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 Basic Electrical and
Instrumentation Engineering
 Scrivener Publishing
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Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
 Basic Electrical and
Instrumentation Engineering

P. Sivaraman, C. Sharmeela,
A. Thaiyal Nayagi,
and R. Mahendran
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119764465

Cover image: Courtesy of the Authors

Cover design by Kris Hackerott

Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

Printed in the USA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Dedications

Mr. P. Sivaraman dedicating to his father Mr. A. Palanisamy (deceased),

mother Mrs. P. Valarmathi, sister Mrs. P. Shanmuga Priya,
Spouse Mrs. A. Gowri and Daughter baby S. Aathira.

Dr. C. Sharmeela dedicating to her parents Mr. N.S.Chenniappan

and Mrs. C. Kasturi, my brother Chandrasekar, Vanitha,
Shakthi Chandrasekar, Subathra and my beloved friends for
encouraging me and extending their full support in writing the book.

Ms. A. Thaiyal Nayagi dedicating to her mother A.Mariyayee,

sister A. sujatha and my brother’s A.Azhagirisamy, A.saravanamani
for their constant encouragement and support.

Mr. R. Mahendran dedicating to his father, mother and sister.

 Contents

Foreword xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Electrical Parameters 3
1.1.1.1 Voltage 3
1.1.1.2 Current 11
1.1.1.3 Time Period and Frequency 15
1.1.1.4 Phase Angle (ɸ) 16
1.2 Three-Phase Supply Connections 17
1.2.1 Star Connection 17
1.2.2 Delta Connection 19
1.2.3 Balanced Load 21
1.2.4 Unbalanced Load 23
1.2.5 Star – Delta Conversion 23
1.2.6 Delta to Star Conversion 24
1.3 Power 25
1.3.1 Real Power or Active Power (P) 25
1.3.2 Reactive Power (Q) 28
1.3.3 Apparent Power (S) 31
1.4 Power Factor (PF) 35
1.4.1 Classification Based on Load Characteristics 35
1.4.2 Classification Based on Harmonics Producing Loads 46
1.4.3 The Need for Power Factor Improvement 47
1.4.4 Methods of Power Factor Improvement 48
1.5 Types of Loads 49
1.5.1 Linear Loads 50
1.5.2 Non-Linear Loads 50

vii
viii Contents

1.6 Three-Phase Power Measurement 50

1.7 Overview of Power Systems 56
1.7.1 Components of an Electric Power System 58
1.8 Protection of Power System 63
References 75
2 Transformers 79
2.1 Introduction 79
2.2 Transformer Magnetics 82
2.3 Construction of Transformer 85
2.4 EMF Equation of a Transformer 88
2.5 Ideal Transformer 91
2.6 Transformation Ratio (K) 95
2.7 Circuit Model or Equivalent Circuit of Transformer 96
2.8 Voltage Regulation of Transformer 100
2.9 Name Plate Rating 101
2.10 Efficiency of Transformer 102
2.11 Three-Phase Transformer 104
2.12 Components of the Transformer 113
2.13 Standards for Transformers 116
References 123
3 DC Machines 125
3.1 Introduction 125
3.1.1 DC Generators 125
3.1.2 DC Motors 125
3.1.3 Construction of DC Machines 125
3.2 Operation of DC Machines 132
3.2.1 Principle of DC Generators 132
3.2.2 Operating Principle of Motors 133
3.3 EMF Equation of DC Generator 136
3.4 Torque Equation of a DC Motor 138
3.5 Circuit Model 139
3.5.1 Generator Mode 140
3.5.2 Motor Mode 141
3.5.3 Symbolic Representation of DC Generator 141
3.6 Methods of Excitation 142
3.7 Characteristics of DC Generator 148
3.7.1 Characteristics of Separately Excited
DC Generator 150
3.7.2 Load Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator 152
 Contents ix

3.7.3 Load Characteristics of DC Series Generator 154

3.7.4 Load Characteristics of DC Compound Generator 155
3.8 Types of DC Motor 156
3.9 DC Motor Characteristics 160
3.10 Necessity for Starters 165
3.11 Speed Control of DC Motors 170
3.12 Universal Motor 179
References 183
4 AC Machines 185
4.1 Introduction 185
4.2 Three-Phase Induction Motor 185
4.2.1 Rotating Magnetic Field 186
4.2.2 Construction 186
4.2.3 Working Principle 189
4.2.4 Slip of an Induction Motor 192
4.2.5 Torque Equation 193
4.2.6 Torque–Slip Characteristics 195
4.2.7 Induction Motor as a Transformer 197
4.2.8 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor 198
4.3 Single-Phase Induction Motor 201
4.3.1 Introduction 201
4.3.2 Working Principle 203
4.3.3 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motor 203
4.4 Starting Methods of Induction Motor 209
4.4.1 Need for Starters 209
4.4.2 Types of Starters 209
4.5 Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motor 215
4.6 Synchronous Motor 220
4.6.1 Construction 220
4.6.2 Features of a Synchronous Motor 220
4.6.3 Working Principle 221
4.6.4 Starting Methods of Synchronous Motor 221
4.6.5 Torque Equation of Synchronous Motor 222
4.7 Stepper Motor 223
4.8 Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor 225
4.8.1 Construction 225
4.8.2 Working Principle 226
4.9 Alternator 226
4.9.1 Construction 226
4.9.2 Working Principle 229
x Contents

4.9.3 EMF Equation of an Alternator 232

4.9.4 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator 234
4.10 Standards for Electric Machines 235
References 241
5 Measurement and Instrumentation 243
5.1 Electrical and Electronic Instruments 243
5.1.1 Classification of Instruments 243
5.1.2 Basic Requirements for Measurement 250
5.1.3 Types of Indicating Instruments 259
5.1.4 AC Indicating Instruments 270
5.1.5 Electrical Instruments 275
5.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 278
5.3 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 283
5.4 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurements 289
5.4.1 Static Characteristics 289
5.4.2 Dynamic Characteristics 296
5.5 Measurement of Errors 297
5.5.1 Types of Errors 298
5.6 Transducer 300
5.6.1 Classification of Transducers 302
References 338

Index 341
 Foreword

The backbone of electrical engineering is the power system, and it is one of

the first things that a student in EE needs to learn. There are quite a large
number of text books for courses on basics of electrical and instrumen-
tation; this one presents a very simple, concise and clean approach that
should make the subject very easily accessible to students. It will be partic-
ularly useful for revision after class lectures, and self study.
The first chapter introduces the student to the basic concepts of AC and
DC power, voltage, current and the main constituents of a power system. In
the subsequent chapters, students are introduced to DC and AC machines,
as well as the basic tenets of measurement and instrumentation in the con-
text of power systems. Chapter 2 describes the construction and operation
of single phase and three phase transformers, while Chapter 3 does the
same for DC machines. Chapter 4 covers AC machines, both induction
machines and synchronous machines. Chapter 5 provides a brief expo-
sition on simple measuring instruments and their operation. This should
serve as a useful first introduction to power systems, before referencing
advanced literature.
The authors have nicely blended their academic foundation with some
industrial insight to make this book relevant and direct. I commend them
on their work.

Nandini Gupta
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

xi
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost thanks to the Almighty for his everlasting love through-
out this endeavor.

Mr. P. Sivaraman expresses his sincere thanks to Mr. Balaji Sriram, Research
Scholar, IIT Kanpur, D. Sathiya Moorty, Research Scholar, IIT Ropar,
Mr. Upendran, Research Scholar, IIT Madras; Mr. Priyaranjan Satpathy,
Research Scholar, ITER, SOA Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
Mr. S. Rajkumar, Executive, JLL, Bengaluru, Mr. K. Sasikumar, Electrical
Engineer, Mott MacDonald, Noida, Mr. Muthukumaran, Director, TECH
Engineering Services, Chennai, Mr. K. Balaji, Electrical Engineer, Sree
Nandees Technologies, Chennai, Mr. Ravichandran, Andrew Yule and Dr.
S. Logesh Kumar, Dean Electronics, Coimbatore for providing their tech-
nical support, figures, expert review and finalizing the contents.

Dr. C. Sharmeela expresses her sincere gratitude to her mentor Dr.

D.P.Kothari, Former Director (i/c), IIT Delhi, her research supervisor
Dr. M.R.Mohan, Former Professor, Anna University, Chennai and Dr.S.
Chandramohan, Professor & Head, DEEE, Anna University, Chennai for
their continuous support and encouragement in completing this book.

Ms. A. Thaiyal Nayagi expresses her sincere thanks to the management

of Rane polytechnic college, Dean, Principal and Head of the depart-
ment of Mechanical and all staff members for their kind support and
encouragement.

Mr. R. Mahendran expresses his sincere thanks to his friends and family
members for their kind support and encouragement.

xiii
 1
Introduction to Electric Power Systems

The main parameters in electrical systems are voltage and current. The
product of voltage and current gives a third parameter called power, and
power consumed over some time duration is called energy [1]. The electric
power system consists of power generation, transmission and distribution
system [2]. Power is generated from two main sources, namely conven-
tional energy sources and non-conventional energy sources. The conven-
tional energy sources are non-renewable which gets depleted over a period
of time, while non-conventional energy sources are non-depleting sources
[3, 10, 30]. Most large-scale power plants are located in areas where the raw
materials are available locally and generated power is transmitted over long
distances for distribution. An electrical conducting medium is required
in order to transfer the power from generating station to load center. This
conducting medium is called as transmission system. Transformers and
transmission lines are the main components of the transmission system;
they are used to transfer the power from generating station to consumers
(customers) at various operating voltage levels. Generation voltage of the
conventional power plant typically ranges from 6.6 kV to 22 kV, and trans-
mission voltage typically ranges from 110 kV to 765 kV. High voltage is
stepped down to various voltage levels for different consumers depending
upon the requirements and installed capacity.

