
Service Tools and Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Disc Brake Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Brake Rotor Inspection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Rotor Refinishing and Brake Lathes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Integral and Electronic Parking Brake Service.. . . . . . 402
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
CHAPTER 16 Antilock Brakes, Stability
Control, and Power Assist
Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
ABS/ESC Principles and Operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Traction Control and ESC Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Power Assist Types and Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Contents    v
CHAPTER 17 Electrical/Electronic
System Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Principles of Electricity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Circuits, Components, and Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Electromagnetism and the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Electronics.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
CHAPTER 18 Basic Electrical/Electronic
System Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Electrical Safety, Tools, and Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Electrical Measurements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Schematics.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Circuit Faults and Testing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Wiring Repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
CHAPTER 19 Battery, Starting, and Charging
System Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Battery Principles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Starting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Starting System Components and Operation.. . . . . . 533
Hybrid Vehicle Starting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Charging Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Generator Construction and Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Hybrid Charging Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
CHAPTER 20 Starting and Charging
System Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Tools and Safety.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Battery Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Battery Service and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Starting System Testing and Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Charging System Testing and Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
CHAPTER 21 Lighting and Electrical
Accessories.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Lighting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Driver Information Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
vi    Contents
CHAPTER 22 Engine Performance
Principles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
CHAPTER 23 Engine Mechanical Testing
and Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Engine Testing Tools.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Engine Testing Safety Precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Test Analysis.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
CHAPTER 24 Engine Performance
Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Engine Performance Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
On-Board Diagnostic Systems.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Trips and Drive Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
CHAPTER 25 Drivetrains and
Transmissions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Drivetrain Types.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Transmissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Automatic Transmissions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Manual Transmissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Transmission Inspection and Service.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
Axle Shafts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
CHAPTER 26 Heating and Air
Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
The HVAC System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
CHAPTER 27 Vehicle Maintenance.. . . . . . . 795
Maintenance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Maintenance Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Fluid Checks and Services.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Review Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Appendix B.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
Appendix C.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Appendix D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Appendix E .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Glossary��������������������������������������������������������������� 826
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������� 837
P re fa c e

A
utomotive Maintenance & Light Repair (AM&LR) is designed to guide and prepare
students enrolled in automotive maintenance and light repair automotive pro-
grams. The textbook and accompanying workbook cover the fundamental theo-
ries, real world examples, and practical applications for each of the 2016 NATEF (National
Automotive Technicians Education Foundation) Maintenance and Light Repair (MLR) tasks.
The second edition has been thoroughly revised and updated. What started out as a
book going in for some maintenance and light repair work turned into a complete over-
haul of many areas. This completely updated edition is designed to meet the needs of
MLR programs and to prepare students for the ASE Student Certification tests.
Written by a high school automotive technology instructor, this textbook provides in-depth
detail about each task, including the underlying concepts necessary to understand how and
why components and systems operate. In addition, real-world examples of inspecting and
servicing these components and systems are provided in both the text and the workbook.
Today’s automotive students face a challenging career—the technological changes tak-
ing place with modern cars and trucks are vast. Systems unheard of only ten years ago
are now common on many vehicles. The rate of adoption of new technology can only be
expected to increase as consumer expectations change and technology becomes more
affordable. Keeping up with technology is one of the biggest challenges technicians face
today. A theme of AM&LR is helping the student become a lifelong learner; to learn how
to find information and how to use the information productively. As part of this theme is
the inclusion of developing the “soft” skills, such as communication, which in the modern
work place are as important as technical skills.
To help prepare students for MLR tasks, the text includes a chapter on reviewing and
reinforcing fundamental academic and professional skills. Chapter 4 includes a review of
basic math and science skills, computer use and information about job seeking, resumes,
interviewing, and work ethic. These topics are addressed because having technical skills
is not always enough to be able to get and keep a job.
The layout of AM&LR is designed to logically progress from basic industry and shop
operations and shop safety to automotive systems operation, service and repair. Safety is
emphasized throughout the text to reinforce safe work practices addressed in Chapters 2
and 3. The sequence of chapters is from basic systems and services to complex, although
it is not necessary to follow the sequence of chapters as presented.
The workbook contains a corresponding question and answer section for each text-
book chapter. These sections can be used to help guide the students’ reading of the
textbook by requiring the answering of questions directly from the text. The workbook
also contains additional activities to reinforce concepts found in the core text, as well as
selected lab activities and worksheets. The lab worksheets provided are meant to rein-
force important fundamental skills that each student should master.
Whether used in a high school or post-secondary training program, AM&LR is designed
to guide students through the MLR tasks and onto becoming automotive professionals.

Thank you,
Rob Thompson
 A c k n o wledgme n ts
No book project is ever the work of a single person and this is no exception. This book
would not have been possible without the help and support of many others. If there are
errors in content, the fault is mine and not theirs.
Vondra Hoop-Thompson Kaylee Daw
Jack Erjavec Honda Service Technician, Hugh White
Laurie Sandall Honda
South-Western City Schools Madeline Ginther
Derek Fitzer Chevrolet Service Technician, Byers
South-Western City Schools Chevrolet
Ron Cross Brenda York
South-Western City Schools Chevrolet Service Technician, Byers
Bill Henning Chevrolet
South-Western City Schools Jordan Thompson
Robert MacConnell Service Advisor, Byers Imports
South-Western City Schools
Scott Barkow
Jay Dimasso
Porsche Service Technician, Byers
South-Western City Schools
Imports
Tim Gilles
Danny Foor
Delmar/Cengage Learning
Instructor, Columbus State Community
Beriky Ouk College
VW Service Technician, Hatfield Jaguar Service Technician, Byers
Volkswagon Imports

Reviewers
The author and publisher would also like to thank the instructors who provided invalu-
able feedback during the development of the project:
Tim Campbell Arminio Lopes
Wenatchee Valley Technical Skills Center Greater New Bedford Regional
Wenatchee, WA Vocational Technical High School
Dave Kapitulik New Bedford, MA
Connecticut Technical High School Robert Wilson
Middletown, CT California Department of Education
Brian LaCroix Sacramento, CA
Capital Region BOCES, Career &
Technical School
Albany, NY

viii  
A b o u t t h e Au t h o r

An experienced automotive technician and educator, Rob Thompson is the author of

multiple publications on automotive technology, repair, and service. In addition to teach-
ing high school automotive courses at South-­Western Career Academy in Grove City,
Ohio, he has served as an adjunct faculty member at Columbus State Community Col-
lege. He is a past board member and past President of the North American Council of
Automotive Teachers (NACAT).
 S u ppleme n ts
Instructor Resources
Time-saving instructor resources are available on CD or at the Instructor Companion
Website found on cengagebrain.com. Either delivery option offers the following com-
ponents to help minimize instructor preparation and engage students:

• P owerPoint chapter presentations with selected images that present the highlights of
each chapter
• An Instructor’s Guide in electronic format
• Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero® delivers hundreds of test questions
in a flexible, on-line system. You can choose to author, edit, and manage test bank
content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions and deliver tests from your LMS,
or you can simply download editable Word documents from the Instructor Resource
CD or Instructor Companion Website.
• An Image Gallery includes photos and illustrations from the text.
• A NATEF Correlation Guide

Workbook
The Workbook to accompany Automotive Maintenance & Light Repair, 2e is designed
to work hand-in-hand with the textbook to offer additional opportunities for review
and application of the chapter material. The Workbook includes theory-based Activi-
ties, procedure-based Lab Worksheets, and finally, Review Questions to help reinforce
what was learned from studying the core text.

MindTap for Automotive Maintenance & Light Repair

MindTap is a personalized teaching experience with relevant assignments that guide
students to analyze, apply, and improve thinking, allowing you to measure skills and
outcomes with ease.

• Personalized Teaching: Becomes yours with a Learning Path that is built with key stu-
dent objectives. Control what students see and when they see it. Use it as-is or match
to your syllabus exactly –hide, rearrange, add and create your own content.
• Guide Students: A unique learning path of relevant readings, multimedia and activities
that move students up the learning taxonomy from basic knowledge and comprehen-
sion to analysis and application.
• Promote Better Outcomes: Empower instructors and motivate students with analyt-
ics and reports that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in course, engagement
and completion rates.

x  
 C h a p t e r
© Cengage Learning 2014

1
Introduction to the Automotive Industry
Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the types of jobs available in the automotive industry.
• Explain training and education options for technicians.
• Explain the areas of ASE certification.
• Describe the reasons for the changes in automotive design and construction.

KEY TERMS
collision technician National Automotive parts technician
Technician Education service advisor
entry-level technician
Foundation (NATEF)
lifelong learning
National Institute for
line technician Automotive Service
Excellence (ASE)
2   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry

T he history of the modern automobile, a vehicle using

a combustion engine to propel itself, can be traced
back to the late 1800s. The first self-propelled vehicles
were hand built in very limited quantities by pioneers
such as Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Karl
Benz. An example of what is considered the first auto-
mobile is shown in Figure 1-1.
In the early days of motorized transportation, gasoline
was not the only fuel source. Even in the late 1800s and
early 1900s, many models of electric vehicles existed.
Other vehicles had steam engines, or used types of alco-
hol or kerosene as their energy source. Figure 1-2 shows
a map of electric vehicle charging stations in New York
City from 1923.

Figure 1-1 The earliest automobiles, such as this, were motorized horse buggies.

Figure 1-2 Electric cars were very popular and had many charging stations in the early 1900s.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   3
In the early 1900s, Ransom E. Olds began mass pro-
duction of the Oldsmobile. This process was greatly
improved upon by Henry Ford in the 1910s with the
Model T. Ford’s use of standardized parts and the assem-
bly line brought the cost of manufacturing the Model T
down enough that it became affordable to many more
Americans.
Decreased manufacturing costs created fierce com-
petition among brands and helped to push design
advancements. However, despite the advances in
service life, safety, and efficiency, cars and trucks
remained largely unchanged for decades. Not until
electronics began to be integrated into new car tech-
nology in the 1970s did major changes come to the
automotive industry.
The Automotive Industry
The automotive industry is part of the domestic (and
international) transportation industry. In the United
States, the number of jobs associated with automobiles
is large; however, these jobs are just part of a bigger
picture encompassing all transportation-related jobs.
Approximately 1 in 7, or about 14%, of all jobs in the
United States are transportation related. This includes
indirect jobs that support the cars and light trucks on the
country’s roads, heavy-duty trucks and equipment, avia-
tion, shipping, and off-road and recreational vehicles. All
these industries have changed due to the growth or loss
of markets; changes in technology; and changes in laws,
regulations, and the economy. Regardless of the path you
choose, if you remain in a transportation-related career,
Figure 1-3 Automotive exhaust contributes to air pollution. Emission control has been a major
contributor to automotive design since the 1970s.
you will need to be able to adapt and grow as things
change around you.
Change in the Auto Industry
There are many reasons for the changes and advance-
ments made over the last 100 years. Improvements in
manufacturing, materials, and electronics have played
significant roles in the industry’s evolution, and how
these improvements came into being deserves some
attention.
■ Emissions and the Environment. At the end
of World War II, the American economy, booming due
to the needs of war production, needed to change to
consumer production. Factories that had been producing
tanks, airplanes, and war supplies shifted to producing
household goods and automobiles. General Motors,
Ford, and Chrysler restarted new car production in 1946.
Returning veterans and their families needed housing
and transportation as suburban development began. As
the number of vehicles on the road increased each year,
noticeable changes occurred in the air around certain
parts of the country.
As more vehicles were sold and more road miles
traveled, more pollution was released into the atmo-
sphere. In parts of California, the combination of pol-
lution and weather patterns created a thick, heavy haze
over cities, called smog, a combination of smoke and fog
(Figure 1-3). The California government knew that the
automobile was contributing to the pollution and began
to take steps to decrease the amount of pollution pro-
duced by cars and trucks. The very first emission control
© Venturelli Luca/Shutterstock.com.
4   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry

device, the positive crankcase ­ventilation (PCV) valve,
was introduced in 1957. Since then, passage of the Clean
Air Act, Clean Water Act, and many more emission con-
trol laws have forced vehicle manufacturers to meet
increasingly strict exhaust emission standards.
■ The Economy and Fuel Prices. Before the energy
crisis in 1973, American cars and trucks were, in general,
large, heavy, powerful, and not fuel efficient. The energy
crisis of the 1970s caused a shift in consumer attitudes
toward the cars the domestic auto makers produced.
In 1975, Congress passed the corporate average fuel
economy (CAFE) standards. These standards require
auto makers to reach increasingly higher fuel economy
ratings across all their vehicles sold in the United
States. Currently, the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA) projects fleet average fuel
economy will be between 40.3 and 41 mpg by 2021
(Figure 1-4). Changes in engines, vehicle construction,
and other areas will be necessary as future vehicles will
be required to achieve better fuel economy.
■ Market Share. Imported cars had a small
percentage of the total automotive market share before
the mid-1970s. When oil and gas prices rose, many car
buyers started to look at the small, fuel-efficient models
offered by Honda, Toyota, Datsun (later Nissan), VW,
and others. In 1970, Americans bought about 313,000
Japanese-manufactured vehicles and approximately
750,000 vehicles from Germany. In comparison, sales
by General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler exceeded 7.1
million vehicles—more than 85% of the market. In 2015,
sales of imported cars in the United States accounted for
New Goals in Fuel Economy
60 miles per gallon average fleetwide
54.5 by 2025
50
about 55% of total sales. A chart of U.S. auto sales is
shown in Figure 1-5.
One factor in market share was product quality. Even
though domestic manufacturers began making smaller
and more efficient vehicles, they were still being sur-
passed in quality by the imports. The cars imported from
Japan and Germany were more efficient, were well built,
and often lasted longer than domestically built vehicles.
Consumers responded to this by buying more and more
imported cars and trucks. While General Motors, Ford,
and Chrysler made improvements, the availability of
so many other makes and models reduced their market
share steadily over the years.
■ The Electronic Revolution. As production of
smaller and less expensive electronic components and
magnets increased, more accessories, such as power
windows, could be supplied at lower cost. Features
such as power door locks, rear window defoggers, and
air conditioning, once expensive options, are standard
equipment on today’s vehicles.
Most modern options such as navigation systems,
Bluetooth phone integration, adaptive cruise control,
occupant safety systems, antilock brakes, and vehicle
stability control would not exist without low-cost elec-
tronics. In addition, electrical and electronic components
are replacing items that have traditionally been either
mechanical or hydraulic (powered by pressurized fluid).
For example, some vehicles use electrically controlled
torque-vectoring systems, designed to increase handling
and performance by controlling the power to each drive
wheel (Figure 1-6). Electric power steering is common
on many cars, and Nissan has a steer-by-wire system
available on the Infiniti Q50. Using electronic compo-
nents gives design engineers more flexibility and often
reduces manufacturing, maintenance, and repair costs.

40 36.6 by 2017 United States Automotive Market Share 2015

30
Domestic Asian
20 45% 46%
Combined standards for
10 U.S. cars and light trucks
European
0 9%
'80 '85 '90 '95 '00 '05 '10 '15 '20 '25
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration

Figure 1-4 Reducing emissions and increasing fuel econ- Figure 1-5 The share of new car sales among the U.S. pro-
omy have been major factors in vehicle design. duction and foreign manufacturers.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   5

injuries (Figure 1-7). These factors have made modern

cars and trucks much safer and have helped reduce traf-
fic accident deaths over the years.

