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MAKER
I N N O VAT I O N S
SERIES
Beginning
Breadboarding
Physical Computing and the Basic
Building Blocks of Computers
—
Jennifer Fox
Beginning
Breadboarding
Physical Computing
and the Basic Building
Blocks of Computers
Jennifer Fox
Beginning Breadboarding: Physical Computing and the Basic Building
Blocks of Computers
Jennifer Fox
Seattle, WA, USA
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9217-4 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9218-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9218-1
Copyright © 2023 by Jennifer Fox

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
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symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos,
and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no
intention of infringement of the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not
they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
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For more detailed information, please visit http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author��xi
About the Technical Reviewer��xiii
Acknowledgments��xv
Chapter 1: Introduction, Supplies, and Circuit Diagrams��1

Safety Rules��5
Safety Rule 1: Short Circuits��5
Safety Rule 2: Right-Hand Rule��6
Safety Rule 3: What’s More Dangerous – Electrical Current or Voltage?��7
Safety Rule 4: Use the Right Tools and Components and Use Them
Properly��8
Tools and Materials��9
Reading Circuit Diagrams��12
What Other Information Is in This Diagram?��14
How to Read This Book��20
Grab These Materials��20
Summary��23
Chapter 2: Paper Circuits��25

What Is Electricity?��25
Atoms: The Building Blocks of Nature��29
Project 2-1: Static Electricity!��33
Current, Voltage, and AC vs. DC��34
iii
Table of Contents
Project 2-2: Playing with Voltage��36

Let’s Make Our First Circuit!��40
Project 2-3: Let There Be Light!��40
Project 2-4: Making It Bigger!��44
Project 2-5 (Optional): Paper Circuits!��49
Add All the Lights! (a.k.a. Series and Parallel Circuits)��53
Project 2-6: Connecting Two LEDs to One Battery��54
Project 2-7: Our First Parallel Circuit��56
Project 2-8: More Parallel Circuits!��59
Project 2-9: Our First Series Circuit��64
Summary of Parallel and Series Circuits��68
Electromagnetic Spectrum��68
Going Further��71
Project Ideas!��71
Summary��73
Chapter 3: Breadboards and Outputs��75

Breadboard Anatomy��75
Breadboarding: Lights On!��81
Project 3-1: Light It Up on a Breadboard!��82
Project 3-2: All the Lights!!��87
Making Sounds!��90
Project 3-3: Circuit Sounds!��91
iv
Table of Contents
Schematic Symbol for a Speaker��96

How Does Electricity Make Sounds??��96
Making Movement!��101
Project 3-4: Motor Motion!��101
Schematic Symbols for a Motor��104
How Is Electricity Making the Motor Spin??��105
Lights and Sounds and Motion, Oh My! But… Why?��110
Summary��112
Chapter 4: Controlling Electricity (Passive Components)��113

Resistance: Limiting Electricity��113
Project 4-1: Modifying Lights with Resistors!��114
Resistor Schematic Symbol��119
How Do Resistors Work?��120
Project 4-2 (Optional): Draw a Resistor!��123
A Mini Introduction to Ohm’s Law!��127
Potentiometers: Adjustable Resistors!��129
Project 4-3: Dim the Light!��130
Potentiometers: How Do They Work?��133
Project 4-4: Dim More Lights!!��135
Potentiometer Schematic Symbol��137
Capacitors: Flood Gate Components!��139
Project 4-5: Light Flash!��139
v
Table of Contents
How Is a Capacitor like a Flood Gate?��142

Schematic Symbol for a Capacitor��146
Special Safety Note on Capacitors��146
Summary��149
Chapter 5: Interacting with Electricity via Buttons and Switches!

(Electromechanical Components)��151
Pushbuttons: Hang onto Your Switch!��151
Project 5-1: Light at Our Fingertips��152
Pushbuttons: A Lifetime of Bouncing Back��156
Pushbutton Schematic Symbol��160
(Slide) Switches: Set It and Forget It��160
Project 5-2: Breadboard Flashlight��161
Slide Switches: Stay in That State!��164
Permanent Switch Schematic Symbol��170
Project 5-4: Lights and Motors!��172
Summary��178
Chapter 6: Encoding Information into Electricity!