1.1 Introduction
In general, electrical power used for commercial and residential pur-
pose is mostly Alternating Current (AC). An AC voltage or current has
the magnitude and direction which changes periodically with respect to
time, unlike the Direct Current (DC) supply, which has constant mag-
nitude with respect to time. Figure 1.1 shows the waveform of AC (volt-
age and current) and Figure 1.2 shows the waveform of DC (voltage and
current).

P. Sivaraman, C. Sharmeela, A. Thaiyal Nayagi, and R. Mahendran. Basic Electrical and Instrumentation
Engineering, (1–78) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Magnitude

Voltage

Current

Time

Figure 1.1 Waveform of AC.

Magnitude

Voltage

Current

Time

Figure 1.2 Waveform of DC.

Types of AC supply system:

The AC supply system is classified into two types based on the number of
phases:

• Single-phase power supply

• Three-phase power supply

A. The single phase supply

The single-phase power supply is used to power all the single-phase loads
in the systems. Generally, single-phase power supply is derived from a
three-phase, four-wire circuit. The single-phase voltage level varies from
country to country. The general single-phase supply voltage is 220 V, 230 V,
240 V in low voltage systems (in Asian countries). Most of the single-phase
supply systems are 2W systems as shown in Figure 1.11.
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 3

B. Three-Phase Power Supply

The three-phase power supply is used to power certain loads which need
the poly-phase supply for their operation. Here phase means branch cir-
cuits or winding and poly means many. Such loads in any applications
need a power supply which has a poly-phase supply system. For exam-
ple, three-phase power supply is also called poly-phase power supply. In
order to develop poly-phase supply, the armature winding of an alternator
is divided into the number of phases as required. In each winding section,
voltage gets induced with 120° displacement. These windings are arranged
in such a way that the magnitude and frequency is the same for all the
phases with definite phase difference with respect to the other phases. That
means, in a three-phase power supply system, there are three voltages with
equal magnitude and frequency having a phase difference of 360°/3 = 120°
between them.
Advantages of three-phase supply systems are

• Single-phase power supply are obtained from three-phase

power supply and in reverse three-phase power supply is not
obtained from single-phase power supply
• Three-phase induction motors are self-starting motors
where single-phase induction motors are not self-starting
motors
• For transmission and distribution, a three-phase system
needs smaller size conductor material as compared with
single-phase system for same volt amperes

1.1.1 Electrical Parameters

The main parameters in an electrical system are voltage and current. The
product of voltage and current gives a third parameter called power, and
power consumed over some duration is called energy.
AC systems: Voltage, Current, Frequency and Phase angle
DC systems: Voltage and Current

1.1.1.1 Voltage
Potential difference between any two points in an electrical circuit is called
voltage. The SI unit of voltage is Volts (V) [1]. Higher values of voltage
are mentioned as kV. The other name of voltage is Electro Motive Force
(EMF). The representation of voltage is two types: peak to peak voltage
(instantaneous voltage) and RMS voltage.
4 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Alessandro Volta (18th Feb 1745 – 5th March 1827): An Italian scientist who
invented the first battery cell. In order to honour him, SI unit of electric potential
is named Volt.

Alessandro Volta. Courtesy: Google image.

RMS voltage:
The peak to peak voltage of phase to phase is shown in Figure 1.3. Average
voltage of positive half cycle to negative half cycle is zero. As the absolute
voltage is not zero, average voltage cannot be used as a measuring scale for
AC. In order to perform the analysis and calculation, a new term called
RMS is considered for measurement. Theoretically, RMS voltage in AC is
equivalent to the amount of heat produced if the DC of some magnitude
produces the same heat on the same resistance.
Generally, most of voltage referred in specification is RMS voltage unless
specified.

Example 1.1: A 40 W incandescent lamp is connected across 1ɸ, 230 V,

50 Hz AC supply.
Here the voltage 230 V is RMS voltage.
Note: When using the multi meter for voltage measurements, first check
the meter is RMS rated or peak rated in order to avoid confusion. For an
example, if RMS rated meter read the voltage as 230 V, the peak rated meter
will read the same voltage as 325.2 V.

RMS voltage from peak voltage:

RMS voltage can be calculated if peak voltage is known. The expression for
RMS voltage is given in eqn. 1.1.
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 5

500

250

1112.8 Volts
Volts

–250

–500

A-B V

12:29:59.850 12:29:59.855 12:29:59.860 12:29:59.865 12:29:59.870

22-04-2015
Wednesday

Figure 1.3 Peak to peak voltage of R phase to Y phase. Note: This figure is captured using
Dranetz Power Quality analyser.

Voltage (Peak )
Voltage (RMS) = (1.1)
Crest Factor

For sinusoidal wave shape, the value of crest factor is 2.

Example 1.2: A sinusoidal supply voltage is 340 V peak. Calculate

equivalent RMS voltage.
Solution:

Voltage (Peak ) 340

Voltage (RMS) = =
2 2
Voltage (RMS) = 240.5 V is ~241 V.

Example 1.3: A sinusoidal supply voltage is 565 V peak. Calculate

equivalent RMS voltage.
Solution:

Voltage (Peak ) 565

Voltage (RMS) = =
2 2

Voltage (RMS) = 399.6 V is ~400 V.

6 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Peak voltage from RMS voltage:

Peak voltage can be calculated if RMS voltage is known. The expression for
peak voltage is given in eqn 1.2.

Voltage (Peak) = Voltage (RMS) X Crest Factor (1.2)

Example 1.4: A sinusoidal supply voltage is 240 V (RMS). Calculate

equivalent peak voltage.
Solution:

Voltage (Peak ) = Voltage (RMS) ∗ 2 = 240 ∗ 2

Voltage (Peak) = 339.3 V is ~ 339 V

Example 1.5: A sinusoidal supply voltage is 415 V RMS. Calculate
equivalent peak voltage.
Answer:

Voltage (Peak ) = Voltage (RMS) ∗ 2 = 415 ∗ 2

Voltage (Peak) = 586.8 V is ~ 587 V.

Peak to peak voltage:

Voltage measured between the maximum value of the positive half cycle and
the minimum value of the negative half cycle is known as peak to peak voltage.
This voltage is generally measured in individual voltage cycle, unlike the peak
voltage which is the product of RMS voltage and crest factor measured in volt-
age trend. Peak to peak voltage of R to Y phase is shown in Figure 1.3.
The maximum voltage of positive half cycle of above waveform is 556.4 V
and minimum voltage of negative half cycle of the waveform is 556.4 V. Voltage
between positive half cycle to negative half cycle is +556.4 to -556.4 V is
called peak to peak voltage. It is 1112.8 V in the above Figure 1.3. Figure 1.4
shows the peak voltage trend, which is different from peak to peak voltage.
From Figure 1.4, the peak voltage is between 555 V to 560 V for the time
duration 70 minutes between 12:40 hours to 13:50 hours.

Voltage in three-phase circuit:

Voltage in a three-phase circuit is determined based on the system config-
uration. The determination of voltage in a circuit is based on whether the
circuit is in star or delta configuration.
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 7

600
590
580
570
560
Volts

550
540
530
520
510
500
A-B VPeak (val)

12:40 12:50 13:00 13:10 13:20 13:30 13:40 13:50

22-04-2015
Wednesday

Figure 1.4 Peak voltage trend. Note: This figure is captured using Dranetz Power Quality
analyser.

1. Phase to phase voltage – For delta circuits

2. Phase to neutral voltage – For star circuits

The relationship between the above two voltage determinations is

expressed in the equation (1.3) and (1.4).
In delta circuit, the phase voltage is determined by

VoltageLine
VoltagePh =
3 (1.3)

In star circuit, the line voltage is determined by

VoltageLine = 3 x VoltagePh (1.4)

Where
VoltageLine is line voltage
VoltagePh is phase voltage

In delta circuit, line current in delta circuit is greater than line current in
star circuit. Similarly, the line voltage in star circuit is greater than line voltage
in delta circuit.
8 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Example 1.6: A distribution transformer of 2 MVA power rating Dyn11

configuration is having ratio of 11 kV/433 V. How do we understand this
voltage?
Answer:
A distribution transformer is generally used to cater single-phase loads
connected on three-phase distribution. This is the reason the secondary
side of the transformer is star with neutral in the circuit. The primary side
of the transformer is delta. 11 kV at primary side means phase to phase
voltage across RY, YB and BR. 433 V secondary corresponds to 250 V
between RN, YN and BN while 433 V could be recorded between RY, YB
and BR.
The phase to phase voltage is voltage between any of two phases (R to
Y, Y to B or R to B). It can either be RMS voltage or peak voltage and it is
applicable to three-phase 3wire and three-phase 4wire circuits. The three-
phase 4wire, 415 V, 50 Hz AC circuit is shown in Figure 1.5.

Example 1.7: What is the voltage between R to Y phase in Figure 1.5?

Answer: 415 V.
The three-phase 3W, 11 kV, 50 Hz AC circuit is shown in Figure 1.6.

Example 1.8: What is the voltage between Y to B phase in Figure 1.6?