■ Passenger Comfort and Expectations. As the

Figure 1-6 Changes in technology continue to drive auto-
motive design. Systems that were once only found on very
high-end cars, such as ABS, are now standard on all new cars
sold in the United States.
consumer electronics industry introduces new and more
exciting products, customers demand more of these
types of devices and conveniences for their vehicles.
GPS-linked navigation, adaptive lighting and cruise
control, wireless media integration, voice recognition,
and intelligent computer systems are all standard or
available on many of today’s vehicles. Most new cars
and trucks are equipped with display screens that are
used for the driver and passengers to interface with the
various onboard systems (Figure 1-8).
As these features become less expensive to integrate,
they eventually trickle down to even the lowest-cost

■ Safety. Founded in 1969, the Insurance Institute for

Highway Safety (IIHS) has worked to improve vehicle
safety by concentrating on three areas involved in motor
vehicle crashes: human, vehicle, and environment
factors. Prior to the work of the IIHS, there was little
safety regulation regarding the design and construction
of passenger vehicles. Seat belts did not become a
standard feature until 1968, due in part to the way in
which vehicle manufacturers evaluated vehicle safety
and conducted tests. In fact, the federal government did
not incorporate vehicle crash testing until the NHTSA
began testing in 1979.
Since then, the United States government, the IIHS,
and the auto makers themselves have conducted exten- Figure 1-7 Safety is another key aspect of the evolution of
sive testing to improve vehicle crashworthiness. This the modern automobile. As vehicles become smaller and lighter,
has led to improved vehicle designs that not only manufacturers must develop new technologies to keep the pas-
sengers and pedestrians safe.
reduce injuries but also help prevent accidents from
occurring. Because of the work of organizations such
as the IIHS and NHTSA, vehicles now are designed
from the start with safety as a primary concern. This
has led to the standardization of many safety systems,
such as:
• Antilock brake systems (ABS) and stability control
• Supplemental restraint systems
• Tire pressure monitoring systems
• Rear-view backup cameras
Also, due to crash test studies, vehicles are built with
features—impact zones or crumple zones, collapsible
steering columns, door reinforcements, dash bracing, Figure 1-8 Customers expect voice-activated systems such
and so on—that allow the vehicle to absorb and deflect as navigation, phone, entertainment, and customizable vehicle
impact forces away from the occupants and to reduce settings.
6   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry
vehicles as options or standard equipment. However, as
vehicles become more complex, the necessity of quali-
fied technicians to service and repair these systems when
they fail increases.
Careers
Without the transportation industry, the U.S. and world
economies would stop. There are more than 11 mil-
lion jobs in the United States directly related to trans-
portation, including sales, marketing, engineering, and
production. The career choices available are stagger-
ing. Beyond the servicing and repairing of automo-
biles, there is collision repair; diesel, heavy-duty, and
agriculture equipment repair fields; small engine; marine
and air transportation; and countless other jobs related to
cars and trucks.
■ Auto Technicians. According to the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, there are currently more than 630,000
automotive technicians in the United States servicing
more than 241 million cars, SUVs, and light trucks. This
does not include collision, heavy-duty, off-road, or power
sports technicians. Most automotive technicians begin
their careers in an entry-level position, then progress to
jobs with more responsibility and higher pay.
An entry-level technician is expected to be able
to perform basic inspections and maintenance ser-
vices. Most will need to have a basic tool set consist-
ing of socket sets, wrenches, pliers, screwdrivers, and
an assortment of other basic tools (Figure 1-9). As a
beginning technician, you should have at least a basic
understanding of the various systems found on mod-
ern vehicles and the ability to make simple repairs. For
example, it is expected that an entry-level technician
should be able to:
• Perform an engine oil and filter change and reset the
maintenance reminder system.
Figure 1-9 An example of a starter tool kit, suitable for an
entry-level technician.
• Service tires and tire pressure monitoring systems.
• Inspect the brake system and perform basic brake
repairs.
• Replace batteries and either maintain or restore
memory functions.
• Replace transmission and differential fluids.
• Service the cooling system.
• Replace various lights, wipers, and other mainte-
nance items.
• Perform some computer programming functions.
As important as these skills and equally important
are the abilities to locate and interpret technical infor-
mation, to work well with colleagues and custom-
ers, and to have a good work ethic. As cars and trucks
become more complex, the ability to locate and cor-
rectly interpret technical information is of significant
importance. Very little can be done to modern vehicles
that do not require looking up information on a com-
puter or connecting to the vehicle’s onboard network
with a scan tool.
Interpersonal skills for working in teams are impor-
tant for the overall operation of the business. Customer
service industries also require the ability to communicate
well, to present a professional image, and to relate well
to others. These qualities, plus having initiative, good
attendance, and a positive attitude, are necessary to be
successful in the modern workplace.
After an entry-level technician acquires additional
skills and experience, he or she may become a line tech-
nician. A line technician is one who is certified and has
experience with most of the systems on the vehicle. As a
line technician, you will be expected to perform increas-
ingly more difficult repairs quickly and profitably, and
you may even assist in training new employees.
Many shops designate their technicians by catego-
ries, such as A, B, and C technicians. An A technician,
also called a lead technician, has the most experience
and certifications. He or she can perform repairs on all
the vehicle systems and can generate a lot of income.
A C-level technician is often young and has the least
experience in the shop. He or she may have a couple of
certifications and only a couple of years of experience.
C-level technicians often work on specific areas such
as brakes or suspension systems. B-level technicians
generally fall in between C- and A-level technicians.
An example of technician skill-level work is shown in
Figure 1-10.
Other Types of Technicians
As stated previously, there are many more career oppor-
tunities in the transportation industry than being an
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   7

Skill Level Warranty Time Standard

(1) HUB & BEARING, R&R

All Models (2WD)
One Side ....................................................................... B (0.8) 1.0
Both Sides ..................................................................... B (1.5) 1.9

Parts

Mfg. Part No. Price (MSRP)*

HUB & BEARING
All Models
1/2 Ton
w/Crew Cab ................................................................................................................ 15946732 $509.50
w/o Crew Cab ............................................................................................................. 15233111 $453.46

Figure 1-10 Skill levels shown in a parts and time guide. A shop may have one A-level or master technician, several
B-level technicians, and many C-level technicians.

Figure 1-12 Collision technicians repair body damage,

Figure 1-11 Engine machinists specialize in engine rebuilding. straighten the frame, and restore the paint and finish.

automotive technician. Many people who love cars and technician may perform the entire repair and paint
trucks specialize in one of the many other fields related the vehicle also. In the aftermarket, many collision
to the auto industry. technicians specialize in painting and refinishing or
custom painting. Custom painting has seen an increase
■ Engine Machinist. Automotive machinists are in demand as more people want to customize their
generally employed in specialty shops, called machine cars, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and other vehicles.
shops. Machinists are those men and women who repair and
rebuild engines, service cylinder heads and blocks, and, in
Word Wall
some cases, build high-performance racing engines. They
perform work such as reboring cylinder blocks, replacing Aftermarket—Aftermarket means the parts and
cylinder liners or sleeves, machining the block deck and service suppliers to the automotive industry not
cylinder head surfaces, fitting pistons and connecting rods, supplied by the vehicle manufacturers and their
and performing varied types of crack repairs (Figure 1-11). dealers.

■ Collision Technician. A collision technician ■ Parts Technician. A parts technician may work
repairs a vehicle after it has been involved in a collision for a dealer, an independent store, or a chain store. A
or has suffered some type of body or structural parts person is knowledgeable about the parts industry
damage. Depending on the type of repair facility, one and works with the public, helping to find the right parts
technician may perform nonstructural body repairs for the customer (Figure 1-13). Some parts persons
while another technician is responsible for painting work only with commercial accounts, such as local auto
and refinishing (Figure 1-12). In some shops, one and truck repair facilities.
8   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry
Being a parts person requires good people skills and
some basic automotive knowledge because many parts
stores provide free services such as wiper blade and bat-
tery installation.
■ Service Advisor. An automobile service advisor
specializes in communications between the customer
and others in the shop (Figure 1-14). In addition to
communication skills, a service advisor is knowledgeable
about vehicle systems, has sales skills, and often can
perform some basic shop operations.
The service advisor typically greets the customer
upon entering the service department, completes the ser-
vice order, then routes the service order to the a­ ppropriate
Figure 1-13 Parts technicians specialize in parts ­distribution
and working with customers.
Figure 1-14 Service advisors work with customers when
dropping the vehicle off, contacting them with the estimate,
explaining what repairs and services are required, and handle
the bill when the car is picked up.
technician. Once the technician has completed the diag-
nosis and estimate, the service advisor then contacts the
customer to discuss the needed repairs and services and
their costs. It is important for a service advisor to have
a good understanding of the various automotive systems
so that he or she can accurately communicate with the
technicians and customers.
■ Sales. Salespeople are often the most visible people
in the automotive industry. A salesperson provides the
expertise about the various makes and models of vehicles
that helps the customer make a decision when buying
a vehicle. Salespeople often work with the service
department to ensure that new vehicles are properly
prepped and ready for delivery.
■ Training and Education. Some technicians
become trainers and educators. Vehicle manufacturers,
equipment suppliers, tool companies, and even parts
stores employ technical trainers to provide training on
tools and repair procedures.
Some technicians become high school and college
instructors. To teach, an instructor needs to be an expe-
rienced technician. In addition, he or she should have
excellent communication and people skills and the desire
to help others succeed in the automotive industry.
■ Diesel, Heavy-Duty, and Agriculture
Technicians. One of the greatest needs of the
transportation industry is for qualified diesel technicians.
Every heavy-duty truck, piece of construction equipment,
and large ship have a diesel engine (Figure 1-15).
Even though the diesel industry was slower to adopt
Figure 1-15 Heavy-duty equipment technicians keep trucks
and other equipment in operation.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   9
the use of electronics for vehicle management than the
auto industry, modern diesels often have as much or
more electronic monitoring and controlling of engine
operation than a gasoline-powered engine. This is due in
part to the cost of a heavy-duty diesel engine and in part
to increasingly strict diesel emission standards. More
than 180,000 jobs existed in 2015 in the diesel, heavy-
duty, and agriculture equipment repair fields.
■ Motorcycle and Other Outdoor Power
Equipment. There are more motorcycles, ATVs,
snowmobiles, and personal watercraft in use today than
ever before, with the numbers expected to increase each
year.
In 2015, there were more than 65,000 motorcycle,
marine, and small engine technicians in the United States.
With the expected increases in ownership of these types
of vehicles, there is continued growth in the need for
service technicians. Just as cars and trucks have become
more complex in the last couple of decades, motorcycles
and off-road machines also are becoming more complex
(Figure 1-16). Many manufacturers now use electronic
spark control and fuel injection systems.
Snowmobiles, ATVs, and lawn maintenance equip-
ment may also be serviced by a motorcycle technician
during the off-season.
■ Aircraft Technicians. There were about 124,000
aircraft and avionics technicians in 2015. Most of those
Figure 1-16 Many aspects of automotive repair are simi-
lar to working on motorcycles, ATVs, boats, and other forms of
transportation.
jobs are located around major airports in large cities,
though employment can be found at smaller commercial
and private airports as well. Service and repair of general
aviation aircraft, such as small propeller-driven planes,
is very similar to automotive repair. Many of the same
skills used in fixing cars and trucks are used for repairing
aircraft. Propeller-driven aircraft use small gasoline
engines, hydraulic brakes, and an electrical system for
lighting and instrumentation.
Education and Training
The most important consideration for future auto techni-
cians is education. Before 1975, the only electronic com-
ponents likely to be found on a vehicle were in the radio.
In 1975, the need to increase fuel economy and reduce
exhaust emissions saw the implementation of electronics
in automobiles and light trucks. Small, mysterious boxes
began to replace mechanical ignition parts that had been
in use for decades. What had been for years a repair-
based industry started to move to a diagnose-and-replace
industry. These changes required mechanics to learn new
skills and adapt to the increasing amount of electronics
and changing technology. Today’s vehicles have doz-
ens of electronic modules monitoring and c­ ontrolling
nearly every aspect of the automobile. Technology use
will continue to increase as consumers expect more of
their vehicles.
■ Secondary Schools. The best preparation for a
future technician is participation in a formal training
program. Many high schools and career centers throughout
the United States provide training in automotive repair,
collision repair, diesel repair, and even aviation repair.
These programs offer training and experience in the
automotive repair industry and are often linked with
local dealerships and community colleges. Some
schools participate in the Automotive Youth Education
System (AYES), a partnership between several vehicle
manufacturers and secondary schools, that provides work
experience in addition to automotive training.
High school programs take many different forms,
though one- and two-year courses are common. In this
type of program, students can learn about the basic
aspects of auto technology, collision repair, or diesel
technology. Due to time constraints, it is difficult for
high school programs to prepare graduates for more than
entry-level positions. For those students who plan on
attending post-secondary education, a high school pro-
gram often can provide the student with advanced place-
ment credit with cooperating colleges and universities.
■ Post-Secondary Schools. Automotive programs at
community colleges, technical schools, and universities
10   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry
are another common way to obtain training as a technician
(Figure 1-17). These programs are typically two-year
associate degree programs, but some four-year degree
programs exist. Many community college programs work
cooperatively with a manufacturer, providing a training
program that is specific to that manufacturer’s vehicles.
Programs such as the Ford ASSET, General Motors
ASEP, BMW STEP, and Toyota T-TEN combine a two-
year associate degree in automotive technology with
working in a dealership as a technician (Figure 1-18).
■ Technical Schools. There are many different
post-secondary technical schools in the United States.
Schools such as Universal Technical Institute, Lincoln
Technical Institute, and WyoTech, specialize in training
auto technicians, collision technicians, and heavy-duty
Figure 1-17 An automotive lab at a community college.
Community colleges and private schools offer automotive
degree programs.
Figure 1-18 This school is a GM ASEP training school where
students become factory-trained GM technicians.
diesel technicians. These schools differ from community
colleges, in that some are privately owned and operated,
meaning that they do not receive any funding from
taxes. In many cases, these schools offer both degree
and diploma programs. A diploma program provides
training in the technical skills but does not include
any academic courses, such as communications, math,
science, or the humanities. While this may sound ideal
to a high school student, a diploma may not provide the
same opportunities in the future that an associate degree
can offer. For example, if a technician wants to someday
move up into management, a degree may be needed.
Technical schools often have shorter program com-
pletion times than a community college because stu-
dents spend between four and eight hours a day, five
days a week, in their technical content courses. This
means that a two-year program can be condensed into a
9- to 12-month course. It is important to note that with
some private schools, credit earned may not transfer to
an accredited college or university. Be sure to check on
accreditation and transfer credit before signing on to
attend a technical school.
■ National Automotive Technician Education
Foundation Program Accreditation. While each
program is different, most auto tech programs share
some similarities. Many high school programs and nearly
all post-secondary schools are evaluated and accredited
by the National Automotive Technician Education
Foundation (NATEF). Each program has to provide
documentation and pass an onsite evaluation to become
NATEF accredited. Accredited programs display the sign
showing that the program has achieved accreditation
(Figure 1-19). This ensures that the school is teaching
the competencies and standards prescribed by NATEF.
Because of this standardization, all core skills taught in
each accredited program are the same. More information
can be found at www.natef.org.
■ Lifelong Learning. Regardless of what area
of the repair industry you decide to pursue, you will
need to continue to learn and acquire new skills as the
industry changes. This is called lifelong learning. It
is impossible to provide a student all of the necessary
skills and information he or she needs during a two-
year program, even at the college level. Today’s cars and
trucks are too complex and changes occur too rapidly to
know everything there is to know. Because of this, you
will need to continue your education and training even
after you complete an associate’s degree.
If working for a new car dealership, you will be
expected to complete new product training, take
­web-based coursework, and attend training classes so
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   11

that you are familiar with the changes for each model
year. An example of a manufacturer’s training program
in shown in Figure 1-20. To be able to perform warranty
repairs, technicians must first complete required training
so that both the technician and the dealership are reim-
bursed for the repairs.
If you plan on working in the aftermarket or even
owning your own shop, you will need to continue your
training to remain current with technology. This may
require taking night classes or other types of specialized
training provided by a parts company such as NAPA or
CarQuest or from a tool company such as Snap-On or
Mac Tools.
Regardless of where you work, you will need to
accept that change is the only constant in the automotive
industry and that if you do not keep up, you will quickly
get left behind.

■ Professional Organizations. Several national

Figure 1-19 This sign shows that a school has met the
NATEF requirements for an automotive training program.
organizations exist for automotive technicians, including
the Automotive Service Association (ASAshop.org),
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE.org), and the
International Automotive Technicians Network (iATN.net).
ASA was founded more than 50 years ago and is
dedicated to and governed by independent automotive
service and repair professionals. ASA sponsors training
events and provides members with information regarding
­legislation and news from the industry.