(Logic Gates Part 1)��179
Why Records Sound Better Than CDs��179
Logically Delicious! (Building Basic Logic Gates)��185
Project 6-2: Gotta Push ’Em All! (Pushbuttons in Series)��189
vi
Table of Contents
AND Logic Gate Schematic Symbol��192

Project 6-3: Push Any Button (Pushbuttons in Parallel)��193
OR Logic Gate Schematic Symbol��196
How to Count with Just Two Fingers (a.k.a. Binary Numbers)��197
Project 6-4: Flip It and Reverse It! (NOT Gate)��200
NOT Logic Gate Schematic Symbol��204
Project 6-5: Making Decisions with Logic Gates!��205
Going Further: More Logic Gates and Project Ideas!��209
Quick Intro to Other Logic Gates: NAND and NOR!��209
Build All the Projects!��211
Summary��212
Chapter 7: Sensors!��213
Using Our Senses to Detect Sensors��213
Project 7-1: The Wonderful World of Sensors��214
A Brief Inventory of Sensors��215
Analog vs. Digital��216
What Kinds of Things Can We Sense with Electricity?��217
Electronic Eyes: Photoresistors!��219
Project 7-2: Light-Sensitive Light��220
But Wait, Electronic Eyes?! How Does That Work??��224
Photoresistor Schematic Symbol��225
Electronic Touch: Force-Sensing Resistors��225
Project 7-3: Touch-Sensitive Light��226
vii
Table of Contents
FSR: Converting Touch into Electricity��229

FSR Schematic Symbol��231
Electronic Proprioception: Tilt Sensors!��231
Project 7-4: Gravity-Sensing Light��232
The Beautifully Simple Tilt Sensor��235
Tilt Sensor Schematic Symbol��236
Electronic Motion Sensing: IR Sensors!��236
Project 7-5: Sensing “invisible” light��237
Sensing Invisible Light��241
IR Break-Beam Schematic Symbol��242
Going Further: All the Sensors and Fun Project Ideas!��243
Sensor Stuff!��243
Build All the Projects!��245
Summary��247
Chapter 8: Transistors: The Building Blocks of Computers!��249

Transistors As an Electronic Switch��249
Project 8-1: Make an Electronic Switch��252
(FET) Transistor Schematic Symbol��259
Unraveling the Mystery of Transistors!��260
Semiconductors: The Secret Sauce��260
Transistor Taxonomy��261
Transistors As Amplifiers��263
Project 8-3: Make an Amplifier!��264
viii
Table of Contents
P-cause We Can: P-Channel FETs (Optional)��271

Project 8-4 (Optional): P-Channel Switch��272
Going Further: Transistor Time!��276
Summary��279
Chapter 9: Logic Gates Round 2!��281

The Truth About Physical Computing��281
Projects 9-1 and 9-2: ANDs and ORs Galore��284
Project 9-3: NOT Gate with Transistors!��297
Concept Break: Electric Ground!��306
Flashback to Voltage!��306
Ground As a Connection to Earth?��308
Schematic Symbol for Ground��310
Logic Gates: The More, the Merrier!��310
Project 9-4: NOT Another Logic Gate! (Yes!)��311
Going Further!��320
Summary��322
Chapter 10: A Simple Computer!��323

Cascading Logic Gates: A (Controlled) Electrical Waterfall!��323
Project 10-1: NOT It!��324
Project 10-2: Our One and Only XOR Gate��330
XOR Schematic Symbol��346
NOT-ing the XOR��346
ix
Table of Contents
How to Build a (Simple) Computer��347

Boolean Algebra and Binary Addition��348
How Does This Translate to Computers??��357
Bringing Bits Along for the Ride: Binary Adders!��359
Single-Bit Adder��359
2-Bit Adder��364
Adding It All Together: Single-Digit Binary Adder!��375
Where Do We Go from Here?��380
I Hear You and I See (IC) You: An Easier and Faster Way to Build
“Smart” Circuits��380
Going Further: Logic Gate Circuits and Beyond!��382
Further Exploration with Logic Gates!��382
Beyond Logic Gates!��384
Summary��386
Appendix 1: Applied Project 1: Using a Multimeter!��389
Appendix 2: Applied Project 2: Ohm’s Law!��407
Appendix 3: Applied Project 3: PCB Identification��429
Index��485
x
About the Author
Jennifer Fox is an engineer, educator,
and maker. After dabbling in dark matter
(Occidental College, B.A. Physics), Fox
studied engineering (UCLA, M.S. Mechanical
Engineering) where she blended electronics,
art, and education to tackle problems related
to environmental and social justice. Fox
founded her company, FoxBot Industries, in
2015 to provide an arts-based approach to
STEM education and currently leads a team at
Microsoft doing maker-related work.
xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years
of experience in security, web/mobile
development, cloud, and IT architecture. His
true IT passions are security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java,
VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than
20 years.
He holds a Master of Science degree in
Computing Science from the University of
Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect, information security manager, PCI/
SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect for
many years.
xiii
Acknowledgments
This is my first book and I want to acknowledge that I am proud of myself
for chugging away on it, slowly but surely. Next, A HUGE THANK YOU to
my wonderful friend and part of my chosen family, Joshua Vasquez, for
helping me “LEGO-tize” the transistor logic gates (and for the bomb cover
photo!).
Another massive boat of thanks to my parents for instilling in me the
importance of education and for their support and encouragement in the
wild adventures of my life, many of which involve me “eating an elephant.”
Thank you to the Adafruit folks, Phil and Limor, for the kit and for your
long-term support. I appreciate and admire y’all.
And, of course, thank you to everyone who is part of my chosen family
and my community. I deeply appreciate your questions about my book,
your excitement, and your celebrations of my wins. I am truly grateful to be
a part of a loving and supportive community. ☺
xv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction,
Supplies, and Circuit
Diagrams
An average day for most of us involves walking around with a computer in our
pocket, listening to music transmitted invisibly through the air, and flipping
switches to generate artificial light when the sun sets (or if you’re in a city
like Seattle, sometimes during the day). Each of these technologies is truly
miraculous, a feat of human ingenuity and persistence, scientific exploration
collaborating with the meticulousness of engineering and creative design.
And yet, these technologies typically feel mundane. We (myself
included) get annoyed when our maps app takes more than two seconds to
load, frustrated when our music or videos glitch, and disgruntled when we
run a vacuum cleaner and a hairdryer and inevitably have to reset a circuit
breaker. When one of our precious (but replaceable) technologies breaks,
it’s easier and faster for most of us to toss the old and buy the new.
My goals with this book are threefold:
1. To give you a behind-the-scenes look at the