Answer: 11 kV.
In India, the transmission voltages are 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV, 66 kV, 110 kV,
132 kV, 220 kV, 230 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV and the distribution voltage is

R phase

Three B to R R to Y
phase, Y phase
50 Hz, Y to B
415 V AC B phase
supply
Neutral

Figure 1.5 Three-phase, Four-wire circuit configuration.

R phase
Three
phase, B to R R to Y
50 Hz, Y phase
11 kV AC Y to B
supply B phase

Figure 1.6 Three-phase, Three-wire circuit configuration.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 9

415 V. All the above-mentioned voltages are phase to phase voltage only.
Similar voltage levels are used in other countries in the world.
The three-phase power supply system has three voltages with equal
magnitude, frequency and displaced by 120° each other. That means, the
phase angle difference between three phases is 120 electrical degrees. The
vector displacement of three-phase voltage is shown in Figure 1.7.
The three-phase voltages are denoted as eR, eY eB, and their expression
are given below

eR = Emsin (ωt)
eY = Emsin (ωt - 120°)
eB = Emsin (ωt + 120°) = Emsin (ωt - 240°)

As Phasor rotates in anti-clockwise direction, voltage eY lags eR by 120°

and eB lags eR by 240°.
The phase angle displacement of three-phase voltage wave shape is
shown in Figure 1.8.
The voltage displacement between the phases should be 120 electrical
degrees. 360 electrical degrees equal to 20.066 milli seconds from Figure
1.8. Corresponding electrical degree for 6.793 milli seconds is worked
out as 121.8 electrical degrees. Figure 1.9 shows the angular separation
between three phases. Y phase voltage lags R phase by 120.938° similarly B
phase lags Y phase 120.938°. Figure 1.8 and Figure 1.9 represent the phase
angle displacement in time domain and angular domain form, respectively.
Line to neutral voltage is voltage between any one of the line to neutral.
This voltage is applicable where neutral conductor is also a return current
carrying conductor in the circuit like in three-phase four-wire circuit and
single-phase two-wire circuit. Low voltage distribution system uses the

B phase

Clockwise
120°

120° R phase

120°

Y phase

Figure 1.7 Vector displacement of three phases.

10 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

300

6.793 ms
200

100
Volts

–100 20.066 ms

–200

–300

AV BV CV

20:06:29.855 20:06:29.860 20:06:29.865 20:06:29.870 20:06:29.875 20:06:29.880

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Figure 1.8 Phase angle displacement of three-phase voltage waveform in time domain.
Note: This figure is captured using Dranetz Power Quality analyser.

300

120.938° 120.938°
200

100
Volts

–100

–200
120.938°
–300

AV BV CV

14:02:44.85 14:02:44.86 14:02:44.87

11-02-2017
Saturday

Figure 1.9 Phase angle displacement of three-phase voltage waveform in angular form.
Note: This figure is captured using Dranetz Power Quality analyser.
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 11

neutral for single-phase loads. The three-phase, four-wire, 415 V, 50 Hz

AC circuit is shown in Figure 1.10.

Example 1.9: What is the voltage between R phase and neutral in Figure 1.10?
Answer: from eqn. 1.4, R phase and neutral voltage is 240 V.
The single-phase, two-wire AC circuit is shown in Figure 1.11.

Example 1.10: What is the voltage between R phase and neutral in Figure 1.11?
Answer: 240 V.

1.1.1.2 Current
Current is rate of flow of electric charge across the potential difference in a
closed electric circuit. The current flows from high voltage to low voltage in
the closed circuit [1]. The SI unit of current is Ampere (A). Higher values
of current are mentioned as kA.

Andre Marie Ampere (20th Jan 1775 – 10th Jun 1836): A French scientist discovered
the science of classical electromagnetism and electrodynamics. In order to honour
him, SI unit of electric current is his name, Ampere.

Andre Marie Ampere. Courtesy: Google image.

12 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

R phase
Three R phase to Neutral
phase, Y phase
50 Hz, Y phase to Neutral
415 V AC B phase
supply B phase to Neutral
Neutral

Figure 1.10 Three-phase, four-wire circuit configuration.

Phase
Single
phase,
Phase to neutral voltage
50 Hz,
240 V AC
supply
Neutral

Figure 1.11 Single-phase, two-wire system.

P
Single
phase,
50 Hz, Phase to neutral voltage 40 W bulb
240 V AC
supply
N

Figure 1.12 40 W bulb connected across 240 V supply.

P
Single
phase,
50 Hz, Phase to neutral voltage 40 W bulb
240 V AC
supply
N

Figure 1.13 Direction of current flow for positive half cycle.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 13

A single-phase, two-wire AC circuit is shown in Figure 1.12.

The current flow direction for positive half cycle is represented as dotted
line in Figure 1.13.
The current flow direction for negative half cycle is represented as dot-
ted line in Figure 1.14.
The factor which decides the value of current flow in the circuit is load
impedance.

Example 1.11: A 5 Ω resistance (load) is connected across a single-phase

230 V, 50 Hz AC supply is shown in Figure 1.15. Calculate the current
drawn by 5Ω resistance.
Solution:
Theoretical calculation: Current drawn by the load resistance of 5 Ω is
theoretically calculated by Ohms law [31].

V = IR (1.5)
V (1.6)
I=
R
I = 230 / 5
I = 46 A

P
Single
phase,
50 Hz, Phase to neutral voltage 40 W bulb
240 V AC
supply
N

Figure 1.14 Direction of current flow for negative half cycle.

1φ,
50 Hz, 5Ω
230 V AC
supply

Figure 1.15 Circuit diagram of single-phase AC supply feeding R Load.

14 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Simulation result:
The instantaneous current (IL) wave shape drawn by the load and RMS
current trend are shown in Figure 1.16 and Figure 1.17, respectively.
The current in RMS value of a Sine wave from simulation is 0.046 kA or
46 A. i.e,

Iinst antan eous

IRMS = = 46 A
2

George Simon Ohm (16th March 1789 – 6th July 1854): A German scientist
discovered direct proportionality between the potential difference applied across a
conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is called Ohm’s law.
In order to honour him, SI unit of electric resistance is in his name. Ohm.

IL
0.080
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
kA

–0.020
Current

–0.040
–0.060
–0.080
time 0.3350 0.3450 0.3550 0.3650 0.3750
sec

Figure 1.16 Current wave shape in kA.

Irms
0.050
0.046
0.046
0.040 0.000
Min 0.046
0.030 Max 0.046
kA

0.020
Current

0.010

0.000
time 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 0.12
sec 0.98
f 1.16

Figure 1.17 RMS current trend in kA.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 15

1.1.1.3 Time Period and Frequency

Time period is the duration of one full cycle equalling one positive half cycle
and one negative half cycle for a span of 360°. Frequency is the physical
count of positive and negative half cycles appearing in one second. In India,
the power supply frequency is 50 Hz. The 50 Hz frequency has 50 numbers
of positive half cycle and 50 numbers of negative half cycle in one second.
In the United States, the power supply frequency is 60 Hz. The 60 Hz fre-
quency has 60 numbers of positive half cycle and 60 numbers of negative
half cycle in one second. Conversely, one upon frequency is the time period.
The time period of one cycle is 20 milli second for 50 Hz frequency.

1
F= (1.7)
T

1
T= (1.8)
F
Figure 1.18 shows the wavelength of 19.994 milli seconds which corre-
sponds to one cycle. Figure 1.19 shows 50.02 cycles appear in one second.

300

200

100
Volts

–100 19.994 ms

–200

–300

AV

12:40:59.870 12:40:59.875 12:40:59.880 12:40:59.885 12:40:59.890

30-07-2015
Thursday

Figure 1.18 Time period. Note: This figure is captured using Dranetz Power Quality
analyser.
16 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

V
0.40
0.001
0.30 0.000
0.20 –0.001
0.10 Min –0.325
Max 0.325
0.00
kV

–0.10
–0.20
–0.30
–0.40
time 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.24
0.26
f 50.02

Figure 1.19 Voltage frequency.

In other words, one upon 19.994 in Figure 1.18 equals 50.02 which is
reflected in Figure 1.19.

1.1.1.4 Phase Angle (ɸ)

The angular displacement between the voltage and current wave shapes
determine whether current leads the voltage or current lags the voltage

50
300 40
30
200
20
100
10
Amps
Volts

0 0
–10
–100 46.406°
–20
–200
–30
–300 –40
–50
AV AI

12:44:59.850 12:44:59.855 12:44:59.860 12:44:59.865 12:44:59.870

30-07-2015
Thursday

Figure 1.20 Phase angle between voltage and current. Note: This figure is captured using
Dranetz Power Quality analyser.
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 17

or both are in phase. This factor is vital in AC system as this will decide
whether the product of voltage and current is positive or negative. The
phase displacement in angular degrees between voltage and current wave
shape is 46.406° as shown in Figure 1.20
The cosine value of the phase angle displacement is called as displace-
ment power factor without presence of multiple frequencies (harmonics)
introduced by modern power electronics devices explained in detail in sec-
tion 1.1.4.

1.2 Three-Phase Supply Connections

In a single-phase system, two wires (line and neutral) are functionally suf-
ficient for transferring the power to the load. The three-phase system, three
wires (R, Y, B) or four wires (R, Y, B, N) are functionally required for trans-
ferring the power to the loads. Three wires are required for powering the
three-phase loads without neutral like motor loads and four wires required
for three-phase loads with neutral like UPS systems [22]. The three-phase
power supply connections are classified into two types.