Figure 1-20 Every vehicle manufacturer has a training system in place for its technicians.
ILT means ­instructor led training and WBT courses are web based training.
12   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry
SAE is comprised of engineers, executives, educators,
and others who share information and exchange ideas for
advancing the engineering of all types of self-­propelled
vehicles. SAE develops standards for the automotive
industry, such as motor oil viscosity ratings, and onboard
data communication protocols.
The iATN is the largest online network of ­automotive
repair technicians in the world. iATN is a community
where technicians, automotive trainers and educators,
shop owners, and others can discuss ideas, present prob-
lems for discussion, and post requests for help with a
challenging problem.
■ Publications. Even though the Internet has
become the dominant source of information for many,
there still exist many excellent print publications for
the professional technician. Among these are Motor
Magazine, Motor Age, and the publications by Babcox
such as Brake & Front End, Import Car, Underhood
Service, and Tomorrow’s Technician. In addition,
these magazines offer online access to current and
back issues.
Regardless of how you keep up with current trends
in the industry, Internet or print, what is important is
that you keep current. Publications like these and oth-
ers provide information about what is happening with
current makes and models of vehicles plus events in the
auto industry.
■ ASE Certification. Before 1972, the public
had no way to determine if an auto mechanic had at
minimum the basic skills necessary to repair their
vehicles. Mechanics and shops relied on customer
word-of-mouth and their reputations to inform others
about their abilities. In 1972, a nonprofit organization,
the National Institute for Automotive Service
Excellence (NIASE, later shortened to ASE), was
formed and began to certify mechanics. The testing and
certification process provides customers with a way to
recognize competent mechanics. The goal of ASE was
and still is to improve the quality of service and repair
and to improve the image of the repair industry. More
information about ASE can be found on its website,
www.ase.com.
ASE currently certifies automotive technicians in nine
areas and offers advanced certifications for engine per-
formance specialists.
A1 Engine Repair
A2 Automatic Transmissions
A3 Manual Transmissions
A4 Brakes
A5 Steering and Suspension
A6 Electrical/Electronics
A7 Heating and Air Conditioning
A8 Engine Performance
A9 Light Duty Diesel
L1 Advanced Engine Performance Specialist
Once a technician has passed all eight of the auto-
motive tests, A1 through A8, he or she is considered
an ASE Master Automobile Technician. Of the nearly
300,000 certified automotive technicians, approxi-
mately one-third are master technicians. Once master
certified, technicians earn the gold ASE Certified patch
(Figure 1-21).
The ASE Advanced Engine Performance Special-
ist (L1) Test contains questions that test technicians’
knowledge in the diagnosis and repair of computer-
controlled engine systems. In addition, the test mea-
sures technicians’ abilities in diagnosing the cause of
emission failures. This is especially important in states
where basic inspection/maintenance (I/M), enhanced
I/M (ASM or IM240), and OBD testing programs are
in effect.
The A9 Light Vehicle Diesel Engines Test was
added in 2009 in response to the expected increase in
the use of diesel engines in cars and light-duty trucks.
Though A9 is listed in the automotive test section,
it is not required for Master Automotive Technician
certification.
Some states require auto technicians to be ASE
certified to perform repairs. Many dealerships and
independent shops require ASE certification in order
to advance, attend specialized training, or perform
warranty repairs.
Figure 1-21 A master technician has passed all eight areas
of ASE certification and is often regarded as an A-level tech-
nician. ASE certification is a nationally recognized method of
proving your skills.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry   13

In 2013, ASE began offering student certification tests.

These tests do not require any job experience and are
valid for two years. You need to pass one or more of the
eight automobile tests to receive your certificate. Pass-
ing these tests and being able to present the certificate(s)
to a potential employer will show you have taken the
first steps to becoming a professional t­echnician. In addi-
tion, having these certifications means you are more
valuable as an employee because you already have the
knowledge and skills necessary to pass the ASE Student
­Certification Exam. More information can be found at
www.asestudentcertification.com.

■ Other ASE Certifications. In addition to those

listed above, ASE also has certification tests for the
following:

• Maintenance and Light Repair (G1)

• Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle Technician (F1)
• Exhaust Systems (X1)
• Collision Repair and Refinish Technicians (B2–B6)
• Medium/Heavy-Duty Truck Technicians (T1–T8
and L2)
Figure 1-22 An example of a portion of a manufacturer’s
• Transit Bus Technicians (B1–B8) training program certifications.
• School Bus Technicians (S1–S7)
• Automotive Service Consultant (C1)
of classes with hands-on training (Figure 1-22). Once
• Parts Specialist (P1, P2, and P4) a technician successfully completes a training series,
he or she becomes certified in that area. This allows
■ Manufacturer Certifications. In addition to ASE the technician to then perform warranty repairs in that
certifications, most vehicle manufacturers have their area. As the technician acquires more training and
own systems of training and certifying their technicians. certifications, he or she often progresses further up the
These systems generally include self-paced courses via pay scale and can earn more income by being able to
the Internet or product training manuals and a series perform more types of repairs.

SUMMARY
The automobile has evolved from a custom-built, high-
priced oddity into an integral component of modern
society.
Today’s cars and trucks are equipped with features and
designs only dreamed of a few decades ago.
The modern automobile has created a need for highly
qualified, critical thinking technicians to diagnose and
repair complex systems on today’s cars and trucks.
Regardless of career path, nearly countless opportunities
are available for someone wanting to pursue a career in
the transportation repair industry.
Approximately one in seven U.S. jobs are transportation
related, creating a diverse and plentiful job market for
those who wish to enter.
Both ASE and manufacturer certifications are used to
show the skills acquired by technicians.
14   Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Automotive Industry
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A person who greets the customer, writes the
repair order, and communicates with the technician
and the customer is called a __________________
_______________.
2. Most technicians start as an _______________
_______________ technician before acquiring the
skills necessary to become a line technician.
3. A _______________ is a technician who
specializes in repairing and rebuilding engines.
4. For a technician to achieve ASE _______________
Automotive Technician certification, he or she
must pass eight tests.
5. The acceptance of ____________________________
_______________ means that as a technician, you
will need to continue your education and training
over the years to stay current with changes in
technology.
6. Which of the following would not be considered a
responsibility of an entry-level technician?
a. Inspect and maintain fluids.
b. Check brake pad wear.
10. Which of the following are transportation jobs
c. Perform a tire rotation.
d. Replace a transmission.
7. Which of the following statements about ASE
certification is correct?
a. You must attend an NATEF-accredited school
to become ASE certified.
b. ASE certifies automotive, heavy-duty truck, and
aviation technicians.
c. A technician must pass eight automobile tests to
achieve Master Technician certification.
d. ASE certification is the same as being certified
by the vehicle manufacturer.
8. Technician A says that fuel economy and emission
requirements have led to the extensive use of
electronics in modern vehicles. Technician B says
that changes in safety requirements have caused
the vehicle manufacturers to rely on electronics
and computerization. Who is correct?
a. Technician A c. Both A and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
9. Which of the following automotive systems relies
on electronic sensing and control?
a. Restraint system
b. Engine and transmission control
c. Brake system
d. All of the above
related to the auto industry?
a. Aircraft technician
b. Paint and refinish specialist
c. Heavy-duty truck technician
d. All of the above
 C h a p t e r
© Cengage Learning 2014

2
Safety
Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify and demonstrate the use of personal protective equipment. (NATEF RST Safety #10)
• Identify and demonstrate correct behaviors for the automotive shop. (NATEF RST Safety #1, 6, 7,
9, 11, & 12)
• Inspect and demonstrate the use of basic shop equipment. (NATEF RST Safety #2)
• Identify and use emergency showers and eyewash stations. (NATEF RST Safety #8)
• Locate, read, and interpret material safety data sheets. (NATEF RST Safety #15)
• Demonstrate safe battery handling.
• Explain how to safely operate vehicles in the shop. (NATEF RST Safety #5)
• Identify chemical hazards and demonstrate safe use and disposal of various automotive chemi-
cals. (NATEF RST Safety #2 & 5)
• Identify fire hazards and fire extinguishers and demonstrate fire extinguisher use. (NATEF RST Safety #7)

KEY TERMS
air tools floor jack personal hygiene
asbestos hazardous wastes personal protective
­equipment (PPE)
blow guns material safety data sheet
(MSDS) respirators
carbon monoxide (CO)
mechanical safety latch safety data sheets (SDS)
creepers
mechanic’s gloves work ethic
engine hoists
nitrile gloves
eyewash stations
16   Chapter 2 • Safety
T here is no aspect of automotive repair and ser-
vice that is more critical than that of safety. Dam-
aged vehicles can be repaired or replaced. Damage to
the human body is not so easily fixed. Failure to follow
safety rules or policies can endanger yourself and those
around you as well.
Personal Safety and Behaviors
Personal safety is about taking care of yourself, your
appearance, and your body. The most talented techni-
cians are useless if they are dangerous to themselves or
others. There are dangers inherent to automotive repair,
but awareness and preparation will allow you to work
safely and productively.
CLOTHING AND PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
Clothing and personal protective equipment (PPE)
is your first line of defense in the automotive shop
­(Figure 2-1). Wearing the proper clothing helps keep
you safe and shows a professional image to the public.
Safe work practices and utilizing PPE correctly will ben-
efit you and your coworkers as well.
■ Proper Automotive Clothing. If there is anywhere
that fashion is not a priority, it is the auto repair lab or
shop. Proper clothing is necessary to prevent many types
of injuries. Clothing that is too big can be caught in mov-
ing machinery. Long, unbuttoned sleeves or untucked
shirts can be pulled into rotating tools or engine belts.
Improper clothing can be unsafe and looks unprofes-
sional (Figure 2-2). While clothing styles change, some
Hearing
protection
Safety
Respirator goggles
Welding
shield
Welding Gloves
gloves
Working
clothes
Safety
shoes
Figure 2-1 Personal protective equipment is designed to
keep you safe while working in the shop.
styles do not give a professional appearance to the pub-
lic. This may result in customers not returning to a shop
because of how the employees are dressed (Figure 2-2).
Clothing that is too tight can restrict movement. Shirts
and pants should fit comfortably, allowing a full range
of movement. Very tight clothing can be uncomfortable
and cut off circulation while working in and around the
automobile.
Uniforms are usually made of polyester or a cotton/poly-
ester blend. One reason is because polyester clothing is less
likely to be damaged by battery acid and other chemicals
compared to cotton clothing. Polyester also tends to wrin-
kle less and maintain its color and appearance over time.
When using welding equipment, however, polyester uni-
forms should not be worn without additional PPE. Welding
leather or heavy canvas overclothes should be worn when
working with welding or cutting torches as polyester alone
can melt when exposed to high temperatures.
Regardless of the type of uniform worn, it is important
to wear it properly and keep it as clean as possible. It is
very likely that you will be responsible for moving cus-
tomer vehicles as well as working inside the passenger
compartment. Wearing a dirt- and grease-covered uni-
form inside a customer’s car can result in an angry cus-
tomer and supervisor. The use of seat covers, steering
wheel covers, and floor mats will ensure that no grease
gets onto the surfaces that the technician must touch.
However, you will still need to check for grease on your
clothing before moving the vehicle.
Most repair shops contract their uniforms from a com-
pany that maintains and launders them. Dirty uniforms
are discarded at the end of the workday, and the company
Figure 2-2 Baggy clothes are dangerous and look unpro-
fessional. Wear proper fitting work clothes when in the shop.

picks up the dirty clothes and drops off clean uniforms
on a weekly basis. Using a uniform company saves the
technician time and ensures that the employees look pro-
fessional and clean.
■ Proper Appearance. Proper appearance is more
than a clean, well-fitting uniform. Hairstyle, facial hair,
tattoos, piercings, and hygiene are very important to
many people. Many businesses require employees to
maintain short hair, neatly trimmed facial hair, remove
piercings, and cover tattoos while at work. This is to pro-
vide the best possible appearance to the public. While
appearance does not determine the abilities of a tech-
nician or anyone else, many people equate appearance
with competence. There is an old expression, “perception
is reality.” A neat, clean, professional appearance often
leads customers to think that the person is professional
and competent. Examine the technician in ­Figure 2-3
and think about how appearance plays a role in your
opinion of his professionalism.
■ Safety Glasses. An eye injury can result in perma-
nent loss of vision since there is no way to transplant an
eye to restore lost sight. Safety glasses, safety goggles, or
a face shield are required when workers can be exposed
to the following:
• Flying particles, such as when using a bench or hand
grinder.
• Molten metal, possible when using a torch to heat
or cut something.
• Liquid chemicals, such as brake cleaner or penetrat-
ing oil.
• Acids, which can leak from a car battery.
Figure 2-3 Uniforms or coveralls are the best apparel for
the shop environment. Well-fitted uniforms, safety boots, and
glasses protect you and present a professional image to the
customers.
Chapter 2 • Safety   17
• Chemical gases or vapor, such as refrigerant.
• Injurious light radiation from using a torch or welder.
These situations occur regularly in the automotive
shop, so it is vital that proper eye protection is worn at
all times (Figure 2-4).
According to government data, in 2005, there were
more than 1,200 reported eye injuries to automotive
technicians. In 2014, the number dropped to 600. Even
though there were fewer reported injuries, many of these
may have been preventable. Using protective eyeglasses
or safety glasses will greatly reduce your risk of injury.
Safety glasses for the shop need to meet the ANSI Z.87
standard (Figure 2-5). Wearing glasses that do not meet
the safety standards may not adequately protect your
eyes. Safety goggles should be worn when working with
liquids, fumes, powders, or other materials that could
splash or go around standard safety glasses. Full-face
shields should be worn whenever working with grind-
ers. Welding helmets provide protection for your entire
face while using welding equipment, and they reduce the
amount of light transmitted to your eyes.
Ensuring all machine guards and screens are installed
will also reduce the chances of injury. All hand-held
grinding equipment, bench grinders, and brake lathes
Figure 2-4 Safety glasses, goggles, and shields are neces-
sary to protect your eyes. Goggles and shields are used with
chemicals and grinding operations.
Figure 2-5 Safety glasses must have the ANSI Z.87 stamp.
18   Chapter 2 • Safety
must have their guards installed properly. Welding areas
are required to have protective screens in place to prevent
accidental exposure of other workers to the harmful ultra
violet light produced by welding equipment.
Eyewash stations should be located within the work
area and should be easily reached (Figure 2-6). If you do
accidentally get something in your eyes, go immediately
to the nearest eyewash station—do not rub your eyes!
Rubbing may scratch or embed the material in your eye,
causing further damage.
To use an eyewash station, first press the handle or step
on the pedal to start the water flowing. Next, hold your eye
open and place your face into the water so that it washes
your eye socket. If necessary, have a coworker assist you.
Continue to flush your eye until the debris is removed.
If you are exposed to a chemical, flush your eyes for at
least 15 minutes. Have someone check the chemical’s safety
data sheets (SDS) for how to treat eye exposure. Safety data
sheets are discussed in detail later in this chapter. If the for-
eign object will not dislodge or if eye pain or burning con-
tinues after flushing, seek medical care immediately. An
injury or chemical contact may require you to go to a hos-
pital as soon as possible. If necessary, have someone call an
ambulance as you continue to flush your eyes.
■ Gloves. Technicians’ hands are their main tools.
Careless work practices that damage your hands can
shorten or end a career. Everyday cuts, scrapes, chemical
Figure 2-6 Eyewash stations are connected to the water
system and provide a steady flow of clean water to flush dirt
and irritants out of your eyes.
exposure, and stress on the bones, joints, tendons, and lig-
aments of your hands, over time, can cause pain and limit
their use. The best way to keep your hands in the best pos-
sible condition is to use gloves appropriate for the task.
Life Skill
Remember that your hands are not hammers; use the
proper tool for the job. Using your hands or palms to ham-
mer on objects can result in carpal tunnel syndrome, which
is extremely painful and requires surgery to repair.
Many technicians wear work gloves or mechanic’s
gloves (Figure 2-7). These gloves provide protection
against minor cuts, scrapes, and burns. Keeping several
pairs of inexpensive jersey gloves around for occasional
use is a cheap and effective way to help protect your
hands. When working around hot engines and exhaust
systems, some technicians recycle old socks into arm
protectors or purchase high-temperature sleeves, which
are available from tool dealers.
Working on cars and trucks means exposure to many
chemicals and waste products. These chemicals can
leach into the bloodstream just through skin contact.
Exposing cuts on your hands to chemicals such as used
motor oil is an invitation to serious medical problems.
Use light-duty nitrile gloves when you handle all flu-
ids, especially when you come into contact with used
motor oil, brake fluid, coolants, and cleaning solvents.
Figure 2-8 shows common chemical-handling gloves.
Nitrile gloves are allergy safe and stronger than latex
gloves and offer good protection against dirt and chemi-
cals while still being light and comfortable to wear.
Waste motor oil contains hazardous wastes and car-
cinogens, and even limited exposure can cause skin irri-
tation and allergic reactions in some people. Extensive
exposure to petroleum products has been known to cause
cancer in some cases. Used coolant contains heavy met-
als and other chemicals that can cause reactions when
exposed to bare skin. Any chemical, whether new or
used, should be handled carefully and with the proper
equipment to prevent exposure.
Figure 2-7 Wearing gloves also keeps your hands clean and
in good condition.