wonderful world of electricity that we harness to
build all sorts of useful gadgets so that you can
better understand, and appreciate, how truly
astonishing these everyday items are.
© Jennifer Fox 2023 1

J. Fox, Beginning Breadboarding, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9218-1_1
Chapter 1 Introduction, Supplies, and Circuit Diagrams
2. To provide you with some useful knowledge and

skills so that if one of your electronics breaks,
you have the option to try to repair it instead of
replace it (it’s satisfying and economically and
environmentally friendly!).
3. To enable you to bring your own wild ideas to life!

Want to build a smart watering system for your
garden? You can do that! How about a potty-training
device for your child? Doable! What about a robotic
table? Not totally sure why, but possible! This book
will give you a foundation in electricity and circuits
that you can build on top of to make your ideas, or
your ideal career, a reality.
This book is a beginner-friendly introduction to electronics and

electricity, so it’s okay if you have no idea what “electronics” and
“electricity” are or what those words mean. We’ll start from the basics,
like “what is electricity?” and “what is a circuit?”, and build up to an
understanding of the fundamental building blocks of computers. This
book is intended to give you both theoretical knowledge and practical
skills. This means that as we learn new words and concepts, we’ll learn
how to apply our knowledge to build all sorts of electronic projects from a
simple circuit for powering lights to a dark detecting circuit to logic gates!
To build these electronic circuits, we’ll use a common tool used by
engineers and hobbyists alike: the breadboard (Figure 1-1)!
2
Figure 1-1. A half-size breadboard for building electronic circuits!
WHERE DOES THE TERM “BREADBOARD” COME FROM??
Engineers and hobbyists used to build circuits on wooden cutting boards

by hammering nails into the board, wrapping wires around the nails, and
connecting the wires between components like batteries and motors. In the
1970s, one might assume that whomever ruled the kitchen got fed up of
having to replace their cutting boards, and, thus, the breadboard was born!
(This is my interpretive take on the actual history.)
The breadboard is sometimes called a “plugboard” or “terminal array board.”

The version that is used today was designed by Robert J. Portugal in 1971.
This model is made of white plastic with rows of small interconnected holes
and often has two power rails on either side.
3
There are many benefits to building circuits on breadboards, including