1) Star connection or wye connection

2) Delta connection

1.2.1 Star Connection

The star connection is formed by connecting starting or terminating ends
of all the three windings of transformer or generator together as shown in
Figure 1.21. The one ends of the winding R2 – Y2 – B2 are connected together
and formed as star connection. Other ends of the winding R1 – Y1 – B1 are con-
nected to the loads. The common point N is called Neutral point. The phases

R phase
R1
R2 R1 R phase

R2
B2 N
Y phase To connected
Y2 Y2 Y1
Loads
N
B1 Y phase
Y1 B phase
B2 B1
B phase

Figure 1.21 Star circuit connection.

18 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

R1 – Y1 – B1 and common point N as neutral is extended to the connection

points where the different loads are getting connected. The star circuit is suit-
able for six numbers of possible loads combination such as RY, YB, BR, RN,
YN and BN.
The star connection is used in three-phase AC generator and trans-
formers [6]. The name plate details of three-phase AC generator and trans-
former are shown in Figure 1.22 and Figure 1.23, respectively.
The terminal connection of transformer star winding in actual site
installation is shown in Figure 1.24.

Figure 1.22 Name plate details of AC generator (Courtesy: Stamford).

Figure 1.23 Name plate details of transformer (Courtesy: Toshiba).

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 19

B phase R phase
Neutral

Y phase

Figure 1.24 Terminal connection of transformer secondary side - star winding.

Advantages of star circuit:

The star circuit has the following advantages over delta circuits:

1) The line voltage in star circuit is phase voltage multiplied by

3 and current drawn by star circuit is less as compared
with current drawn by delta circuit. Hence, required con-
ductor size for star circuit is lesser for same rating.
2) Star circuit has the neutral point, hence three-phase, four-
wire system can be developed.
3) It provides the two different voltage levels for the load con-
nection. For an example, 415 V between line to line and
240 V between line to neutral.
4) Both single-phase and three-phase loads can be connected
in single star circuits.

Disadvantages of star circuit:

The star circuit has the following disadvantages over delta circuits:

1) Higher size neutral conductor is required for highly unbal-

anced and harmonic producing loads.

1.2.2 Delta Connection

The delta connection is formed by connecting one end of the winding to
starting point of other winding to form a closed loop as shown in Figure 1.25.
20 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

The winding end R2 is connected with starting point of another winding

Y1, winding end Y2 is connected with starting point of another winding B1
and winding end B2 is connected with starting point of another winding
R1. The output connections are taken at mid of the two windings such as
B2 – R1, R2 – Y1 and Y2 – B1. Delta circuits are suitable for three numbers of
loads combination such as RY, YB and BR.
The practical connection or forming delta circuit in transformer is
shown in Figure 1.26 and Figure 1.27. In Figure 1.26, winding end R2 – Y1
is combined and output is taken at the combined point. This transformer

R1
R phase
R phase
R2
B2 R1 Y phase To connected
Y1 Loads

B1 R2 Y phase
Y2 Y1 Y2 B phase

B phase B1

B2

Figure 1.25 Delta circuit connection.

R2 Y1

R1

Figure 1.26 Practical connection or forming delta circuit in transformer.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 21

Figure 1.27 Practical connection or forming delta circuit in transformer.

(1:1 ratio transformer) used at output side of the UPS system for providing
the isolation in the circuit (415 V level).
In Figure 1.27, winding end B2 – R1 is combined and output is taken at
the combined point is R phase (Red color), winding end R2 – Y1 is com-
bined and output is taken at the combined point is Y phase (Yellow color)
and winding end Y2 – B1 is combined and output is taken at the combined
point is B phase (Blue color).

Advantages of delta circuit:

The delta circuit has the following advantages over star circuits:

1) More suitable for three-phase loads like induction motors

2) Unbalancing is avoided

Disadvantages of delta circuit:

The delta circuit has the following disadvantages over star circuits:

1) Suitable for three-phase loads only; connection of single-

phase loads are not possible.

1.2.3 Balanced Load

The loads are called balanced loads when drawing the balanced or equal cur-
rent magnitude in all the three phases from the power supply [7]. In other
22 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

words, impedance connected across the supply is equal for all the three
phases. The delta circuit having the impedances ZRY, ZRB and ZYB connected
across the RY, YB and RB phases respectively i.e ZRY = ZRB = ZYB. If the imped-
ance of ZRY, ZRB and ZYB is equal/same, then the circuit is called as balanced
delta circuit shown in Figure 1.28.
The star circuit having the impedances ZR, ZY and ZB connected across
the RY, YB and RB phases respectively and RN, YN and BN line to neutral
respectively, i.e., ZR = ZY = ZB. If the impedance of ZR, ZY and ZB is same,
then the circuit is called as balanced star circuit and shown in Figure 1.29.
Practically most of the three-phase induction motors have equal imped-
ances in all three phases. The magnitude of current flowing to the motor
is almost equal in all the three phases. These three-phase motor loads are
called balanced loads.

Example 1.12: A three-phase, 11 kW induction motor name plate

details is shown in Figure 1.30.

R phase

ZRB ZRY

Y phase
ZYB
B phase

Figure 1.28 Balanced delta circuit.

R phase

ZR

ZB ZY

Y phase

B phase

Figure 1.29 Balanced star circuit.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 23

Figure 1.30 Name plate details of three phase induction motor (Courtesy: TECO).

When the motor is operating at 415V, 50Hz frequency at 0.88 power

factor, it draws the 20.5A current/phase in delta connection and 11.8A
current/phase in star connection. The same motor, when operating at
380V, 60Hz frequency at 0.85 power factor, draws the 21A current/phase
in delta circuit and 11.6A current/phase in star circuit.

1.2.4 Unbalanced Load

Loads are called unbalanced loads when drawing the unbalanced or
unequal current magnitude in all the three phases from the supply [7]. In
other words, impedance connected across the supply is not equal in all the
three phases, i.e., ZRY ≠ ZYB ≠ ZBR. If the impedance of ZRY, ZYB and ZRB is not
equal, then the circuit is called as unbalanced circuit.

1.2.5 Star – Delta Conversion

The Star-Delta conversion is used to convert the impedances in star cir-
cuit to equivalent impedance in delta circuit. The star-delta conversion is
shown in Figure 1.31.
In general, resistance of delta circuit is calculated from eqn 1.9.

RP
R∆ = (1.9)
R opposite
24 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

N3
N3
R3

R2 Rb Ra
N2

R1
N2
N1
Rc
N1

Figure 1.31 Star to delta conversion.

Where
RP = R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
From eqn (1.9), the resistance Ra, Rb. Rc is calculated as

R 1R 2 + R 2R 3 + R 3R 1
Ra =
R1
R 1R 2 + R 2R 3 +R 3R 1
Rb =
R2
R 1R 2 + R 2R 3 +R 3R 1
Rc =
R3

Ra, Rb and Rc is delta circuit impedances

R1, R2 and R3 is star circuit impedances

1.2.6 Delta to Star Conversion

The Delta-Star conversion is used to convert the impedances in delta cir-
cuit to equivalent impedance of star circuit. The delta-star conversion is
shown in Figure 1.32.

R bR c
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

R aR c
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 25

N3
N3
R3

Rb Ra R2
N2

R1
N1 N2
Rc
N1

Figure 1.32 Delta to star conversion.

R aR b
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Where
Ra, Rb and Rc is delta circuit impedances
R1, R2 and R3 is star circuit impedances

1.3 Power
Electricity is fed to devices which in turn do the work for us. For exam-
ple, an electric heater delivers thermal power (heat) and a motor delivers
mechanical power. Both the devices consume electrical power and deliver
different forms of output which are utilized directly. Electrical power is a
product of voltage and current. Depending upon the type of circuit, elec-
trical power is classified into three forms:

1) Real power (W)

2) Reactive power (VAr)
3) Apparent power (VA)

1.3.1 Real Power or Active Power (P)

Real power is the power that gets consumed by the load to deliver useful
output. The SI unit of real power is expressed in Watts (W). Higher values
of real power are mentioned as kW, MW and GW.
26 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Example 1.13: A 40 W incandescent lamp is connected across single-

phase, 240 V AC supply.
Answer:
40 W is the power consumed by the incandescent lamp and it converts
40 W of electrical power to illumination and heat.
The equation to calculate the real power in 1ɸ circuit is given in
eqn 1.10.

P = VI cos (ϕ) (1.10)

Where
P is real power in W
V is line to neutral voltage in V
I is current in A
Cos ɸ is power factor

Example 1.14: A 5Ω resistive load is connected across single-phase,

240 V AC supply as shown in Figure 1.33. Power factor is unity. Calculate
the real power consumed by the resistive load.
Answer:
Load resistance is 5Ω
Power factor is unity
Current flow from eqn 1.6, 240/5 = 48 A
Real power consumed by the load from eqn 1.10, 240 x 48 x 1 =
11520 W
Real power consumed by the resistive load is 11520 W or 11.52 kW.
The equation to calculate the real power in 3ɸ balanced circuit is

P = 3VI cos (φ ) (1.11)

Single phase,
50 Hz, 5Ω
240 V AC
supply

Figure 1.33 Single phase, 240V circuit powering resistive (5 Ω) load.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 27

Where
P is real power in W
V is phase to phase voltage in V
I is per phase current in A
Cos ɸ is power factor

Example 1.15: A 5Ω resistive load is connected across the all phases as

shown in Figure 1.34. Circuit is assumed to be balanced and power factor
is unity. Calculate the real power consumed by the resistive load.
Answer:
Voltage is 415 V
Load resistance is 5Ω/ph
Power factor is unity
From eqn. 1.4, line to neutral voltage is 240 V.