Figure 2-8 Nitrile gloves protect your skin when working
with fuels, solvents, and other chemicals.
Word Wall­
 arcinogen—A carcinogen is a substance that
C
can cause cancer.
An additional incentive to protect your skin is to reduce
the chances of becoming infected by contact with another
person’s blood or other bodily fluids. Many diseases, such
as hepatitis and HIV, are caused by bloodborne pathogens,
which can be transmitted by contact with blood. While your
everyday job duties will not often place you into contact
with someone’s blood, you may need to provide first aid to
a coworker. If this happens, protect yourself with gloves.
Word Wall
 loodborne pathogens—Infectious micro­
B
organisms in human blood that transmit disease.
If you are working in a salvage yard or in a collision
shop, you may work on a vehicle in which a person or per-
sons were injured. Be careful when handling parts that may
have blood on them. Some bloodborne pathogens can sur-
vive for an extended period of time outside the human body.
Use of gloves will ensure your danger of exposure is small.
Regular use of hand sanitizer is also a good idea. As
a technician, you will be in contact with customer cars,
tools, replacement parts, phones, keyboards, and other
items, all of which have been handled by other people.
To reduce your exposure to common illnesses, use an
antibacterial hand sanitizer often and avoid touching
your face while working in the shop (Figure 2-9).
Many technicians also keep hand lotion in their tool-
box. Hand lotion helps fight dry skin common in winter
weather. These lotions can also help replace the natural
moisture and oils that are often removed by harsh hand
soaps. Washing your hands on a regular basis and then
exposing partially wet hands to wind or extreme cold will
chap the skin and can result in dermatitis, which can cre-
ate painful cracking of the skin. The use of nitrile gloves
Chapter 2 • Safety   19
Figure 2-9 Since you will be handling tools, computers,
steering wheels, and many other objects that can carry bacte-
ria, using hand sanitizer can be an effective method of reducing
your chances of illness.
will limit the number of times technicians must wash
their hands in a day, further protecting skin from damage.
■ Hearing Protection. An auto shop can be a very
loud place to work. When you are using grinders, air
hammers, air drills, and similar equipment, ear protec-
tion should always be used. By OSHA standards, when
the sound level is at or above 85 db, hearing protection
must be used. This is slightly less than the sound levels
created when using a hair dryer or lawn mower, or by the
noise of a passing motorcycle.
Losing your hearing is often a gradual process and
is usually less noticeable than other types of workplace
injuries. The type of hearing loss most often associated
with the workplace, sensory hearing loss, results from
damage to the inner ear and cannot be corrected medi-
cally or surgically, meaning the hearing loss is permanent.
To avoid damage to your hearing, hearing protection
devices such as earplugs or earmuffs should be worn when
the noise levels reach damaging levels. Earplugs, either
PVC or foam, provide an inexpensive, lightweight choice,
while earmuffs are better for use over a longer period of
time and often are more comfortable (Figure 2-10).
■ Back Braces. Technicians often have to lift heavy
objects, such as batteries, wheel/tire assemblies, and cylin-
der heads. Whenever you are lifting a heavy object, always
use your leg muscles, which are much larger than those
in your back. Figure 2-11 shows the proper way to lift a
20   Chapter 2 • Safety

and you will be much more comfortable buying a good

quality boot or shoe that fits well. As a technician, you
can expect to be on your feet eight or more hours a day.
A poorly fitting boot or shoe can cause foot, leg, or back
pain, making your workday very uncomfortable.

■ Respirators. There are three ways in which a sub-

stance can enter your body, inhalation, ingestion, and skin
absorption. Technicians may inhale dust, fumes, mists,
and vapors from solvents, cleaners, and other chemicals.
The inhalation of chemicals can damage the tiny air sacs
in the lungs, called alveoli. Once damaged, your lungs are
more susceptible to respiratory diseases. In some cases,
these cannot be cured and could eventually lead to death.
Respirators, worn over the mouth and nose, trap con-
taminates before you inhale them and should be used any
time there is a danger of airborne chemicals or dust being
inhaled. In the automotive shop, brake and clutch system
repairs often require a method of dust collection and fil-
Figure 2-10 Ear protection should be used when working tration. Respirators should be worn when using aerosol
with air hammers, air drills, and other tools that are loud. cleaners or other airborne chemicals (Figure 2-12). There
are several types of respirators that may be used depending
on the work being performed. Auto technicians most often
Straight
Position body back use air purifying respirators, which can be a simple dust
over load mask or a full-face respirator. Selecting the correct respira-
Keep tor depends on the type of contaminant present, the form
back as the contaminant is in, how toxic the contaminant is, and
erect as Keep
weight the concentration (how much is in the air) of the contami-
possible close to nant. Always check the condition of the respirator before
body use and ensure it provides a tight, leak-proof fit against
your face. Because different respirator cartridges are used
for certain types of dangers, always make sure you are
Use leg using the correct filter for the application. A mask used
muscles Legs for dust may not provide any protection against inhaling
bent chemical vapors. Refer to the respirator’s instructions for
the correct filter to be used for your situation. Do not just
Figure 2-11 Back injuries can ruin a career and are usually assume that just any respirator will protect you when you
preventable. Always use your legs to lift instead of your back. are using chemicals and paint products, and read the pack-
aging to ensure it is rated for the chemicals in use!
heavy object. Back braces are used to help prevent back
injuries by forcing the wearer to use the leg muscles instead
of the back muscles. Back injuries can cause long-term
disability and bring an early end to a technician’s career.

■ Protective Footwear. Most automotive shops

require the use of safety boots or shoes. This footwear Breathe
should be hard-soled, nonslip, and oil and chemical air in
resistant. Many labs and shops require steel-toed safety
Cartridge
boots or shoes. Steel-toed sneakers are not acceptable as
they do not have slip-resistant soles or offer much pro-
tection from oils and other chemicals. Air out
It is a good idea to try several different shoe manu-
facturers to find a pair that fits well and is comfortable. Figure 2-12 Respirators and dust masks are used to pre-
You will be spending many hours in these boots or shoes, vent inhalation of chemicals and asbestos.

Word Wall
 ontaminant—Something that makes a place
C of this, you will be expected to act as a mature young pro-
or substance no longer suitable for use.
■ Personal Hygiene. As discussed earlier, your
hygiene is important in how the customer accepts you as
a professional. Technicians, however talented, may not
be able to develop the necessary dialog and relationship
with customers if they have poor personal hygiene. The
following are important guidelines regarding hygiene:
• Wash and comb your hair. Approaching a customer
with a bad case of “bed head” is not a good idea.
If you have long hair, keeping it pulled back into a
ponytail or in a hat will help keep your hair clean
and out of the way when working.
• Wash your face and trim any facial hair. Beards, mus-
taches, and goatees are fine, but remember that looking
like you have been lost in the wilderness for the last five
years may not appeal to your customer or employer.
• Take baths or showers often. Do not try to cover a
missed shower with a lot of body spray or cologne.
Many people find excessive application of colognes
offensive, and it can even lead to allergic reactions.
Once you are off work, take another bath or shower
to remove the dirt and smells of the auto shop.
• Keep your hands clean and in good condition. Wear
gloves to prevent cuts and scrapes. Keep your finger-
nails trimmed and clean. Use plenty of hand cleaner
and hand lotion if your skin gets dry.
• Keep your uniform neat and presentable. If you get
covered in dirt, grease, or a chemical, change into a
fresh uniform, and do not get into a vehicle if you
are dirty or covered in grease or other chemicals.
• Last, while not strictly a matter of hygiene, it is
worth mentioning that piercings and tattoos, while
more acceptable in today’s culture than ever before,
are not always well received by employers and cus-
tomers. Keep visible piercings to a minimum and,
if necessary, replace any questionable jewelry with
a stud or another low-profile item. Cover tattoos as
necessary. The jewelry and tattoos you exhibit to the
world outside of your hours of employment may not
be acceptable to your employer or your customers.
BEHAVIORS
■ Working in the Automotive Shop Environ-
ment. You will find that working in an automotive lab is
very different from a traditional classroom environment.
Chapter 2 • Safety   21
You will be working on real vehicles using tools and
equipment found in modern auto repair facilities. Because
fessional. Why is behavior so important, you might ask?
Primarily, it is for safety reasons. Beyond safety, it is
about professionalism and developing your work ethic.
Your safety and the safety of every other person in the
class depend on your behavior. An auto shop is, by the
nature of the tools and equipment, a potentially dangerous
place. Improper use of a tool or piece of equipment is an
invitation to an accident and injury. Intentionally using a
tool or piece of equipment in an unsafe manner is foolish
and can result in serious unexpected consequences, such
as injury or death of yourself or a coworker. You should not
accept unsafe behaviors from those who work near you,
nor should they be placed at risk by any unsafe actions you
take. There is never a time where playing around in a lab
or shop is acceptable. Focusing on what you are working
on is an important part of safe work practices. Letting your
mind wander or becoming distracted by music, other stu-
dents, or anything not related to your work can lead to an
accident. If you find that your attention is drifting, take a
moment to refocus as this is a dangerous situation for you
and others. If necessary, take a short break when needed
to help you refocus and continue your work.
To be a professional technician, your goal is to per-
form every service and repair 100% correctly every time.
To accomplish this, there are several things to consider.
• Safety: Perform all work safely and by following
the recommended service procedures. Do not take
shortcuts, like lifting a vehicle with only a floor jack
to slide under the car for a quick look. If the hydrau-
lic jack fails, the vehicle will drop and you can be
injured or killed.
• Professional attitude: This is more than just dress-
ing as a professional technician. A professional takes
time to ensure every procedure is done properly and
always double-checks his or her work. Doing a job
properly means not taking shortcuts and ensuring
the quality of the work. If you are in doubt, double-
check yourself or have a more experienced or more
knowledgeable person double-check your work.
• Admit what you do not know: No one knows
everything; there is to know about any vehicle. Most
people will have more respect for technicians who
can admit that they do not know something and are
willing to find the answer than by those who bluff
their way through an answer, only to be proven
wrong in the future. In addition, you will not make
your instructor or supervisor happy if you make
claims about knowledge and abilities only to prove
yourself wrong someday.
22   Chapter 2 • Safety

• Work ethic: Loosely defined, work ethic is the idea
that personal accountability and responsibility have
intrinsic or internal value. Generally, this means hav-
ing initiative, being honest, and dependable. Show-
ing up for work late every day and pretending you
are there on time is not a good work ethic. Be polite,
work your hardest, do your best, and strive to learn
as much as possible each day from your instructors
and more experienced technicians. These simple
things will go a long way toward your success as a
technician because others will respect you more and
be more willing to help you when you need it.
■ Safe Working Behaviors. As stated earlier, safety
is always of the utmost importance. Maintaining a safe
work environment requires a constant awareness of your
surroundings. Unfortunately, you may be the only per-
son in the shop who is concerned with safety. Hopefully
that is not the case, but if it is, do not allow the attitudes
of others to have dangerous consequences for you. The
following are some general safe working habits to incor-
porate into your own work ethic.
• Clean up after yourself. Keep your work areas and
tools clean and organized.
• Use the correct tool for the job and keep your tools
in good working condition.
• Clean any spills immediately. A wet floor is an acci-
dent waiting to happen.
• Check all electrical cords and electrical tools before
using them. Inspect the ground lug on cords and
check for any fraying or damaged insulation. Do not
use anything with a damaged power cord or plug.
• Check air hoses and air tools regularly. Leaking
hoses or fittings should be replaced immediately.
Do not use faulty air tools or air hoses.
• Ensure the proper operation of floor jacks and stands
before lifting a vehicle. Do not use any damaged
equipment. Do not overload the floor jack or stands.
• Check the operation of vehicle lifts regularly. Check
for hydraulic fluid loss and make sure the safety
catches are working properly. Never use any lift that
is not functioning exactly as designed.
• Never use flammable chemicals near hot surfaces.
• Do not use any piece of equipment unless you have
been trained in its safe operation.
• Make sure all guards, guides, and safety disconnects
are present and functioning on equipment you use.
While it is true that accidents do happen, many shop
accidents can be prevented by maintaining an awareness
of safety procedures. Being able to work safely and pro-
fessionally will make you a valued employee.
Shop Safety
Shop safety is about being able to work safely in the
automotive shop. A typical shop contains equipment
from floor jacks to grinders and presses. Technicians
must be able to understand and operate the types of
equipment used in the day-to-day operation of the shop.
EQUIPMENT AND SHOP TOOL SAFETY
Proper care and use of shop tools is critical to maintaining
a safe and productive shop. Misuse of a piece of equipment
can cause damage to the equipment, to a vehicle, or to you
and others. Make sure you understand how to properly use
a piece of equipment before you attempt to use it. Also,
you should keep in mind that all personal safety rules and
PPE use continue to apply when you are using shop tools
and equipment. Some tools and equipment may require
additional specific pieces of PPE for safe operation.
In many shops, certain sections will be marked with
safety or warning tape to indicate a hazardous area, such
as around bench grinders and brake lathes. These safety
zones are to warn you and others to use extra caution
when working near one of these areas (Figure 2-13).
■ Floor Jacks and Jack Stands. Almost all auto
shops have floor jacks and jack stands (Figure 2-14).
These are used to lift a vehicle off the floor for inspec-
tions and repairs. A floor jack uses a hydraulic cylinder
to convert the large up-and-down movements of the jack
handle into a smaller upward movement of the jack.
Different styles of hydraulic jacks are available, but
all require the use of jack stands to support the vehicle
Figure 2-13 Areas around brake lathes, solvent tanks,
grinders, and other equipment should be marked. Only the
person using the equipment should be within the marked area.
 Chapter 2 • Safety   23

Figure 2-14 Floor jacks and jack stands are some of the
most common pieces of equipment for an auto shop. Figure 2-15 Lifts come in a variety of sizes and configurations.

once it is raised. Never work on a vehicle supported

only with a hydraulic jack. The internal seals could
fail, allowing the jack to drop suddenly and causing seri-
ous injury or death to anyone trapped under the weight
of the vehicle. Complete operation and safety for using
floor jacks and jack stands are discussed in Chapter 3.

■ Lifts. Lifts, also called hoists, are used to raise the vehicle
up to safe and comfortable working heights ­(Figures 2-15
and 2-16). The lifts shown in Figure 2-15 are called
inground swing arm lift because the four arms swing
or pivot to allow placement under a vehicle. The lift in
­Figure 2-16 is an above ground swing arm lift.
Lifts are either pneumatic-hydraulic or electric-
hydraulic. Pneumatic-hydraulic or air-over-hydraulic
lifts use the shop’s compressed air system to pressurize
hydraulic oil, which is used to raise and lower the vehi-
cle. Electric-hydraulic lifts use an electric motor pump
to pressurize the oil for lift operation. Before attempting
to use either type of lift, be sure you are properly trained
and understand how the lift operates. Do not use any lift
that has a leaking air or hydraulic system.