Current flow per phase from eqn 1.6, 240/5 = 48 A

Real power consumed by the load from eqn 1.11, = 1.732 x 415 x 48
Total power consumed by the load is 34501 W or 34.5 kW.
For an unbalanced circuit, real power in eqn 1.11 is not applicable and
the expression to calculate the real power in 3ɸ unbalanced circuit is given
in 1.12.

P = VrIr cos (ϕr) + VyIy cos (ϕy) + VbIb cos (ϕb) (1.12)

Where
P is real power in W
Vr, Vy, Vb are the respective line to neutral voltages in V
Ir, Iy, Ib are the respective phase currents in A
Cos ɸr, Cos ɸy, Cos ɸb are the respective power factors

5Ω

5Ω

Three phase,
50 Hz, 5Ω
415 V AC
supply

Figure 1.34 Three-phase, 415V balanced circuit powering the resistive load (5 Ω/phase).
28 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

Example 1.16: A 415 V distribution system has unbalanced loads across

the three phases. Calculate the real power for phase R has 50A at 0.8 lag-
ging power factor, phase Y has 70A at 0.9 lagging power factor and phase B
has 80A at unity power factor as shown in Figure 1.35.
Answer: V 415
From eqn 1.4, Vph = L = = 240V (line to neutral voltage is 240 V).
3 3
Vr = Vy = Vb = 240 V.
Ir= 50A, Iy= 70A, Ib= 80A
Cosɸr= 0.8, Cosɸy= 0.9, Cosɸb= 1
Real power consumed by the load from eqn 1.12,
P = (240x50x0.8) + (240x70x0.9) + (240x80x1)
P = 9600 + 15120 + 19200 = 43920 W or 43.92 kW.

1.3.2 Reactive Power (Q)

When an AC circuit is energized, a magnetic field is created across the conduc-
tor due to reactance offered by the path. The magnetising current drawn by the
reactive load to produce the magnetic field helps in consuming active power.
The product of applied voltage and magnetising current is the power which is
required to consume the active power. This power is known as reactive power,
which is essential for active power consumption [8]. In other words the power
drawn by the reactive component of the load is reactive power.
The reactive power is expressed as Voltage Ampere reactive (VAr).
Higher values of reactive power are mentioned as kVAR and MVAR.
The equation for calculate the reactive power in single-phase circuit is

Q= VI sin (ϕ) (1.13)

R phase
50 A

Y phase
70 A

Three phase,
50 Hz, B phase
415 V AC 80 A
supply

Figure 1.35 Three-phase, 415V unbalanced circuit.

 Introduction to Electric Power Systems 29

Where
Q is reactive power in VAR
V is line to neutral voltage in V
I is phase current in A
ϕ is angle between voltage and current

Example 1.17: A 5Ω load at 0.8 PF connected across single phase, 240 V

AC supply as shown in Figure 1.36. Calculate the reactive power drawn by
the load.
Answer:
Load is 5Ω
Power factor is 0.8
From eqn 1.6, 240/5 = 48 A
ϕ = Cos-1 (0.8) = 36.87°
Reactive power drawn by the load from eqn 1.13,
Q = 240 x 48 x Sin (36.87°)
= 6912VAr or 6.91 kVAr
The equation for calculate the reactive power in three-phase balanced
circuit is

Q = 3VI sin(φ ) (1.14)

Where
Q is reactive power in VAr
V is phase to phase voltage in V
I is per phase current in A
ϕ is angle between voltage and current

Single phase,
50 Hz, 5Ω
230 V AC load
supply

Figure 1.36 Single phase, 240V circuit.

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de Barcelona un senzill, pero elegant mobiliari de Viena, compost de
llit, cadiras, lavavo, secretaire y armari de mirall.

Ell passaría á dormir á la cambra en que havia mort la seua germana,

pensant molt atinadament que la feyna y tragi que aixó portaría, fora
un gran recurs si no pera distréurela, pera ocupar á la desconsolada
orfa.

La Montserrat comprengué la idea del seu oncle y s’esforsá en ferli

veure lo molt que li agrahía aquella delicadesa, que en altre temps
hauría tan complascut sos gustos aristocrátichs, pero que allavoras
per més que ella se guardava prou de dirho, pareixía que més
l’apeserava.

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Montserrat totas las malas impressions inherents á una mort; més
com á mestressa que havia passat á ésser de la rectoria, foren pocas
las que pogueren evitárseli.

Lo cambi de quarto de Mossen Jaume, feu necessaria la traslació de

las robas d’aquest, á la antiga papelera de donya Teresa.

Feya dias que la noya Gil passava del matí á la tarde y de la tarde al
següent dematí, pera obrir aquell moble que apareixía á sos ulls com
un arca de sagradas reliquias, y quan no fou possible retardarho més,
se trobá ab que de las duas claus, sols hi havia la dels panys dels
calaixos, sens que en cap lloch de la casa se trobés la que corresponía
á la tapa de dalt.
La Montserrat se disposava á enviar per lo manyá, quan á la Munda
se li acudí la sospita de si tal volta la clau que’s buscava fora en la
butxaca de la bata de tartans, que portava donya Teresa la nit que
vetllantla ella, havia obert la calaixera. La criada estigué en lo cert: la
clau se trobá ahont ella sospitava y la Montserrat ab una agitació que
ella mateixa no sabia esplicarse, la prengué de las mans de la Munda,
entrá en lo quarto de la seua mare, tancá la porta y una volta
convensuda de que estava sola, se disposá á obrirla. Per duas vegadas
obrí’l pany, sense determinarse á pujar la tapa. Fins á aquell instant
la Montserrat no havia fet esment de que esceptuant algunas joyas de
familia, ella may havia vist lo que la seua mare guardava en aquella
part de moble. Si alguna volta donya Teresa l’havia obert devant seu,
sens deixar la tapa de la má, havia tornat á tancarla.

Tot aixó no enclohía en si res de particular y no obstant semblava

que en aquell moment la Montserrat se sentia cor-presa y se li
acudian com escrúpuls de fer lo que per altra part estava convensuda
que no podia ésser més natural. ¿Per ventura no era ella la seua
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alguna prohibició, li havia indicat alguna petita cosa relativa á aquell
moble, per la que ella pogués deduhir, que allá s’amagava quelcóm,
que donya Teresa no volia que ella vejés? Follia era pensarho, ja que
la seua mare no havia may tingut secrets per ella: pero ¿y aquella nit
que la sorprengué ab la clau á la má y que verament va semblar que
se’n amagava al véurela? La Montserrat, estigué temptada d’esplicar
al seu oncle los escrúpols que la soptavan; pero si era cert que hi
havia allí alguna cosa que la seua mare tenia ab tanta reserva que ni á
la seua filla havia dit, ¿no era natural que quants menos fossen los
enterats, més cumplerts quedarian los desitjos de la morta?… La
Montserrat acudí allavors al recurs de sempre que’s trobava
atribulada; se senyá, resá un parenostre per l’ánima de la seua mare
y obrí resoltament la papelera. Com tots los mobles d’aquesta classe,
al aixecarse la tapa, quedá al descubert lo centre, vuydat en forma de
pont, ab dos petits calaixos á dreta y esquerra ab sa corresponent
anella de llautó pera estirarlos. Al fixar los ulls en los calaixos, la
Montserrat notá que’l segon de la part esquerra, no sols no era tan
ben tancat com los altres, si no que per un de sos ánguls eixia mitj
doblegada la punta d’un paper blanch. No hi havia dubte, aquell era
lo calaix que la seua mare tancá al véurela entrar aquella nit y de
consegüent, allí hi havia alguna cosa, que ella ignorava. Sens saber
per qué la Montserrat, en lloch d’obrir aquell calaixet, comensá per lo
primer de la part dreta, en lo que hi trobá diferents objectes de quan
ella era nina: una cadena y bergancí de plata, alguns rinxets de sos
cabells tallats en diferentas épocas, una capsa ab las dentetas
caygudas als set anys, un plech lligat ab una cinteta de color de rosa,
ab varias felicitacions escritas per ella en la diada de Nadal y de
Santa Teresa, y una altra ab los premis y diplomas obtinguts en lo
col·legi del Sagrat Cor. La Montserrat sentí que’ls ulls se li omplian
de llágrimas y besant aquells plechs y aquellas capsas tan gelosament
acondicionadas per las mans de la seua mare, passá á obrir lo segon
calaix. Lo que hi havia en aquest, no li era desconegut, ja que’s
tractava de recorts de la familia Villadó: joyas que per sa poca
importancia se havian lliurat de vendres quan la ruina de la casa,
com eran antiguas monturas ab camafeos, topacis, corals y alguna
amatista, amen de duas ó tres capsas ab cabell y cartas dels avis
Villadó.
La seua neta tancá’l calaix ab lo mateix piadós respecte que ho havia
fet ab lo primer y passá als dos de la part esquerra. Apesar de que’l
cor se’n hi anava á obrir lo de baix, la Montserrat, tal volta per las
mateixas ganas que’n tenía, no volgué alterar l’ordre del seu registre
y comensá per lo de dalt que obrí penosament, tal era lo curullat que
estava per diferents plechs de cartas, cópias d’escripturas y diversos
documents que á la primera ullada, convencentse del molt temps
que’s necessitava per enterarsen, lo torná á tancar passant per fí á
obrir lo que de tan llarga estona, sens saber perqué, la tenía ab
completa inquietut. També aquest costá d’obrir, no per estar plé,
puig sols contenía un plech ab cinch ó sis cartas, sinó per duas d’ellas
que separadas de las altras y ab los fulls arrugats de modo que
deixavan veure lo nerviosament que havian estat reclosos dins del
puny, sens dupte al tancar soptadament lo calaix, s’havian enclós per
una punta en l’ángul del mateix. La Montserrat no tocá’l plech,
prengué resoltament las duas cartas arrugadas en forma de pilota, las
posá sobre’l plá de la tapa y aguantant lo paper ab los dits de la má
esquerra, passá en totas direccions la palma de la dreta fins á
deixarla en estat de poguerse llegir, y ab un bategament de cor que
per sobre de son ajustat cos de casimir negre, feya més visible lo
moviment de son pit, emprengué la lectura de las duas cartas. En
breus moments estigué enterada de son contingut: la una era un
anónim fetxat á Madrit setze anys enrera, curt, sech y contundent
dirigit á la seua mare, indicantli la manera de cerciorarse per sos
propis ulls de las relacions criminals del seu marit, ab la viuda de un
militar que havia estat vehina seua. L’ altra estava fetxada tres anys
després á Buenos Ayres y portava la firma de un vell amich de la
familia Villadó, secretari del representant d’Espanya en aquell país.
Aquesta tenía casi plenas las quatre caras, hi havia filosofías y
consells y carinyosas frases de consol, pero la noya Gil se fixá tant
sols en un párrafo que deya: suficientemente enterado, tengo el
sentimiento de afirmarle que no la han engañado al darle noticias
de su marido; este vive en Buenos Ayres con una señora que dice ser
su esposa y de la que tiene dos hijos…

La Montserrat sentí que l’esmortuhit dolor de las seuas decepcions,

se li revivia ab tota sa primitiva forsa y sens acabar lo full que estava
llegint, arrugá més estretament de lo que ho havian estat, aquellas
duas cartas que li semblavan en aquell moment, duas espasas que
com las que la Mare de Deu dels Dolors porta clavadas al pit, havian
traspassat durant tants anys lo de la seua infelís mare, y tirantlas á
terra y apicotantlas ab lo peu com ho hauria fet ab lo més verinós
reptil, esclamá en alta veu tot aixecant sas afiladas mans envers una
hermosa imatje de Jesús crucificat:

—Pero Deu meu ¿de qué está compost lo cor d’aquest ser que
s’anomena home?
 La ermita.
La fonda y restaurant anomenat d’en Marsal, ab espayosa entrada
pe’l carrer de la Neu y finestras y balcons á la carretera de Fransa, no
havia sigut un edifici aixecat de planta pera fonda de luxo. Modest
hostal pe’ls voltants del any cinquanta, aná engrandintse á mida que
Larrua aná posantse de moda y la concurrencia de forasters exigí
major número de habitacions pera la temporada d’istiu, per lo que
sempre més se ressentí d’un cert desgabellament en la distribució
dels aposentos interiors y fins en son mobiliari: ja que en tant que en
la part nova eran espayosos y casi podriam dir elegantment
amoblats, en la vella quedavan constituhits en quartets d’estudiant,
tal era la pobresa de sos mobles y las pocas comoditats que oferian.
Mes apesar de sas dolentas condicions, en Marsal no’s decidia á
reconstruirlos, ja que aixís com aixís, al arribar al mes d’Agost se li
omplian com los nous, donantli proporcionalment més ganancias
pe’l major número de gent que hi encabía. Be es veritat, que tots se li
queixavan; pero com los prometia cambiarlos de dormitori, tan bon
punt se’n desocupés un de bó, y per altra part, com tothom disfrutava
per igual del esmerat servey del establiment, solía succehir casi
sempre, que esperant mellor habitació, las familias que sols hi
estavan quinze ó vint dias, se’n anavan, sens haver alcansat lo cambi,
pero persuadidas de que avisant ab temps, lo vinent any las
obtindrian mellors.
En aquest cas s’hi trobava la Clarita, que apesar del disgust que aixó
li donava y de las queixas del seu marit, no tingué més remey que
conformarse ab duas petitas habitacions del segon pis amobladas ab
llit de ferro, calaixera de caoba y mitja dotzena de cadiras de igual
classe.

La Clarita havia apurat tots sos recursos pera ferse pujar un lavabo al
seu quarto, pero apesar de las promesas del amo de la fonda y de las
protestas del cambré, en la tarde en que aném á entrar á son
aposento sols comptava pera sa toilette ab una taula de fusta ab un
mirall, y uns modestíssims peus de ferro ab sa corresponenta gibrella
de pisa blanca.

Acabavan de tocar dos quarts de quatre en lo rellotje de la parroquia,

quan la Clarita, descalsada de sas polacas de badana rossa, cuberts
unicament sos peus y camas ab unas finas mitjas de fil d’Escossia
blau fosch, vestida ab un refajo de seda d’igual color y mitj
descordada la negra cotilla de satí ab brodats color de foch, dessobre
sa fina camisa de batista, lligada ab enflocat nú damunt de sa
tornejada espatlla, lliscá suaument del llit en que acabava de fer la
mitjdiada, deixanthi roncant ab la fruició d’un cansat carreter, á son
adormit espós.

La Clarita, ja en terra, se calsá unas sapatillas en forma de xinelas y

caminant casi de puntetas, obrí la porta que comunicava ab lo quarto
del costat, en lo que la seua cambrera, abocada al esquifit balcó de
ferro, s’ocupava en aquell instant, en respallar una faldilla de voal
color de cendra ab brodats blanchs.
—Ja li asseguro, senyoreta, —féu la minyona tan bon punt vejé á la
seua mestressa— que si tarda dos dias més á enviarme á cercar,
hauria hagut d’entornarsen á Barcelona, puig s’hauria quedat sense
roba disponible pera sortir. Tots los baixos s’han d’enribetar; la
meytat dels farbalans los te esborejats; los cossos n’hi ha dos ó tres
que…

—bueno, bueno. Dónam lo pentinador de batista, y arregla la taula

pera rentarme… Avuy mira lo que s’ha d’arreglar y demá al matí ves á
comprar lo que ’t falti… Aquí hi trobarás de tot —respongué la Clarita
ajustant lo balcó que á causa de la excessiva llum la feya estar ab la
má devant dels ulls, mitg enlluhernats encara per haver sortit
soptadament de la foscor del seu dormitori.

La cambrera col·locá l’improvisat lavabo, d’espatllas al balcó á fí de

que la claror fos més favorable al entelat mirall, posá damunt la taula
un hermós necesser de tocador de la senyora, hi atansá una cadira y
posant lo gerro ple d’aygua al costat de la gibrella colocada en un
ángul de la habitació, esclamá ab ayre de mofa:

—Vaja, que aquesta sala, si fá ó no fá, sembla’l quarto de lavabo que

tenim á Barcelona; ¡ay! no sé pas com li agrada estar en aquest poble,
ab aquesta calor y ab tan pocas comoditats. ¿També eran aixís los
quartos de Fransa?

—¿Ahont es la nena? —preguntá la Clarita, sens respondre á las

batxillerías de la cambrera.

—Es al jardí, que juga ab los noys dels americanos que van arribar
ahir vespre. Jo ja no sabia com ferho per entretenirla un minut més;
y per por que no’ls despertés… Ja he encomanat á la negra que la
tingués compte.

—Valia més que t’haguesses quedat ab ella. Ja hi pots baixar

desseguida, y d’aquí una estona pújala, que la vestirás, perque á las
cinch anirém á la ermita del Remey. Tu posat lo vestit de llana de
color de canyella y estrena un dels devantals de mussolina que t’he
portat de Fransa.

—¿Jo també haig de venir? ¿Me pensava que ara ja no’m necessitava
per la nena? Com tot aquest temps se l’han emportada tota sola…

—Donchs ara’m sembla que necessita companyía ¿m’entens? Y si á tu

no ’t apar bé, no hi ha més que dirho y demá mateix t’envio á
Barcelona. ¡Ja n’estich massa cansada de las teuas respostas y creu
que de casas que ’t donguin set duros y ’t vesteixin, me sembla que
no’n trobarás gayres! —saltá la Clarita un bon xich encesa de galtas.

—¡Ay! senyoreta ¿com s’enfila vosté? ¡Ves qui li ha parlat d’anarsen!

Es veritat que’m dona bona mesada,… pero tampoch de minyonas
que la serveixin com jo, no’n trobaria moltas… ¡Jo si, que mentres
me passejo, no faig res més!… Jo sols ho deya per repassarli los
vestits; per…

—bueno, bueno. Ves á baix y fes lo que t’he dit… Si no tinguesses

llenga, se ’t podria donar doble la mesada —afegí la Clarita tancant
ab clau, la porta del quarto.

Una volta sola la jove senyora, entrá en l’arcoba ahont hi havia lo llit
de ferro de la nena, lo catre de la cambrera y un llarch penja-robas
plé de vestits de tota mena, dels que després d’un detingut examen,
ne triá un de tela de Vichy de un tó rosa clar, ab amples brodats de
color crème. Resseguit del devant, del darrera y dels costats, la
Clarita l’estengué dessobre’l llit de la seua filla, pera col·locarhi de
diferentas maneras los brodats que adornavan lo devant del túnich:
una volta los posá rectes en forma de fixú, un’altra á la manera de
berta y al fí després de algunas altras probaturas, los deixá
graciosament nuats á la part esquerra, probanthi damunt de la vaga
duas ó tres flors de una Vara de Jessé que hi havia en una copa de
crestall col·locada dessobre de la vella calaixera. Tornadas á posar las
flors en aygua, obrí un calaix del que’n tragué un petit mocador de
batista fistonejat de punsó; un senzill bano xino; uns guants de fil
d’Escossia de color de cendra clar, un brassalet d’or mate en forma
de mitja canya; un xal de pelfons negres y un elegant refajo de moaré
color de terra ab farbalans brodats ab sedas de color; y una volta
posats aquestos accessoris al costat del trajo y segura de que ni’l més
petit detall desentonava, comensá á preocuparse del arreglo de la
seua persona.