Word Wall
Pneumatic-hydraulic—Pneumatic means using
air or compressed air to power a tool or perform Figure 2-16 This type of unequal length swing arm lifts are
work. Hydraulic means to use a liquid to apply common in auto shops.
force or motion to perform work.

All lifts have some type of mechanical safety latch.
This safety should apply automatically as the lift is raised.
When the lift is lowered, the safety will engage, preventing
the lift from lowering. Always lower the vehicle onto the
safety latch once you have reached the height you need.
The safety latch is a mechanical lock that acts like a jack
stand, keeping the vehicle from dropping in the event the
hydraulics fail. To disengage the safety, you must raise the
lift backup, disengage the safety, and then lower the lift.
Never use a lift if the safety latch does not operate.
If the lift should lose pressure, it will come crashing
down. The safety latch prevents this in the event of a
loss of pressure.
■ Hoists and Cranes. Many auto shops have a crane or
hoist for engine removal. Some shops may even have over-
head cranes for lifting large, heavy components, although
these are more often found in heavy-duty truck shops.
24   Chapter 2 • Safety
Engine hoists are used when removing an engine from
a vehicle and when mounting an engine on an engine
stand for repairs. Figure 2-17 shows an example of a typ-
ical engine hoist. Most hoists have extendable booms and
legs to allow for greater reach over a vehicle. If the boom
is extended, the weight-carrying capacity of the hoist is
reduced. This capacity should be indicated on the hoist.
Never overload an engine hoist by attempting to lift more
than the rated weight capacity. This can cause the hoist to
fail, resulting in injury and vehicle damage. If the boom
is extended, the legs of the hoist must also be extended to
maintain balance. Moving the boom without extending
the legs will place the weight of the engine too far from
the hoist’s center of gravity and can cause the hoist to tip
forward. This can result in personal injury and damage to
the engine attached to the hoist.
Before using the engine hoist, ensure that all the
wheels and casters roll freely. A frozen caster can prevent
the hoist from moving easily, which can result in the hoist
tipping over when being moved around the shop. Check
the hydraulic cylinder for leaks and for smooth operation.
Never use an engine hoist with a hydraulic leak as the
cylinder may fail, allowing the engine to suddenly fall.
Once an engine is safely raised and removed from the
engine compartment, lower the engine until it is just a
few inches from the floor. This lowers the center of grav-
ity and reduces the chance of tipping the hoist. Engine
hoists typically do not have mechanical locks, so be sure
to let the hoist down before leaving for the day if it is
holding an engine. If the hydraulic cylinder fails, the
engine will crash to the floor, resulting in damage to the
engine or possibly an unknowing bystander.
■ Bench Grinders. A bench grinder is used to dress
tools and shape and prepare the edges of metal. Dress-
ing a tool means to clean up or restore it to its original
Figure 2-17 An engine hoist is used to remove the engine
from the vehicle and support it until the engine is mounted on
a work stand.
shape, such as regrinding the cutting edge of a chisel
that has worn down with use. Many bench grinders also
have a wire wheel. A typical bench grinder is shown in
­Figure 2-18. Used to remove rust and sharp metal edges,
the wire wheel can shed wire bristles that can penetrate
skin and eyes. Always wear a full-face shield when using
a bench grinder due to the debris and wire bristles that
can be ejected during use.
Before using a bench grinder or any electrically pow-
ered tool, check the power cord. Make sure the ground
lug is intact and that the cord is not frayed or damaged.
Inspect the guards and shields (Figure 2-19).
Inspect the guards on the grinder. The guard is placed
in front of the grinder or wire wheel. This guard can be
used as a tool rest when dressing a tool and also helps
prevent tools and other objects from getting pulled into
the wheel housing when in use. Be sure to consult the
operator’s manual for the proper clearance. Typically, no
more than an 1/8-inch gap should be between the wheel
and the tool rest.
Figure 2-18 Bench grinders must have protective shields
and guards installed for safe operation. Many bench grinders
have one grinding stone and a wire wheel.
Ground
terminal
Ground
socket
Figure 2-19 Before using any electrical device, check the
power cord, plug, and outlet condition first. Do not use any
equipment with a damaged cord or plug.

The shields are usually adjustable so the operator can
adjust their angle for protection and access to the wheels.
Bench grinders must have the appropriate shields in
place to prevent debris from flying up at the operator.
Do not use a bench grinder that shows signs of damage
to the grinder wheel or the wire wheel, or has missing
guards or shields. Inspect the wheels for cracks and
damage before using them.
■ Air Tools. Air tools are common in the shop. Most
technicians and shops have many types of air-powered
tools. These include air impact guns, air ratchets, grind-
ers, cutoff wheels, and sanders (Figure 2-20). Regardless
of the type of air tool being used, always follow the same
basic safety precautions:
• Check the air hose and fittings before using the air
tool. Do not use leaking hoses or fittings. Damaged
hoses and fittings must be replaced. Do not attempt
to fix or patch the air hose.
• When connecting air tools to the shop’s compressed
air system, the air line should be off and there
should not be any pressure in the hose. Connect the
tool to the air hose and then open the valve. When
finished with the tool, turn the air supply line off
and operate the tool to bleed air pressure from the
hose. Once the pressure is gone, disconnect the tool
from the air hose.
• Be sure you are trained and understand how to use
the air tool before you actually use it.
• Use only approved attachments for air chisels.
Figure 2-20 Air tools often make a technician’s work easier and faster but only if used correctly.
Chapter 2 • Safety   25
• When using a grinder or cutoff wheel, use only discs
that are rated for the tool being used. Do not use a
grinder disc or cutoff wheel with a lower revolutions
per minute (RPM) rating than the tool you are using.
Using an incorrect disc or wheel can cause the wheel
to explode, resulting in serious injuries.
• Use only impact sockets with impact guns. Impact
sockets are black and are designed to take the forces
associated with the hammering action of an impact
gun. Using standard chrome sockets on an impact gun
can cause the socket to break and come apart while in
use, which can cause serious injury.
• Do not trigger the impact gun and socket unless
the socket is being used on a fastener. Spinning the
socket in the air can cause the socket to fly off, lead-
ing to injury.
• Do not hold impact sockets or air hammer adaptors
in your hands while using the tool. The socket or
adaptor could break during use and can cause seri-
ous injury if you are holding on to it while in use.
• When using an air ratchet, be sure there is enough
room to contain your hand and the ratchet where you
are working. Air ratchets can force your hand around
into a tight spot, trapping it there, leading to injured
fingers and broken bones.
■ Blow Guns. Blow guns are used to blow away dirt
and debris and to dry components, such as wheel bearings,
that have been cleaned in a liquid solvent. Blow guns come
in many shapes and sizes (Figure 2-21). Before using a
26   Chapter 2 • Safety
Figure 2-21 Blow guns should never be used to clean dirt
from your uniform or body. Never point a blow gun at yourself
or anyone else. Serious injury—even death—can result from
using compressed air against a person.
blow gun, make sure the air hose you are using is in good
condition with no leaks. Check that the air fitting on the
gun is made to work with the air fitting on the air hose, as
there are several types and sizes of air fittings available.
Blow guns should never be pointed directly at
yourself or at others. Do not use a blow gun to blow
dirt from your uniform. This can cause dirt and debris to
lodge in your skin. Never point a blow gun at any part of
your body. The air pressure exiting the blow gun is suf-
ficient to cause serious injury or death if pointed toward
your head or any body cavity. Because your heart is a
hydraulic pump, if compressed air gets into the blood-
stream, your heart will be unable to pump blood, which
will result in death.
■ Creepers. Creepers are used by technicians to move
around under a vehicle that is only raised off the floor a
slight amount. Most creepers are padded, which provides
a little bit of comfort while working (­ Figure 2-22). Some
creepers have adjustable head rests for even greater
comfort.
Before using a creeper, check that the casters operate
smoothly. If you have long hair, you should secure it into
a ponytail or hat before using a creeper. Long hair can
get caught in the moving wheels, which can lead to an
unexpected haircut!
When you are not using the creeper, stand it upright
and lean it against a workbench or wall. Do not lean the
Figure 2-22 Creepers are used when under a vehicle. When
not in use, always stand them up and against a bench or wall,
never leave a creeper lying on the floor.
creeper against the vehicle or leave it lying on the floor.
A creeper left on the floor is an invitation to a serious fall.
FIRST AID, SHOWERS, AND EYEWASH
A good understanding of basic first-aid procedures is
important so that in the event of an accident or injury,
you will be prepared and will know what steps to take
without hesitation. This section will cover some proce-
dures for common injuries.
■ First-Aid Kits. Every shop should have at least a
basic first-aid kit, containing bandages, gauze, and medi-
cal tape (Figure 2-23). First-aid kits should be in a visi-
ble, easy-to-reach location that is accessible to everyone.
You should notify your instructor or supervisor anytime
you have an injury, even a minor cut. Wearing mechan-
ic’s gloves can prevent many minor cuts and abrasions,
but when they do happen, thoroughly clean and bandage
the areas affected.
■ Basic First Aid. Knowing some basic first-aid pro-
cedures will help you be prepared and to know what steps
to take in the event of an accident. Taking a course to
become first aid certified is a good idea and may be paid
for by your employer. In addition, having first-aid train-
ing may give you an edge when seeking employment.
The following are some procedures for common injuries:
• Cuts and scrapes: First, stop the bleeding. Apply
gentle pressure with a clean cloth or bandage, hold-
ing pressure for 20 to 30 minutes if necessary. Clean
the wound with clean water; avoid using soap as this
can irritate the wound. Apply an antibiotic such as
Neosporin and cover the wound. Change the dress-
ing at least once per day.
• Burns: First, determine the degree of the burn. The
least serious burns are first-degree burns. This is
when only the outer layer of skin is burned. Pain,

Figure 2-23 A basic first-aid kit should be well stocked and accessible in case of a minor injury.
swelling, and red skin are present. When the first
layer of skin is burned through, it is considered a
second-degree burn. Blisters and significant redden-
ing of the skin are present.
Second-degree burns cause severe pain and swell-
ing around the burn area. Second-degree burns larger
than about three inches or over a joint should be con-
sidered serious, and medical help should be sought
immediately. For a second-degree burn, cool the area
by running it under cold water for at least five min-
utes or until the pain subsides. Loosely cover the
burn with a sterile gauze bandage.
The most serious type of burn is a third-degree burn as
it involves all of the layers of the skin and can cause
permanent damage. For a serious burn, call 911. Until
medical help arrives, follow these steps: make sure the
skin is no longer in contact with smoldering materials
but do not remove the burnt clothing, and elevate the
burn areas above the level of the heart if possible.
• Chemical burns: First, remove the cause of the
burn by flushing with water for 20 minutes or more.
Remove any clothing or jewelry that is contami-
nated by the chemical. Apply a cool, wet cloth to
help relieve the pain and wrap the area loosely with
a dry sterile dressing. If the burn has penetrated the
first layer of skin or any other reactions appear to be
taking place, seek medical assistance.
• If the chemical has entered the eyes, flush with water
for at least 20 minutes. Do not rub the eye. Seek
medical assistance.
• Foreign object in eye: First, examine the eye and
attempt to flush the object out. Do not rub the eye.
Do not try to remove any object that is embedded
in the eye. Seek medical help if the object will not
come out, is embedded, vision is affected, or pain or
redness persists after the object has been removed.
Chapter 2 • Safety   27
It is a good idea to seek medical attention for any
type of eye injury.
• General seizures (grand mal): Keep calm. Do not try
to hold the person down or stop his or her movements.
Remove any objects that the person may contact while
the seizure is occurring. Try to place something soft,
like a folded jacket, under the person’s head. Turn the
person onto their side to help keep the airway clear.
Stay with the person until the seizure stops.
■ Emergency Showers. Emergency showers are
used in the event that you or a coworker get splashed
with a chemical, solvent, acid, gasoline, diesel fuel, or
other hazardous liquid. Figure 2-24 shows an example
of an emergency shower. To use, stand under the shower
and pull the handle down.
■ Emergency Eyewash. Eyewash stations provide a
fountain of water to flush foreign objects from the eye.
Even with proper eye protection, dirt, debris, and liquids
can still get into your eyes. If this happens, do not rub your
eyes. Get to the eyewash station; ask for help if you need
it. For eyewash stations like that in Figure 2-24, hold your
face over the station and press the lever to start the water
flow. Hold your eye open and flush with water. If a chemi-
cal or other liquid has gotten into your eyes, flush for at
least 15 minutes and have someone call 911. Chemical
burns can cause serious eye damage and blindness. Have
your eyes checked by a physician as soon as possible.
HAZARDOUS WASTES AND SAFETY
DATA SHEETS
Hazardous wastes can be any substance that can affect
public health or damage the environment. Nearly every
liquid, chemical, and solvent used by the vehicle and
for service and repair is considered a hazardous waste.
Because of this, there are strict laws and regulations
28   Chapter 2 • Safety
Figure 2-24 Emergency showers are plumbed into the
water system and are often located near the eyewash station.
regarding the use, handling, and disposal of these sub-
stances. Information about each type of substance is con-
tained in a safety data sheet (SDS).
■ Hazardous Wastes. Hazardous wastes not only can
cause personal injury, but when handled or disposed of
improperly can damage the environment.
Hazardous wastes are identified by the following
characteristics:
• Corrosive
• Flammable
• Reactive
• Toxic
Corrosive substances can eat through metals, cloth-
ing, skin, and other items. A common corrosive found in
auto service is battery acid, also called electrolyte. Elec-
trolyte is a combination of water and sulfuric acid and
is highly corrosive. Exposure to electrolyte can cause
serious skin reactions, burning, and skin damage. Skin
exposed to electrolyte should be immediately washed
with water for 15 minutes. Exposure to battery acid can
also be from corrosion on the battery. The acid, even
though it is solidified and powdery, is still a danger and
can burn your skin or eyes.
Flammable substances have a low flash point, mean-
ing the lowest temperature at which the chemical can
vaporize and create an ignitable mixture in the air. Sim-
ply put, it means a chemical that can ignite or catch fire at
low temperatures. Low temperature means the liquid has
a flash point below 199.4°F (93°C). Many aerosol clean-
ers used in the auto shop are flammable and can ignite if
sprayed onto a hot surface. Check the labels on aerosol
chemicals before you use them, as many are flammable.
Gasoline is also flammable, and extreme caution should
be taken when handling fuel system components.
Reactive substances can, when allowed to mix or
come into contact with other substances, create harm-
ful gases or start a fire. Shop rags, when they are soaked
with chemicals and are allowed to come into contact
with other shop rags with different chemicals soaked into
them, can lead to combustion.
Toxic substances are poisonous to people and the envi-
ronment. Antifreeze is a toxic substance, especially after
it has been in the engine’s cooling system. The antifreeze
picks up traces of heavy metals from the engine. Anti-
freeze and other toxic chemicals must be captured and
reclaimed from the vehicle and should not be allowed to
enter the environment.
■ Safety Data Sheets. Safety data sheets (SDS)
are the standardized and modernized version of material
safety data sheets (MSDS). Safety data sheets are com-
pliant with the global harmonized system (GHS) stan-
dards of classifying and labeling of chemicals.
The data sheets must be located at the worksite and be
made available to every employee. Every automotive lab
and shop is required to have SDSs available to employ-
ees and students as well. Figure 2-25 shows an example
of SDS location. An example of an SDS is shown in
Figure 2-26. Information detailed in the SDS includes
the following:
• Product name and chemical components
• Information about the substance’s flammability,
reactivity, toxicity, and corrosiveness
• The types of possible exposure and the health effects
for exposure
• Correct handling, including the type of PPE required
and proper disposal of the substance
• First aid for accidental exposure
■ Environmental Protection Agency. The Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) is a federal agency
that enforces environmental laws passed by Congress.
States often have their own version of the EPA. Both
levels of the EPA oversee the enforcement of laws
and regulations regarding the safe handling, storage,