Fent una petita contracció se tragué de la boca una dentadura

postissa, irreprotxable, hermosa, igual, extraordinariament blanca.
Sens dupte que’l dentista l’havia servida bé; ni la més petita taca, ni
la més insignificant imperfecció se deixava veure en aquella renglera
de dents primorosament treballadas. La Clarita se la posá damunt de
la má esquerra y la rentá municiosament ab un respallet impregnat
ab pasta d’Atkinson esbandintla en una tasseta de porcelana.
Acabada la operació, se rentá la boca ab un glop d’aygua, barrejada
ab licor de menta y ab la mateixa lleugeresa que se l’havia treta, torná
á posar en sas genivas aquella preciosa dentadura, admiració de tots
quants entre mitj de sos llabis roigs, li veyan apareixer aquellas duas
rengleras de blanquíssimas dents. Finida á gust seu la tasca de la
boca, passá per la cara, pit y espatllas, una esponja ab sabó
Pompadour, qu’esbandí immediatament ab una flonja toballola
russa empapada ab aygua, sentantse tot seguit devant de la taula
pera comensar la tasca del rostre. Allavoras tragué de la capsa-
necesser un mirall dels que desplegats ne forman tres y
succesivament aná col·locant devant d’ella una ampolleta de Lait
d’Aspassie, una altra d’aygua Circassiene ab un pinzellet pera
aplicarla, un pot de crestall de Crème Imperatrice, un altre de polvos
de Veloutine y un petit canó ab pomada de Baume á la Rose. Una
volta los cosmétichs posats en filera, la Clarita passá per la cara y coll
una fina esponjeta sucada ab la Lait d’Aspassie que ab gran cuydado
aná aixugant ab una toballola de batista, pera esténdrehi dessobre la
Crème Imperatrice, qual brillantor apagá ab la bronja empapada ab
Veloutine. Després ab un respallet, se tragué los polvos de las ceyas y
pestanyas, que ab un pinsell resseguí ab l’aygua Circassiene y passat
pels llabis lo canonet del Baume á la Rose passá á pentinar sa negra
cabellera, que no era ni molt abundant, ni molt escassa, pero que una
volta ondejada ab los ferros, feu l’efecte d’una fornida mata de cabell,
que ab innegable habilitat, la Clarita repartí y col·locá dessobre de
son cap, y una volta desfet sobre’l front l’últim rinxet, s’atansá més al
mirall, en lo que s’hi doná una mirada de íntima complacencia.

Verament la Clarita havia tret tot lo partit possible de sa cara vulgar.

Sa pell havia prés una finor y una transparencia d’infant; sos ulls
pareixían més grossos y brillavan ab major forsa devall de sas
pestanyas envellutadas; la vermellor de sos llabis, feya més ressaltar
la blancor de sas dents y sos cabells graciosament pentinats feyan de
son cap un busto, que sens esser una bellesa ho semblava. La dona de
carn havia fet habilment sa adornadora tasca, ara era precís que
alguna cosa de dins prengués també sa part en l’hermosejament de la
materia y la Clarita, á la faysó de la estudiosa comedianta, probá en
lo mirall diferentas maneras de mirar y de somriure. Quan després
de un rato de diferentas probaturas, se cregué haver trobat lo que
cercava, cuydadosament torná dins de la capsa-necesser los
cosmétichs que havia empleat, torná á posarse lo matiné que havia
deixat dessobre d’una cadira, mirá en son petit relotje de butxaca
l’hora qu’era y veyent que marcava dos quarts de cinch obrí la porta
de son dormitori y atansantse al seu marit y passantli
amanyagadorament la má per la cara, lo despertá tot recordantli que
li quedava poch temps pera esser puntual al Balneari, ahont tots los
dias anava á jugar sa quotidiana partida de billar.

Mentres lo seu espós se vestía, la Clarita torná al quarto en que havia

fet la seua toilette y dirigintse á la calaixera, dessobre de la que s’hi
veyan algunas novelas d’autors francesos, prengué quatre ó cinch
números de un munt de periódichs de Modas y enretirant la taula
que li havia servit de lavabo, obrí’l balcó, descorregué un xich la
cortina y prenent una cadira que apoyá en los ferros de la barana,
comensá tot gronxanse á regirar las planas de figurins. Una vegada
vistos los dibuixos, la Clarita doná una mirada al text, detenintse en
la crónica de París, que amenament escrita y salpicada de noticias
interessants de las senyoras més en boga en lo gran mon francés, hi
apareixian municiosament relatadas las innovacions en los usos y
costums de una societat, que al véurela descrita en sas espléndidas
festas per los revisters de salons, ab l’aditament de trajos y
mobiliaris, apareixían als ulls de la llegidora com lo Non plus ultra de
la felicitat femenina. La Clarita se detingué en la lectura dels
següents párrafos:

La vida del campo sigue siendo la que durante el actual verano

hacen con gran satisfacción las familias mas distinguidas y por
tanto lo que preocupa é interesa á la “Crónica.”

Todos los atractivos, todas las diversiones que entretienen el tiempo

de los afortunados seres cuya misión es gozar, todos los encantos de
la vida de los salones, transportados al espléndido escenario de la
Naturaleza, amenizan las horas que se pasan en los castillos, en los
parques, en los bosques, donde, como ya he dicho, la caza parece ser
este año el “sport” predilecto de las señoras.

Por las noches se opera en los espléndidos comedores y en los

mágicos salones una transformación completa. A los trajes de caza
y de amazona suceden las “toilettes” de comida de ceremonia, de
baile, y después de haber disfrutado de las bellezas de la naturaleza
durante el dia, se goza por la noche de los más brillantes atractivos
de la vida social en las ciudades, y esto sin abandonar el campo.

Casi todas las damas más ilustres de la “high-life” parisiense

habitan antiguos y magníficos castillos, en los que las fiestas se
suceden con rapidez vertiginosa.

La vizcondesa de Tresdern ha organizado séries de cien convidados,

y cada série pasa diez dias en sus vastos dominios.

El dia se dedica á cacerías, excursiones, almuerzos campestres,

juegos de jardin. Por las noches, despues de la comida, baile,
concierto ó representación teatral, etc., etc..

La Clarita, continuá llegint ab extraordinari interés la descripció de

totas eixas maravellas del luxo, tan detingudament esplicadas en
aquellas páginas, y passant per alt la secció d’economía doméstica,
de receptes de guisos, y demés utilitats per l’istil, cercá en un altre
número, la crónica de París, principal objecte de sa atenció y en la
que continuant en lo tema de la anterior revista, deya lo narrador:

Los célebres castillos de Chaumont y Dampierre, el primero

residencia de la princesa de Broglie y el segundo de la duquesa de
Uzés, rivalizan este año en espléndidas fiestas. Conciertos,
representaciones de operetas y de óperas, magníficos banquetes,
cacerías, que sé yo. Las diversiones se suceden sin interrupción, los
convidados se renuevan de semana en semana, y todos los dias
llevan los trenes en grandes cajas á las interesantes huéspedes de la
Princesa y la Duquesa las últimas novedades, los más inéditos
primores de la Moda.

Cada señora de las que toman parte en estas solemnidades necesita

cambiar de traje y de prendido tres ó cuatro veces lo menos cada
dia. Gracias á esta prodigalidad, los que trabajan no notan, bajo el
punto de vista de su remuneración y su ganancia, la ausencia de los
astros de los salones parisienses.

En Inglaterra se va al campo para economizar, en Francia para

ofrecer nuevo escenario al lujo y á la esplendidez. En una de las
últimas recepciones del castillo de Chaumont, la magnificencia de
los trajes llegó á su mayor grado. Entre ellos se admiraron: uno de
lampas gris perla guarnecido de plumas blancas, otro malva
velado con soberbios encajes y adornado con preciosas orquídeas,
otro de crespón azul Leman salpicado de perlas y adornado con
baldaquines de encaje, otro de piel de seda color paja y por adorno
una bellísima combinación de plumas y encajes, otro de terciopelo
blanco cincelado con adorno de perlas… En fin, seria el cuento de
nunca acabar; por supuesto, cuento de las “Mil y una noches.”

La Clarita no passá avant. La imaginació se li enclavá en la descripció

del darrer trajo que acabava de llegir. ¡Qué be li escauria á n’ella un
vestit de vellut blanch adornat ab perlas, confeccionat per los hábils
modistos de París! ¡Lo blanch li anava tan admirablement á la cara y
las perlas eran tan hermosas! ¡Qué felissas eran totas aquellas
damas, que possehían sumptuosos castells, ahont hi podian lluhir las
seuas riquesas, la seua magnificencia de trajos y de joyas; ahont hi
rebian tandas d’amichs y coneguts que las omplian d’atencions, que
las admiraban en lo seu modo de vestir, de presentarse, de fer los
honors de la casa, de disposar aquellas festas que no s’interrumpian
may! ¡Alló sí que era disfrutar de la vida y lluhir y hermosejar la seua
figura! ¡Quins prodigis d’ingeni faria ella, si podia trobarse en lo
lloch d’aquellas damas! Ella que li agradava tant de vestirse, de ser
guapa, d’atreures las miradas de la gent… Per millorar la seua figura,
la seua cara, cap sacrifici l’espantava: ella apesar de repetits desmays,
als vuyt dias d’haber nascut la nena, s’havia fet cordar per la
cambrera la cotilla de quan era noya y ab ella hi dormí un mes seguit,
fins que’l cos li quedá á la mateixa mida de soltera; ella tenint las
dents negrosas y mal posadas no vacilá en sufrir la dolorosa operació
de ferse arrancar de la boca lo bó y lo dolent pera poguer ostentar
aquella hermosa filera de dents que tant y tant l’embellia, que tantas
llohansas li proporcionava!… ¡Oh si ella pogués ésser com aquellas
damas de que parlava la crónica de París, com lograria que tot
Barcelona parlés de la seua bellesa, del seu tren, dels seus vestits!…

La remor de la porta del dormitori, que s’obria pera donar pas al seu
espós, que eixia del quarto ab mánegas de camisa y ab los elástichs á
las mans, feu baixar d’un sol colp á la Clarita de las altas regions del
mon francés, al humildíssim quarto de la fonda d’en Marsal.

—¿Ahont es la nena? —preguntá’l marit tot estirant los elástichs,

pera ferlos arribar als botons de la trinxa del ventre.

—Es abaix ab la Carmeta, respongué secament la Clarita aixecantse y

tornant á deixar dessobre de la calaixera los números del periódich
que acabava de llegir. Mes com si aquell sol minut, li hagués estat
prou pera posarse en situació, tot seguit s’atansá al seu espós dihentli
carinyosament. —¿Qué la vols veure á la nena avans d’anarten? Si ’t
sembla la faré cridar.

—¿No has dit que era abaix? Ja la veuré quan anirém al Balneari.
¡Vaja! ¡Vaja! ¡vesteixte!

—No; no; jo no hi vull anar avuy… Anirém á passejar un xich aquesta

tarde… Ni la nena ni jo, no fem gens d’exercici en aquesta terra:
d’aquí al Balneari, del Balneari aquí… Si’s projecta alguna escursió se
fa en cotxe y un no camina gens… Jo crech que al fí m’hi posaria
malalta…

—¡Oh, ara si que ja está acabat aixó… perque’m sembla que haurém
de pensar en tornárnosen á Barcelona!
—¿Y ara Casals? ¿En plé Agost, tornariam la nena á Barcelona? ¡Se
t’acudeixen unas cosas de tant en tant!

—¡Oh, noya, noya! tu no pensas ab que gastantlos, gastantlos, los

quartos s’acaban y creu, que de lo d’aquest any, nos costará de
posarnos á tó. Ha sigut una bojería lo que hem fet tot aquest istiu! No
he volgut veure la cartera per no posarme de mal humor, pero ja ’t
dich jo que som á las escurriallas y que nos n’haurém de tornar á
casa més que depressa.

—Be, home —feu la Clarita fixant los ulls en l’enrajolat del quarto—
esperém tres ó quatre dias més y jo entretant escriuré á la mamá
pera veure si pot enviarnos algun diner.

En Casals deixá anar de sa boca una d’aquellas esclamacions, que no

es possible estampar en lo paper y digué ab marcada energía:

—¡Ja ’t dich que no ho vull que demanis res més! ¿Qué dirá la teua
mare, que á la fí no es cap millonaria, ni molt menos, que á cada
moment li envies á cercar diners? Quan te vaig demanar, la bona
senyora m’explaná sa situació y encara que tu dius que es molt millor
de lo que’m digué, jo no vull que per enviarnos diners, que á la fí
no’ls tením de menester per cap malaltía, hagi de fer un sacrifici: Als
teus germans no’ls hi pot semblar be que tot lo dia t’estigui donant…
Lo mes passat t’enviá dos cents duros y ara ¿n’hi tornarias á
demanar?

La Clarita, passá manyosament son bras esquerra per la grossa

cintura del seu marit y acaronantli ab la má dreta los punxaguts pels
de sa barba negra, li digué acentuant ab cert to convincent sas
paraulas:

—Mira, Casals, las cosas de casa, jo las sé més be que tu. A Tarragona
s’hi viu ab molt poca cosa y quan jo demano ja sé que m’ho poden
donar. La mamá es molt lliure de fer lo que millor li sembli y’ls noys
no hi tenen res que veure ab si m’envia ó no m’envia…

—¿Que no hi tenen que veure, ab lo que es de casa seua? —

interrumpí en Casals deixantse portar de son esperit justicier.

—¡Aixó sí que fora bó —esclamá la Clarita— que per anar á favor

d’ells, me fessis la contra á mí! Fins á primers de Setembre crech que
es una imprudencia portar la nostra filla á Barcelona, quan més que’l
mar está be y á la nena los banys li proban admirablement; per un
centenar de duros més ó menos no vindrá d’aquí la cosa, y més que ja
’t dich que la mamá me’ls enviará tan prompte jo li diga que la nena
ho necessita… Quan me vaig casar, com no’m doná dot, ja’m digué
que li enviés á cercar lo que’m fes falta… Ja saps que al hivern jo no
t’en gasto gayres de diners, ni tampoch n’envio á cercar á la mamá,
perque un colp posada á casa meua, d’estalviar ne sé tant com la
primera y com gracias á Deu, no’m falta gust, ni trassa, y avans no’m
compro un vestit ho regiro tot, lluheixo jo més ab una friolera que
altras que disposan de molts cents duros; y á fé que jo si m’hi
enfondo tant en lo vestir, es per tú… Per ferte goig… perque la gent
digan: ¡Mira quína dona més elegant que té en Casals! Ja sé que aixó
també porta las seuas envejas y que potser hi ha algú que’m retalla…
pero jo també sé que al meu maridet no li agradaria que jo fos
d’aquestas donas que al cap de quatre anys de casadas ja no’s
preocupan d’agradar al seu espós, y jo sí; perque vull que m’estimi
sempre, ¡molt, molt! —feu afalagadorament la Clarita abrassant al
seu espós, qui la besá carinyosament en la galta impregnada
d’olorosos cosmétichs.

Una hora més tart la Clarita ab la seua filla y la Carmeta pujavan pe’l
camí dels arsos á la ermita del Remey. Tan bell punt estigueren á la
plasseta d’ahont partian lo caminal dels garrofers que anava á la
masia de ca’n Busqueta y lo caminet que portava á la capella, la
Clarita digué á la nena:

—Me sembla que estás cansada, Victorina, ¿vols anar ab la Carmeta á

jugar ab los nens d’aquella casa de pagés, que l’altra tarde me
digueres que t’hi havias divertit tant?

—No, no, mamá, jo vull anar ab tu: vull anar ahont tu vagis! —repetí
la nena, interposantse al pas de la seua mare y agafantse ab sas
petitas mans, als plechs de son vestit de color de rosa.

La Clarita, desfeu suaument las manetas que s’aferravan á sos genolls

y abaixantse pera besarla, li digué trayentse de la butxaca un grapat
de caramelos de menta:

—¡Mira! ¡mira! quants te’n donará la mamá perque sias bona

minyona! Vaja la Carmeta te’ls guardará pera donartels després…
quan hages berenat… Pero has d’anar á casa en Busqueta… La mamá
tornará desseguida, desseguida… pero no vull que pujis aquesta
costa… y després que á la ermita no hi tindrías aygua pera berenar y
allá’n trobarás… Té; dona aquestos quartos als noys de ca’n Busqueta
y aquestos per tu; per comprarte confits quan tornarém á Larrua —
afegí la Clarita donant algunas monedas á la nena, en tant que deya á
la Carmeta:

—Mentres jo pujo á la ermita, tu vesten ab la Victorina á aquesta casa

de pagés que’s veu al cap devall dels garrofers… Ja la coneixen á la
nena… que cada dia nos guardan los ous frescos… Mentres
m’esperas, que ’t recullin los d’avuy; jo ja’ls pagaré quan torni…
¡Vigila á la Victorina que no s’aboqui al safreig!

—¿Y vosté se’n vá tota sola?

—Tota sola, ¿que ’t pensas que hi ha llops per aquestos camins? Per
aquí si que no s’hi troba may ningú —feu ab gran seguritat la Clarita
petonejant á la nena, que continuava fent lo ploricó, en tant que la
cambrera deya ab un petit moviment de llabis molt parescut á un
maliciós somriure:

—Vagi descansada… Ja m’encarrego jo de la nena… No s’apressi…

La Clarita no havia estat en lo cert al afirmar que no’s veya gent pera
aquells voltants, donchs si be era veritat que usualment aquell turó
era un dels llochs menos concorreguts á la temporada d’istiu, en que
tota la animació dels forasters era per la gent á la moda, á la via del
ferrocarril, y pe’ls altres als camins que portavan á la mina, aixó no
podia sentarse en absolut; y tan era aixís, que aquella tarde un quart
d’hora avans, á la mateixa plasseta en que ella acabava de deturarse,
s’hi havia parat una hermosa noya vestida de negre y una dona de
mitja edat, que per son port se coneixia esser criada de servey. La
noya era la nevoda de Mossen Jaume, qui essent vigilia de la
Assumpta, havia volgut anar á cambiar lo vestit de la Mare de Deu