Figure 2-25 SDS and MSDS information must be accessible
and kept current.
transportation, and disposal of hazardous wastes. As
auto shops generate hazardous wastes, certain procedures
must be followed for their safe storage and disposal. Fail-
ure to comply with EPA rules and regulations can result
in fines, imprisonment, and closure of the business.
■ Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) is the government agency responsible for the
safety and health of workers. OSHA regulations include
many aspects of the automotive shop, from the training
of employees to how much air pressure is allowed in
the shop’s compressed air system. Workplace accidents
are investigated by OSHA, and shops found to be negli-
gent in their compliance can be fined or even closed for
business.
Employees must be trained regarding the hazardous
materials that they may be exposed to on the job. OSHA
has enacted the Hazardous Communication Standard,
which includes the Right-to-Know standard. This stan-
dard mandates that employees be notified about work-
place hazards and trained how to protect themselves.
BATTERY SAFETY
Every modern car and truck has at least one battery, and
some have two. The battery provides the energy to start
the engine and power the electrical system. The amount
of electrical power stored in a single lead-acid battery
is equivalent to about one-quarter of the power used
in an average-sized home. This power comes from the
Chapter 2 • Safety   29
chemical reaction inside the battery between the bat-
tery acid and the lead-plated cell components. Once the
engine is started, the vehicle is powered by the generator.
The generator also recharges the battery. When the bat-
tery charges, it releases hydrogen, which can, if exposed
to a spark or flame, cause an explosion. An example of
the battery warning label is shown in Figure 2-27.
The following are safety precautions specific to work-
ing around automotive batteries:
• Never smoke or create a spark or flame near a bat-
tery. This could cause the hydrogen gas to explode
the battery.
• Never lay tools, parts, or equipment on or near the
battery, battery terminals, or battery cables.
• When disconnecting a battery, always remove the
negative cable first, then the positive. Connect the
positive cable first, then the negative.
• Never attempt to charge or jump-start a frozen bat-
tery as this can cause the battery to explode.
• Only charge batteries in a well-ventilated area.
• Following simple battery safety rules and using
common sense will prevent battery services from
causing accidents and injuries.
■ Battery Acid. Before attempting to service a bat-
tery, inspect it for swelling, damage such as cracks,
and leaking electrolyte (Figure 2-28). Look for cor-
rosion on the top of the battery, around the cables,
and in the battery tray. Do not handle batteries such as
those shown in Figure 2-31 until the acid and corro-
sion have been removed. When handling, use a battery
carrying strap to prevent acid contact with your skin
and clothing.
■ Disconnecting and Reconnecting a Bat-
tery. Before removing a battery, make sure the igni-
tion and all electrical accessories are off. Always
remove the battery’s negative cable first. This is because
if the tool you are using accidently contacts the vehi-
cle, the negative or ground side will not arc or conduct
to other grounded parts. Once the negative cable is off,
remove the positive cable.
Use a battery strap or other carrying device when
moving a battery. Do not pick the battery up with your
bare hands or allow the battery to come into contact
with your skin or clothing. When reinstalling the bat-
tery, install the positive cable first. This is because if the
tool you are using contacts metal or another grounded
component, the positive will not arc or conduct because
the battery is not grounded to the vehicle yet. Once the
positive is installed, connect the negative cable.
30   Chapter 2 • Safety

Safety Data Sheet

Figure 2-26 SDS sheets contain important information about chemical use, handling, and disposal.

■ Battery Chargers. Battery chargers are used to emitted from the battery. A spark or heat source near the bat-
recharge a battery that has become weak or discharged tery could set off a hydrogen explosion, causing the battery
(Figure 2-29). During the charging process, hydrogen gas is to explode also. Follow these steps when charging a battery:
 Chapter 2 • Safety   31

Figure 2-28 Battery corrosion is solidified battery acid,

which is highly corrosive. Do not handle a battery without
wearing nitrile or similar gloves.

Figure 2-27 Batteries are explosive and contain acid, which

is corrosive. Never work on a battery without using PPE.

1. Ensure the charger is turned off before hooking the

cables to the battery.
2. Connect the positive charger lead to the battery’s posi-
tive terminal.
3. Connect the negative charger lead to the battery’s neg-
ative lead.
4. Plug the charger into the electrical outlet.
5. Set the proper charge rate and time on the charger.
6. Monitor battery voltage and temperature.
7. Once charging is complete, turn the charger off,
unplug the electrical cord, and then remove the charg-
ing clamps from the battery.
8. Wrap the charger power cord and charging cables
around the charger handle for storage. Do not attach
the charging clamps to the handle.
Figure 2-29 Battery charging requires special safety. Do not
■ Jump-Starting. Booster or battery jump-start boxes attempt to charge a battery until you are properly instructed.
are often used to jump-start a discharged battery to get a
vehicle into the shop. Caution must be taken when using a
booster pack because any spark may ignite any hydrogen • Then connect the negative cable clamp to the booster
produced by the battery. Be careful not to hook up a bat- battery and the other end to a good, nonmoving ground
tery backward (reversing the positive and negative leads) on the vehicle being jump-started (Figure 2-30).
as this can cause the battery to explode and/or cause dam- • Start the engine of the vehicle providing the jump-
age to the car’s computers and electronics. This would be start, then start the vehicle being jump-started.
a very expensive mistake. To use a booster box, connect • Remove the negative jumper cable from the ground
the positive cable to the battery’s positive connection and on the vehicle that was jump-started first, then the
the negative to a good, nonmoving engine ground. Start negative from the booster vehicle.
the vehicle and let it idle for a moment. Disconnect the
negative cable, then the positive cable. • Then remove the positive from the jump-started
vehicle and then from the booster vehicle.
If you are using jumper cables, follow these steps.
• Make sure the vehicles are not touching. ■ Electric Vehicle and Hybrid Vehicle High-
• Connect one positive cable clamp to the booster bat- Voltage Batteries. Electric vehicles (EVs) and
tery and the other end to the discharged. hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) use high-voltage electric
32   Chapter 2 • Safety

motors, some over 500 volts. EV and hybrid vehicles are

discussed throughout this text, but the following are some
general hybrid-vehicle safety precautions.

• Never touch or work on any orange-colored high-

voltage wiring if the high-voltage system is powered
up. An example of the high-voltage orange wiring is
shown in Figure 2-31.
• Do not attempt to repair any system you have not
been properly trained on; the voltages produced
and stored in a hybrid can cause serious injury or Figure 2-31 The orange wiring signifies the high-voltage
death. components on a hybrid vehicle.

• Do not attempt to push start a hybrid.

• Do not push a hybrid vehicle or EV with the engine off. several situations are common that require caution when
cranking or starting an engine.
• Follow all manufacturer service warnings and pro-
cedures exactly when working on an EV or hybrid Do not try to crank or start a vehicle that someone else
vehicle. is working on without verifying the following:
• For some repairs, special high-voltage gloves are • Ensure the fuel system is not open for service. Turn-
required. These gloves must be checked and certi- ing on the ignition causes the fuel pump on most
fied every six months. vehicles to operate for two seconds to get the engine
started. If the fuel system is open and the key is
turned on, fuel can spray from the fuel lines. This
RUNNING AND MOVING VEHICLES
can lead to injury or a fire.
As part of your job as a technician, you will be working
on running vehicles, performing test drives, and working • The engine is assembled enough to be cranked.
near other running and moving vehicles. To avoid pos- When you are replacing the timing belts and chains,
sible injury and damage, there are some safety precau- engine damage can occur if the engine is cranked
tions that must be followed. over without the belt or chain installed.
• Tools and other equipment are not under the hood or
■ Starting Vehicles. Usually starting a vehicle does
loose in the engine compartment.
not present any dangers, but when working in auto shop,
Many shops use signs and steering wheel covers to
alert others in the shop not to attempt to start an engine
Make last connection, 4, (Figure 2-32).
away from battery
Good battery ■ Carbon Monoxide and Ventilation. Many
Black (negative)
times a vehicle needs to be running in the shop for
1 3 inspection and service. When the engine is running,
the exhaust must be ventilated properly. The exhaust
2 contains carbon monoxide (CO), a poisonous gas.
4 Red CO is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonirritating,
(positive) so it is impossible to detect it in the air without a CO
detector.
Weak battery When CO enters the body, it combines with hemo-
globin. Hemoglobin is the primary oxygen-carrying
compound in the blood. When the CO bonds to the hemo-
NEG – + POS
globin, it reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood. In effect, the CO causes oxygen to stay attached to
Smaller Larger the hemoglobin instead of being released to the body. This
Top-terminal batteries can result in hypoxia, or being deprived of oxygen. Need-
Figure 2-30 When jump-starting a dead battery, connect less to say, oxygen deprivation is not good. Symptoms
the cables in the correct order to prevent sparks from occur- of CO poisoning include headaches, vertigo, and flu-like
ring at the battery. symptoms. Excessive exposure can cause death.

Figure 2-32 To prevent accidents, a vehicle lock-out pro-
cedure is used.
To avoid exposure to CO, shops have some type of
exhaust gas ventilation system. This is usually a network
of hoses, ducts, and a fan to route the gases outside. A
hose is attached to the tailpipe of a vehicle to remove the
exhaust gas. A typical system is shown in Figure 2-33.
■ Moving Vehicles. There will be vehicles mov-
ing in, out, and around the auto shop during the work-
day. The following are a few simple safety precautions
regarding moving vehicles:
• Only fully licensed and insured people should be
moving any vehicle.
• Be sure you know how to safely operate the vehi-
cle before attempting to drive. For example, do not
attempt to start or move a vehicle with a manual
transmission if you do not know how to drive a man-
ual transmission vehicle.
• Make sure others know that you are going to be
moving a vehicle before you start moving.
• Remove any wheel chocks and exhaust hoses before
moving. Double-check that no tools or equipment
are under or near the vehicle.
• Check the brake pedal feel and travel before starting
to move. Do a brake check just as you start to move
to ensure the brakes work properly. Do not attempt to
move a vehicle if the brake pedal goes to the floor.
• If necessary, have a coworker act as a guide or spot-
ter to maneuver around other vehicles, equipment,
or other obstacles.
• Honk the horn when passing through garage doors
and approaching intersections or areas where people
cannot see if a vehicle is coming.
• Many modern vehicles are push-to-start. To operate
these vehicles, press the brake pedal then the Start
Chapter 2 • Safety   33
Figure 2-33 Anytime a vehicle is running in the shop, an
exhaust hose must be connected to remove the exhaust gases.
button. To shut down the vehicle, place the transmis-
sion in Park or Neutral on a manual transmission,
take your foot off the brake, and press the Start but-
ton. Make sure the vehicle is off and the dash display
shuts down before exiting the vehicle.
• Hybrid and electric vehicles make almost no noise
when driven in a shop. Use extra caution when driv-
ing a “stealth” vehicle to help prevent injury to a
coworker who might not hear you coming.
Chemical Safety
Technicians come into contact with different chemicals,
many of which can be dangerous if they are handled or
used improperly.
OILS, LUBRICANTS, AND COOLANTS
All vehicles need chemicals to operate. Engine oil is the
lifeblood of the engine, and without it, the engine will
quickly self-destruct. Lubricants are used in suspension
and steering components to allow for smooth operation
and to reduce wear. Coolants are used to maintain cor-
rect engine operating temperatures, prevent the engine
from freezing in cold weather, and provide heat for the
passenger compartment.
■ Common Automotive Fluids. Engine oil
becomes contaminated with combustion by-products
while protecting the internal engine’s components. These
by-products can, if allowed to come into contact with
your skin, cause skin irritation, rashes, and other health
concerns. Studies have shown that high levels of expo-
sure to waste engine oil can cause an increased risk for
skin cancer and rheumatoid arthritis. An example of an
oil warning label is shown in Figure 2-34. Wearing the
proper protective equipment, such as nitrile gloves, pro-
tects your skin and greatly reduces your exposure.
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clear above all others, and thrilled to his very heart, so strongly did it remind
him of his sister Salvör. Thoughts of the past filled his mind and kept him
awake for hours, but he fell asleep again, and slept on, till he was roused up in
the morning by the girl. She brought with her a suit of fine clothes, and bade
him put them on.
“To-day is Sunday,” she added, “and you must stay here till to-morrow.” She
then left the room.
While Biarni was putting on his clothes, a little boy in a green coat, and very
nicely dressed, came into the room and wished him good morning. “What has
brought you here, so far away from home?” said the little fellow to him.
“I have come to look for some sheep that I have lost.”
“Well, I have not seen them in this valley. But I hope you won’t go to look for
them to-day. Father is going to hear service in the church, and you must be
there too.”
Before Biarni had time to reply, some one called the boy away, saying, “Sveinn,
come here, and don’t plague the stranger with your nonsense.”
At breakfast, Biarni was waited on by the girl who had treated him so well the
evening before.
Towards mid-day, people began to come from far and near, to join in the
public service in the church close by. The boy came for Biarni, and led him by
the hand into the church and showed him to a seat. On looking about, what
was his surprise to see by his side the man in the red clothes whom he had
seen, ten years before, among the mountains! But, his surprise was greater still,
on discovering that the clergyman who conducted the service, was no other
than the man in the black dress who had travelled with the other. The church
was full of people. Most of the men were tall and strongly built, but had
something forbidding about their looks. Some wore brown knitted garments
of undyed wool. Biarni said nothing to his neighbour, but took out the gilt box
and offered him a pinch of snuff. This he took, but without seeming to
recognize Biarni.
By and by, Biarni saw, seated just in front of the pulpit, a comely well dressed
woman who seemed the very picture of his sister. When their eyes met, she
was overcome with emotion and began to smile and weep by turns. Biarni now
felt confident that it was indeed his beloved sister Salvör whom he now saw
before him.
The service decently performed to the end and the blessing pronounced, the
boy again took Biarni by the hand and led him out. In passing the church
door, an old ill looking man, who sat there, tripped Biarni up and made him
fall. On this, the man in the red clothes came forward and chastised the
offender, while Biarni went with the boy into the farm house. The two men
whom Biarni had met among the mountains, shortly after came in and saluted
him.
“Do you know us, Biarni!” said they to him kindly.
“Yes,” replied he. But not another word could he utter for emotion.
A moment after, the woman, he had seen in the church and taken for his
sister, entered the room. She flew into his arms and pressed him to her bosom
saying,
“Before we were born we lay in each other’s arms, I was taken weeping from
thy embrace, and now I return laughing to thy arms, my brother.”
It was a joyful meeting.
When Biarni recovered himself, he told his sister about his parents, and also all
that had happened in Skagafiord since her departure. The man in red clothes
then addressed himself to Biarni, and said,
“Whilst thou wert asleep among the mountains, I took thy sister away from
thee and gave her in marriage to this man in the black dress, who is my son.
He is the clergyman of the valley and I am the sysselman. It was I that took
away the sheep and led thee astray to this place, that brother and sister might
meet again. To-night thou must stay here with thy sister. To-morrow I shall
give thee back thy lost sheep and go with thee part of the way to Skagafiord.”
Biarni spent a happy evening with Salvör. In the morning he took leave of her
with many tears, and departed under the guidance of her husband and of her
father-in-law, who gave him back his sheep, and helped him to drive them. On
reaching the inhabited part of the country, his new friends parted with him and
bade him an affectionate farewell; but not before they had made him promise
to leave Skagafiord and live with them.
“You must come and settle in the valley beside us,” said they to him, “we shall
return next summer and lead you and your friends to your sister’s home.”
On getting to Skagafiord, Biarni told his wife and mother all that had
happened to him, when away, and also the promise he had made to remove to
the mountains; but charged them to say nothing to the neighbours about it.
His parents were rejoiced to learn that Salvör was still alive, and promised to
go with him and his wife.
In June of the next year, three men, from the mountains, rode up one night to
Biarni’s house. The night following, Biarni, and his parents, and all his
household went away with them and in due time reached the valley where
Salvör lived. How it rejoiced Sveinn and his wife to see again their long lost
daughter! They settled in the valley and died there, at a good old age.
Biarni lived there too, for many years, but he could never forget the beautiful
Skagafiord; so when age came upon him, he returned to his old home, and
spent his latter years among the friends of his youth.

UNA THE FAIRY.

Many many years ago, a strapping young fellow, called Geir, was settled in the
farm of Randafell, on the south slope of the Eyafialla mountains, near the sea-
coast. Every thing prospered with him; for he was active and industrious, and
scorned to eat the bread of idleness. His wife was as industrious as himself, but
unfortunately, she took ill and died, shortly after their marriage. At the hay-
making season, which came on soon after, he missed his wife greatly; for the
maid servants were too few to look after the house and make the hay.
One day, when they had a good deal more work before them than they were
able to get through, a strange woman made her appearance in the hay field,
and, without so much as saying, “by your leave,” began at once to handle the
rake; and cleverly she handled it, too, for she got through more work than any
two of them. She was young and handsome, but silent as the grave. Not a
word could Geir, or any one else, get out of her the live long day. At night she
disappeared, no one knew where; but, when morning came, there was she, first
in the field, ready to take her place among the women.
Things went on in this way till the end of the harvest, when Geir went up to
her, and thanked her kindly for the help she had given them.
She took what he said in good part, and no longer refused to talk with him.
They had a long chat together, but Geir was not made a bit the wiser, as to
where she lived, or whose daughter she was. She told him, however, that her
name was Una.
“Una,” said he to her at last, “I am greatly in want of a housekeeper; I don’t
know any body so likely to suit as you; will you take the situation?”
“I have no objection to do so,” she replied, “when do you want me?”
“The sooner the better.”
“Well, I shall come with my luggage to-morrow, and take up my abode with
you.” She then disappeared.
Next morning, she walked into the farm house, and set down a large chest, full
of clothes, which she had brought with her. This she put out of the way in the
closet, and then began to bustle about the house, looking after household
duties.
And now things began to prosper again with the Randafell farmer. Una was a
capital manager, and soon became famous all over the country side for her
good butter, and her well ordered house. Geir was delighted with his
housekeeper; but one thing distressed him—he could not persuade her to go
to church.
When Christmas Eve came round, Geir and all the servants went to church, to
the vesper service. Geir was anxious that Una should go too. But no! she
would not budge, excusing herself by saying, that she was needed at home to
look after the house. It was morning before the church goers got back, for the
church was a good three hours’ ride from Randafell. On returning they found
Una busy preparing the Christmas feast. The ordinary work of the house was
done, so that they had nothing to do but to take a few hours rest, before
sitting down to enjoy themselves.
By the time the third winter came round, Geir began to think of taking a wife,
and who so likely to suit him as Una! And so thought all the neighbours too.
Many a talk they had about her, when gathered together in the churchyard, on
the Sundays, waiting the arrival of the clergyman. After discussing her good
qualities, “Isn’t it strange,” the one would say to the other, “that we can’t find
out who Una is, or where she comes from?”
“Aye! that is true,” another would say, “but isn’t it stranger still, that all the time
she has been at Randafell, she has never once entered the church door?”
Geir was very fond of her, but could not make up his mind to ask her to marry
him, so long as she refused to bend her knee in prayer to God.
On the third Christmas Eve, Geir set out, with all his household, to the
midnight service in the church. Una as usual remained at home. When they
were on the road, Geir’s serving man suddenly complained of severe pain. He
lay down on the spot, and said he would rest there till he got better; so Geir
and the others went on without him.
As soon as they were out of sight, the man got up to his feet, mounted his
horse and rode back again to the farm. His sickness was only feigned, in order
to get the chance of finding out what could tempt Una always to stay at home,
at a time when every true hearted Icelander made a point of joining his
neighbours, in the house of God, to commemorate the anniversary of that
blessed night when Christ was born in Bethlehem.
On reaching the farm, he unsaddled the horse, and slipped quietly in, taking
care to hide in a dark corner where he could see all that was going on, without
being himself seen. Una was busy sweeping and cleaning the house; and so
cleverly did she go about her work that everything was put to rights in a very
short time. After washing herself, she went to the store-closet and put on a
dress which the man had never seen till now, and which was more befitting a
king’s daughter than a poor farmer’s housekeeper. Never before had Una
looked so handsome and beautiful.
She now took out of her chest a piece of red cloth, which she put under her
arm. Shutting her chest and the closet door, she left the house and ran down
the meadow, till she came to a pool of water. Here she spread out the red
cloth, and placed herself upon it. At this instant the man, who had been
breathlessly following her, came up, and unseen by her just succeeded in
getting his foot on a corner of the cloth. And now they sunk down and down
into the earth, with a feeling as if they were going through smoke. By and by
they landed on a green plain, not far from a splendid farm house. Una took up
the cloth, put it under her arm, and went up to the house. The man walked
softly behind, taking care to keep out of her sight. A great many people came
out of doors to welcome Una, who seemed rejoiced to see them, and saluted
them kindly.
Great preparations were going on inside for a feast. The guest chamber was
swept and garnished, and the table laid. As soon as the people took their
places several dishes were brought, and abundance of good wine. The serving
man, who had slipped in with the others unknown to Una, took his place
among the guests. Among other things he was presented with a fine rib of
smoked mutton, which he took and preserved, for he had never seen so fat a
rib before. After supper the people amused themselves with games of different
kinds, and were all very happy.
Just as day began to break, Una told her friends, she would have to go away, as
her master, the peasant, would soon be back from church. So she took a kind
leave of every one, and walked to the spot where she had alighted, on coming
down.
The man followed her, and again succeeded in getting his foot on the cloth,
without being seen. So they ascended together through the dark earth, till they
came to the pool of water again. Una took up the cloth, and went straight to
the store-room to change her dress. After that she went into the house, to
await the return of the peasant, and make ready the Christmas feast.
The serving man had, meantime, taken up his place at the spot where he had
been left behind the night before. When the farmer came up he asked him
how he was.
“I am almost well again,” said the man, “and quite able to go home with you.”
So they all rode together to Randafell.
Una received them with a smiling face, and told them that the feast was quite
ready. So they were not long in taking their places. As is usual on such
occasions, the principal dish was smoked mutton. As this happened to be very
fine, the farmer took up a large rib, and holding it up said,
“Have any of you ever seen such a rib as this?”
“I think I have; what think you of that,” said the serving man, as he held up
before them the rib he had got the night before.
As soon as Una saw this, she changed colour, went out without saying a single
word, and was never afterwards seen.

GILITRUTT.

Once on a time, a smart active young peasant occupied a farm under the
Eyafialla mountains. As his pasture land was good, he kept many sheep. These
yielded him no small store of wool, and yet, it was no easy matter for him to
keep a coat on his back; for the wife whom he had lately married, though
young and healthy, was lazy to a degree, and gave herself little concern about
the affairs of the house. Her husband was greatly dissatisfied, but could not
induce her to mend her ways.
At the close of summer he gave her a large bundle of wool, and told her to be
sure to spin it and work it up into coarse wadmal during the winter months.
“Very well,” she said, “I’ll see about it bye and bye;” but at the same time
looked as if she would far rather have nothing to do with it. She let it lie in a
corner untouched, spite of the hints she got every now and then, from her
husband. It was mid-winter before she fully made up her mind to set to work;
and then she began to perplex herself, as to how she could get so much wool
worked up, before the close of winter.
Just then, an ugly old woman came to the door, begging for alms.
“Can you do any work for me in return,” asked the peasant’s wife.
“Perhaps I can,” replied the old woman.
“But what kind of work would you have me to do?”
“I want you to make some coarse cloth for me, out of this wool.”
“Very well, let me have the wool then.”
And so, the peasant’s wife handed the large bag of wool to the old woman,
who, without more ado, tossed it up on her back, at the same time saying,
“You may depend on my coming back with the cloth, the first day of
summer.”
“But what payment will you ask for your work when you bring the cloth,” said
the peasant’s wife.
“I won’t take any payment; but you must tell me what my name is, in three
guesses.”
The peasant’s wife, too lazy to spin and weave for herself, agreed to this
strange condition, and so the old woman departed.
As the winter months passed on, the peasant often asked what had become of
the wool.
“Give yourself no concern about it,” said the wife, “you’ll have it back, all spun
and woven, by the first day of summer.”
As he never could get any other answer, he at last ceased to talk about the
wool. All this time his wife was trying to find out the old woman’s name, but
all her efforts were unavailing. By the time the last month of winter came
round she became so anxious and uneasy that she could neither eat nor sleep.
Her husband was greatly distressed at the change which had come over her,
and begged her to let him know what ailed her. Unable longer to keep the
matter secret, she told him the whole.
He was very much startled at what he heard, and told her how very imprudent
she had been, as the old woman was, most certainly, a witch, and would take
her away if she failed in her bargain.
A day or two after this conversation, he had occasion to go up the adjoining
mountain. He was so bowed down with grief, at the thought of losing his wife,
that he scarcely knew what he was about; and so wandered from the road, till
he came to the bottom of a lofty cliff. While he was considering how he could
get into the right road again, he thought he heard a sound as of a voice inside
the hill. Following the sound he discovered a hole in the face of the cliff. On
peeping through this hole, he saw a tall old woman sitting weaving with the
loom between her knees; and, as she beat the treadles, every now and then
breaking into a snatch of song,
“Ha! Ha! and Ho! Ho!
The good wife does not know
That Gilitrutt is my name.”

“Aha!” muttered the peasant to himself, “if she does not know now, she will
know bye and bye;” for he felt quite sure that was the same old hag who had
so imposed on his poor foolish wife.
All the way home, he kept repeating the word Gilitrutt, and, as soon as he got
in doors, he wrote it down on a piece of paper, that he might not forget it. But
he did not, at that time, give his wife the least inkling of what had befallen him.
The poor woman grew more and more sorrowful, as the days passed on; and,
when the closing day of winter came, she was so woe-begone that she had not
the heart even to put on her clothes. In the course of the day, her husband
enquired if she had found out her visitor’s name yet.
“Alas, no! Would to God I could find it out! for I am like to die of grief.”
“There is no occasion for that,” he replied cheerfully, “I’ve found out the
name for you; so you need not be afraid to meet the old hag.” With that, he
handed her the piece of paper, and at the same time told about his adventure
on the mountain. She took the paper, with a trembling hand, for at first she
feared that the news was too good to be true; and, though her husband’s story
comforted her not a little, she could not get rid of a suspicion that the name
might not be the true one.
She wanted her husband to stay indoors the next day, so as to be present when
the old woman called.
“No! no!” said he, “you kept your own counsel when you gave her the wool,
so, you must do without me when you take in the cloth, and pay her the wages
agreed on.”
He then left the house.
And now came the first day of summer. The peasant’s wife was in the house
alone, and lay a-bed, listening with a beating heart for the first sound of the
old hag’s footsteps. She had not long to wait; for, before the morning passed, a
trampling noise was heard, and in stalked the old woman with a bundle on her
back, and a scowl on her face. As soon as she got within the room, she threw
down the big bundle of cloth, and, in an angry tone, called out,
“What is my name now? What’s my name?”
The peasant’s wife, who was almost dead with fear, said “Signy!”
“That my name! That my name! guess again, good wife.”
“Asa,” said she.
“That my name! That my name! No indeed. You must guess again; but
remember this is your last chance.”
“Are you not called Gilitrutt?” said the woman timorously.
This answer came like a thunderbolt on the old hag, who fell down with a
great noise on the floor, and lay there for sometime. She then got up, and,
without speaking a word, went her way out of the house, and was never more
seen in the country-side.
As for the peasant’s wife, she was full of joy at her deliverance, and, ever after,
was a changed woman. She became a pattern of industry and good
management, and henceforth always worked her own wool herself.

HILDUR THE FAIRY QUEEN.

Once on a time a farmer settled in a mountainous part of the country, but the
particular spot is not mentioned, nor has his name come to us; but we do
know that he was a bachelor, and had a housekeeper named Hildur.
Who Hildur was, neither the farmer nor any of the neighbouring gossips could
find out: but as she took good care of the household and discharged her duties
faithfully, she was allowed to keep her own secret. All the servants liked her,
and the farmer thought himself very fortunate in having fallen in with such a
housekeeper. She was of a quiet disposition, but always kind and obliging.
The farmer’s affairs were in a flourishing state: his sheep throve and
multiplied, and he had nothing to annoy him except this, that he had great
difficulty in getting shepherds to enter his service. The cause of this was not
that the farmer treated his shepherds badly, but that, one after another, they
were found dead in bed, on Christmas morning.
In olden times, it was the custom for the Icelanders, on Christmas Eve, to
meet together at midnight for public worship; and any one who absented
himself from church, on that occasion, was considered as much to blame as if
he were keeping away on Christmas day itself. Those living up among the
mountains, and who had long weary roads to go, had often great difficulty in
getting to church in time; especially those who were not able to leave home
before the Pleiades could be seen in the south-eastern heavens.
In this farm, the shepherds did not usually get home from work before that
time, so that they generally missed the opportunity of attending the Christmas
Eve service. Hildur never went on those occasions, as she preferred staying at
home to watch the house—as is customary for some one to do on Christmas
Eve—and attend to the preparations for the Christmas feast. She was always
busily occupied in this way till the night was far advanced, so that the church-
goers were back from the services and asleep in bed, before she retired for the
night.
As often as Christmas morn came round, the farmer’s shepherd, whoever he
might be, was found dead in bed. This strange fatality was well known over all
the country side. No wonder, then, that shepherds were afraid of entering the
farmer’s service, even though offered better wages than they could get
elsewhere. No mark of violence was ever seen on the body of the unfortunate
shepherd, so that no blame could be attached either to the farmer, or to any
one in the house. At last the farmer declared that he could not find it in his
heart to engage shepherds, with the prospect of certain death before them,
and that he would, for the future, leave his sheep to take care of themselves.
When things had reached this pass, there came to him, one day, an active hardy
man, who offered his services as shepherd.
“I am not so much in want of your services as to be willing to take you.”
“Have you engaged a shepherd for next winter?” asked the stranger.
“No, I have not,” replied the farmer, “but surely you have heard how sad has
been the end of all that have been before you.”
“Oh yes, I’ve heard all about it; but their fate will not hinder me from taking
care of your sheep, if you are only willing to engage me.”
At last, the farmer complied with his entreaties, and engaged him as shepherd.
He soon shewed that he was in every respect fitted for the place. He was kind
and obliging; and both able and willing to lend a hand at any farm work, so
that he soon became a favourite with everybody.
Till Christmas-tide, nothing extraordinary happened. On Christmas Eve, the
farmer went to church as usual with his domestics. The housekeeper alone
stayed at home, and the shepherd was left in charge of the sheep. Towards
evening the shepherd came in from his work, and after partaking of dinner, lay
down to rest in bed. He took care, however, not to drop asleep; for, though
free from fear, he thought it only prudent to keep awake. When the night was
advanced he heard the church-goers come in, and take some refreshment
before going to bed. Up till this time, he had not remarked anything unusual;
but when the others had fallen asleep, he felt languid and weary. He was afraid
lest he should be overpowered with sleep, and did his best to keep awake. A
little while after, some one, whom he believed to be the housekeeper Hildur,
stealthily approached the bed-side. Thinking he was asleep, she began to try to
put something in his mouth. He felt certain that it must be a magic-bridle, and
so, pretending to be quite unconscious of what was going on, he let himself be
quietly bridled.
As soon as the bridle was on, she led him out very easily; mounting on his
back, she rode away at a smart pace till they reached a yawning chasm in the
earth. Then she dismounted beside a stone, and letting go her hold of the
bridle, disappeared into the chasm. The shepherd did not want to lose sight of
her, and so tried to follow; but he soon found that that was out of his power,
so long as he had on the bridle. By dint however of rubbing his head against
the stone, he got rid of the bridle, and leaving it behind, he threw himself into
the chasm into which Hildur had sprung.
As far as he could judge, he had not gone very deep down till he saw Hildur
again. She was then landed on a fine level meadow, along which she was
walking quickly. From what he saw he came to think that all was not right with
Hildur, and that she was not the woman she had seemed to be in the farmer’s
house. In order to keep her from seeing him as he followed her over the plain,
he took out of his pocket a stone which had the wonderful property of making
him invisible so long as he held it in his hand. With this stone of darkness in
his left-palm, he made after her as fast as he could, and kept close behind her
the rest of the way.
After walking some distance over the plain, there appeared in sight a splendid
palace of great size, towards which Hildur directed her steps. A great crowd of
people came out to meet her. Foremost among them was a man dressed in
purple and gold, who bade her welcome, at the same time calling her his
beloved wife, and embracing her very affectionately. Those who attended him
saluted her as their queen, and received her with every mark of respect. By the
king’s side were two children, of eight or ten years of age, who ran joyfully into
Hildur’s arms, and called her mother.
On entering the palace, Hildur was very honourably received. She was dressed
in a royal robe, and had rings of gold put upon her hand. The shepherd
followed the crowd into the palace, and took up his place where he could see
all that was going on without running the risk of being found out. The
furniture was rich and gorgeous beyond conception, so that he was completely
dazzled with the sight.
In the principal saloon a table was set out and a feast prepared, the splendour
of which cannot be described.
Hildur then made her appearance, magnificently attired, and sat down on the
throne beside the king, while the other guests took their places on each side.
At the close of the feast, the table was removed, and soon the guests began to
pass the time in dancing, or other amusements. The king and queen paid no
heed to what was going on, but sat alone, engaged in a close conversation
which seemed to the shepherd to be at once kind and sorrowful.
While the king and queen were thus occupied, three children, younger than
those before mentioned, came forward, and their mother Hildur, who received
them kindly, took the youngest on her knee and fondled it. But, as the child
was restless and uneasy, she set it down again. She then drew a ring from her
finger, and gave it to the child as a plaything. The child amused itself for some
time with it, and then dropped it on the floor. The shepherd, who was
standing close by, at the time, hastily snatched it up and put it into his pocket,
without being observed by any one. As soon as the ring was missed, a careful
search was made for it, but, to the great astonishment of everybody but the
shepherd, it was nowhere to be found.
As the night was now far advanced, the queen—Hildur—began to prepare for
her departure. Those present were sorry to see this, and begged her to stay
longer with them. The king also added his entreaties, but all without effect.
Before this time, the shepherd had noticed an ill-looking woman, who sat all
alone in a corner of the room. She was the only one that had failed to give
Hildur a joyful welcome to the palace, or ask her to prolong her stay. As soon
as the king saw that Hildur was bent on going, he stepped up to this old
woman, and said, “Take back your words, mother! at my humble entreaty, so
that my queen may no longer be bound to absent herself from home, and
from those nearest and dearest to her.”
The old woman replied angrily, “All my words shall stand, I will by no means
retract them.”
With a sorrowful heart, he went back to the queen, and, folding his arms
around her, begged her in words of kindness not to leave him again.
“Alas,” said she, “I cannot stay here, in consequence of the spell by which your
mother has bound me, and who knows if I shall ever see you more.”
She then told him she had killed so many men it could no longer be concealed,
and that she would certainly be punished, even though what she had done was
sore against her will.
While she was lamenting her unhappy lot, the shepherd, seeing how matters
stood, made the best of his way out of the palace, and went straightway to the
bottom of the chasm. He reached the top, with the greatest ease. After that, he
put the stone of darkness in his pocket, and putting the bridle in his mouth
again, waited patiently on Hildur. It was not long before Hildur made her
appearance, looking very sorrowful. Taking a hold of the bridle, she mounted
on his back and rode quickly back to the farm.
On her arrival she laid the shepherd quietly in bed, and unbridled him, and
then slipped away to her own bed, where she lay down to sleep. Although the
shepherd had been all this time wide awake, he feigned sleep so well that
Hildur was quite deceived. After she had gone to bed, he was no longer on his
guard, but fell asleep, and as might be expected slept till it was broad day. The
farmer was astir early in the morning, for he was anxious to know if this
Christmas, like so many that was gone, was to be a season of mourning in
place of a season of rejoicing. The most of the servants got up early too, but,
while they were dressing, he went quietly to the shepherd’s bed, and touching
him with his hand, found that he was alive and apparently well. This rejoiced
the heart of the farmer, who falling down on his knees, praised God loudly for
his great goodness. The shepherd, shortly after, got up in the best of health.
As soon as he was dressed, the people of the house gathered about him, to ask
if anything unusual had befallen him during the night.
“Nothing,” said he, “except that I had a very wonderful dream.”
“What kind of a dream?”
The shepherd began with the tale, as it is here told; how Hildur came to his
bed and bridled him; and every thing exactly, as far as he could recollect. When
he had done, all were silent except Hildur, who said,
“If you tell the truth, show us some token to prove what you say.”
The shepherd, noways daunted by this demand, shewed them the ring, which
he had picked up from the floor of the fairy palace during the night, and said,
“Though I am not bound to bring forward proofs, I can easily do so, for there
is token sufficient that I have been with the fairies. Is not that your ring,
Queen Hildur?”
“To be sure it is,” replied Hildur “and may good fortune ever attend you, for
you have delivered me from the spell by which my cruel mother-in-law bound
me, and through which I have been compelled to do so many bad deeds which
my soul abhorred.”
Then queen Hildur told her story as follows. “I was a fairy maid of low degree,
but the present fairy king fell in love with me. The marriage was so displeasing
to his mother, that she became furious with rage and told him that he would
have to part with me soon, and that, after that, we could enjoy each other’s
society only at rare intervals and for a short time together. But me she bound
with such a spell, that I was forced to become a servant in the world of woe,
and, every Christmas Eve, to kill a man. I was to bridle him when asleep, and
ride on his back along the same road that I took with the shepherd last night
in going to meet the king. This I was to do till I was convicted of murder and
put to death, unless, before that, I should fall in with a man so courageous as
to dare to go with me to the world of Fairies, and then be able to show plain
proofs that he had been there and seen what was done. Now, it is clear that all
the other shepherds of this farmer have suffered death for my sake, but, as it
was not in my power to prevent it, I hope their deaths will not be laid to my
charge. This stout-hearted man is the first who dared to venture into the dark
road that leads to Fairyland. I shall yet reward him for delivering me from the
spell of my cruel mother-in-law. I thank you all for your kindness to me, during
the years I have been among you. But I must stay here no longer, for I long for
my proper home.”
After these words Queen Hildur disappeared, and since then, she has never
once been seen in the world of mankind.
Of the shepherd, it is told, that he married and settled down on a farm, in the
following spring. He was generously treated by the farmer, who, when they
parted, stocked his farm free of all cost to him. Ere long he became noted as
one of the best farmers of the neighbourhood, and was often called upon for
his advice and assistance in matters of difficulty. He was beloved by all, and
successful beyond all his expectations in whatever he undertook. None of his
neighbours could boast of such thriving flocks and herds as his. But his
wonderful good fortune did not make him proud, for, as he often said, he
owed all his success to Hildur the Fairy Queen.

A CLERGYMAN’S DAUGHTER MARRIED TO A FAIRY MAN.

In a certain district of Iceland, there lived a clergyman who had a daughter in

the early bloom of womanhood. One day, when the conversation turned on
the subject of elves or fairies, the young woman happened to say,
“I should like to be married to a fairy man, if he were only a brave one.”
Her father was very angry at her words, and gave her a good scolding and a
box on the ear besides. Shortly afterwards, a child about the parsonage saw a
man ride up to the door of the house, and then dismount. Watching his
opportunity, the man stepped indoors, and soon reappeared, leading the
clergyman’s daughter by the hand. Before he could be prevented, he mounted
on horseback and rode off with her. Her sorrowful parents searched for her
throughout all the neighbouring country, but nowhere could she be found.
It is told, that three winters after this time, a shepherd who had been long in
the clergyman’s service, and had loved his daughter dearly, one day lost his way
and all the sheep. After wandering about for hours, he found himself at the
door of a farm house he had never before seen. The farmer, a fine manly
looking fellow, came out, and after listening to his story offered him a bed for
the night. He accepted the offer gladly, but at the same time lamented over the
loss of the sheep.
“Don’t bother yourself about them to-night,” said the farmer, “be sure they
will turn up again;” and with that he led him to a room up stairs. There he saw
an old man and woman, and two children who were playing on the floor. But,
besides these, he saw the clergyman’s lost daughter who was now the wife of
the man who had asked him in.
The shepherd was entertained with the best that was in the house; and when
bed-time came, was shown to a private sleeping room. The clergyman’s
daughter then went to him, and handing him a leather bag, asked him faithfully
to deliver to her mother some valuables she had put in it. She also bade him
tell her mother that though her husband was a fairy man, he did not hinder her
from saying her prayers every night. On the shepherd asking her if ever she
went to church, she said she was there just as often as himself, and that she
always sat under the pulpit, with her husband, beside the altar.
“How does it come that nobody ever sees you in church?”
“Oh, the reason is,” she replied, “that we always leave the church before the
blessing. But don’t tell anybody what I have now mentioned. Only deliver the
leather bag to my mother; for if you blab what I’ve told you, be sure you will
be an unfortunate man.”
He gave her a promise of secrecy; on that, she left the room. On getting up in
the morning, he was glad to learn that his lost sheep had turned up. The
farmer, who had fed them on hay during the night, delivered them up to him,
and put him on the right road. He got home with the sheep in safety, and after
a very short journey; but he never could tell which way he came. As for the
promise of secrecy, he paid no attention to it; but on the contrary gave a full
and exact account of everything he had seen and heard.
Now, the clergyman, who was anxious to find his daughter, bethought himself
of a plan, and that was, to pronounce the blessing before she could have time
to get out of church. So he went round among his parishioners, and told them
not to be shocked if they should hear him the next Sunday pronounce the
blessing at an earlier stage of the service than usual. When next Sunday came,
his daughter occupied her customary seat, though not visible to any one in the
church. In the middle of the service the clergyman stopped and pronounced
the blessing. His daughter, thus caught unawares, was obliged to discover
herself. He did what he could to induce her to stay, but all in vain.
“If you try to force me,” said she, “the consequences will be very serious; and
besides, it would not be right in me to leave a husband who has always treated
me so kindly.”
Of the shepherd, it is told, that he was from that day unfortunate in all that he
had to do with. But one cannot be sorry for him, as he brought his troubles on
his own head through his want of truthfulness.

THE CLERGYMAN’S DAUGHTER IN PRESTSBAKKI.

In Prestsbakki, in the Skaptáfells district, there once lived a clergyman, named

Einar. He was well to do in the world, and had a numerous family. No one
cared less about fairy tales than he did. In fact, he used to speak of fairies as if
there were no such beings. In his idle moments he would tauntingly dare them
to shew themselves to him; and then, as they did not choose to obey his
orders, he would boast that there were no fairies to come.
Well, on one night while asleep, he dreamed that a man came to his bedside
and said to him,
“You have provoked the fairies long, but now they will have their revenge.
From this time forward you shall not dare to deny their existence. I will take
away your eldest daughter, and you shall never see her more.”
And sure enough, in the morning, when the clergyman awoke, he found that
his eldest daughter, who was twelve years of age, had disappeared. Search was
made for her in all directions, but nowhere could she be found. As time passed
on, she often made her appearance among her brothers and sisters, while they
were playing in the meadows. Again and again, they tried to prevail on her to
go home with them; but, just as she seemed willing to do so, she always
became invisible. When asked as to her welfare, she always said that she was in
good health, and kindly treated by her new friends. Her father frequently saw
her in his dreams, and to him she told the same story, only adding that she was
to be married, bye and bye, to the fairy clergyman’s son. Some time after she
appeared to her father again in a dream, and invited him to come to her
marriage, which was to take place on the following day. This was the last time
he ever dreamed about her, and never after did she show herself among her
brothers and sisters.

THE CHANGELING.

It was a common belief, in olden times, that the fairies often took away infant
children who happened to be left alone, and changed them for decrepit old
men or women who were made to appear as children. These changelings,
however, neither grew nor spoke after the manner of children, and were very
apt to become idiots. It once happened that all the people of a certain farm
were working in the meadows, except the mistress of the house who was at
home looking after the house and her little son, a boy three or four years old.
Up to that time the boy had thriven amazingly. He could talk well, and was a
clever promising child. As there was no one to assist the mother with the
household work, one day, she was obliged to leave the boy by himself for a
short time, while she went to wash the milk pails in a brook close by. On
returning soon after, she was surprised to find the boy, at the door, weeping
and howling in a strange uncouth way, very different from his wonted manner.
Usually he was very quiet, gentle and obedient, but now she could not get a
word out of him. Time passed on, but the child remained silent, restless, and
thoroughly untractable. His body ceased to grow, and his behaviour was like
that of an idiot. His mother could not account for the strange change that had
come over him. In the midst of her grief, she at last bethought herself of going
to take the advice of a neighbour woman who was famous for her prudence
and skill. The neighbour listened attentively to all she had to say about the boy,
and then said to her,
“Don’t you think, good wife, that the boy is a changeling? for, it seems to me,
that the fairies must have taken away your own boy the day you left him alone,
and have put another in his place.”
“How could I find out, if what you say is true?” said the surprised mother.
“Oh, very easily, just go home, and take the first opportunity of leaving the
boy alone beside something that is likely to call forth his surprise. When his
eye catches what you have put purposely in his way, if nobody is within sight,
he is sure to make some remark about it to himself. You must listen to what he
says, and if you find anything strange or suspicious about it, go in at once and
flog him without mercy, till something comes out of it.”
The boy’s mother thanked her neighbour humbly for her advice, and went
away home to put it into practice. The first thing she did on returning was to
place the little porridge pot in the middle of the kitchen floor. She then bound
a great many sticks together, so as to make a long rod, and fastened the spurtle
to one of the ends. The rod was so big, that when the spurtle rested in the pot,
the upper end was away up the chimney. Leaving it in this position, she went
away and fetched the boy to the kitchen, and then left him all alone. On going
out, she drew the door behind her; but not so closely as to prevent her from
peeping in to see what was going on.
As soon as the boy thought he was alone, he began to trip round the pot,
wondering greatly what could be the meaning of the long spurtle. At last he
said, “Well, old as I am, and I am no chicken now, as my grey beard and my
eighteen children in Fairyland can testify, I never, in all my born days, did see
such a long spurtle for such a little porridge pot.”
This was enough for the mother, who was not long of making her appearance
in the kitchen with a good sized stick in her hand. Seizing hold of the
changeling, she flogged him unmercifully for a long while, spite of his heart-
rending cries.
Bye and bye a strange old woman walked in, holding on her arms a little boy
whom she fondled kindly. Addressing the farmer’s wife, she said, “Why should
you treat my husband so cruelly. Your conduct is a sorry recompense for the
care I have bestowed on this little boy of yours.” So saying, she laid the little
boy at his mother’s feet, and took her husband away with her.
The fairy man and woman were never more seen again. The now recovered
boy remained with his parents, and grew up a fine manly youth, the joy of his
mother’s heart.[47]
 II.

SPECIMENS OF ICELANDIC POEMS.

FROM THE “VÖLUSPÁ”

In the “Völuspá,”[48] from the older Edda, we have a sublime description of
chaos; of creation; an account of a period of strife, crime, and suffering; dire
conflicts between the powers of good and evil; of the destruction of the world
of Odin and the dissolution and conflagration of the universe; of the Regnarök
or twilight of the Gods; of the renovated world, the descent of Baldur the
Good, the punishment of the wicked, and the happiness of the good in Gimlé
or Heaven. From this poem—the most remarkable in the whole range of
Scandinavian mytho-cosmogony—the following verses are extracted:
“It was time’s morning
When Ymer lived.
There was no sand, no sea;
No cooling billows;
Earth there was none,
No lofty heaven;
Only the Gulph of Ginunga,
But no grass.

· · · ·

The sun knew not

Where was his dwelling;
The stars knew not
That they had a firmament;
The moon knew not
What powers she possessed.

· · · ·

The tree Yggdrasil

Bears a sorer burden
Than men know of.
Above the stags bite it;
On its sides age rots it;
Nighögg gnaws below.