reusability and the ability to prototype or build temporary circuits without a
soldering iron.1
The rest of this chapter introduces safety rules when working with
electricity, gives you an overview of the kinds of parts we’ll be working with,
and ends with an overview on how to read circuit diagrams. Our exploration
of circuits begins in Chapter 2, where we’ll learn common words and concepts
that show up throughout this book and beyond in electronics, and we’ll build
some simple circuits with the basic parts. We’ll start building circuits on
breadboards in Chapter 3, translating our learnings from Chapter 2 onto the
breadboard and further exploring the wonderful world of circuits!
It is highly recommended to build the companion projects in each
of the chapters because the best way to learn is to do! This is especially
true with electronics, where theory is often abstract and may be confusing
until you see it in action. Besides, electricity can be delightful, magical, and
empowering as we wield the power of invisible particles to build useful,
whimsical, and beautiful creations.
If you are new to circuits, it is recommended to go through the book
in order. If you have some prior experience with circuits, you may skip
around and work through the chapters that are of interest or that fill in any
knowledge gaps.
This book also includes optional bonus projects that give you the
opportunity to dig deeper into specific areas of electronics. These projects
are designed for hands-on application – I’d highly recommend doing
these projects if you are interested in learning electronics so that you can
1
A soldering iron is a tool that melts metal to connect parts electrically. It can hold
them together physically, too, but it is not a very strong physical, or mechanical,
bond. It is recommended to avoid bending or otherwise stressing soldered parts
because they are likely to break. This is why power cables for our computers and
smartphones are coated in plastic and have bendy plugs!
4
go forth and build with electricity. If instead you are interested in learning
about electronics, learning about circuit theory, or dipping your toes
before deciding whether to go deeper, you may skip these bonus projects.
Of course, you can always come back to them later!
Alright, with the house (book?) tour out of the way, let’s dig into safety!
Safety Rules
Yay, safety! While the projects in this book don’t involve dangerous
parts (we are working with small, low-energy coin cell batteries for most
projects), it’s important to know electrical safety rules to avoid breaking or
burning up components. And, hopefully, this book gets you excited about
more advanced electronic projects! If/when you tackle advanced projects,
it’s helpful to have a solid understanding of safety.
As we go over the safety rules, it’s okay if you don’t understand some
of the terms we are using just yet. You’ll learn these new words as you go
through the book. If applicable, projects will have notes on what to look
out for. You can always return to this section if you’re unsure about any
projects in this book or beyond.
Safety Rule 1: Short Circuits

One of the most common mistakes when working with electricity is short
circuits, or when electricity is given an easier path to flow than intended.
Electricity is lazy and will always take the easiest path, even if it might not
seem obvious to us.
We’ll dig more into short circuits in Chapter 2, but for now let’s look at
the three main hazards that can happen with a short circuit:
1. Short-circuiting a battery or other source of

electricity causes excess heat. With a high-energy
battery like a car battery or the electricity that comes
out of our walls, this can cause burns and/or fires.
5
2. Short-circuiting a battery or other source of

electricity with our bodies, like with our hands, may
cause electricity to flow through our bodies. This
can cause burns and/or damage to the tissues and
organs inside our bodies. More information on this
is in the “Safety Rule 3” section.
Note: None of the batteries we will work with in

this book have enough energy to travel through
our bodies.
3. Short-circuiting a component can result in excess

electrical energy to a part which could cause the
part to burn out and release smoke, or, in cases
where there’s a lot of electrical energy, the part may
explode (having taught over 10,000 people, I’ve
only seen this happen once). The battery we are
using for the projects in this book does not have
enough energy to make parts explode, but if you’re
ever concerned about exploding parts, wear safety
goggles.
When building circuits, check that the electricity does not have an
easier path to flow than where you want it to flow. We’ll explore this in
more detail in Chapter 2.
Safety Rule 2: Right-Hand Rule

The most important rule when working with high-energy electricity is the
right-hand rule: if you are unsure that the circuit or component you are
about to touch is live, place your left hand behind your back, ideally in a
pocket, and only use your right hand to touch the circuit or component.
6
However, the right-hand rule is a last resort. Before touching

any source of electricity, always double- and triple-check that it is
powered off.
Why one hand? If electricity travels across a human heart, it is often
fatal. By only using one hand, the electricity will take the easiest path to the
floor, or ground, and will not cross your heart. More details are covered in
the “Safety Rule 3” section.
Note: The parts we will use in this book, including the batteries, are
safe to touch with your hands because they don’t have enough energy to
be dangerous to us. I’m including this rule in all its seriousness because it’s
good to practice safety protocols so they become automatic and for you to
keep in mind when you build your own projects.
afety Rule 3: What’s More Dangerous –

S
Electrical Current or Voltage?
The answer is yes. Both electrical current and voltage are dangerous
in different ways, although ultimately it is the flow of electricity, also
called electrical current, through your body that causes damage and is
potentially fatal.
How is voltage dangerous? The human skin has a high resistance to
electricity, which means that if you touch the terminals of a battery with
one hand or between both hands, a low-voltage battery won’t shock you.
Above 50 Volts (50V), however, is enough energy to overcome our skin’s
resistance, which means that electrical current can flow into our bodies,
damaging tissues and internal organs.
How is current dangerous? Even a small amount of current can
damage our internal tissues and organs, like our heart which requires an
electrical signal to function properly. A current as small as 0.007 Amps
(7mA) across a human heart for three seconds is enough to be fatal, and a
current of 0.1 Amps (100mA) passing through a human body is likely fatal
because of internal burns.
7
For these reasons, it is important to take electrical safety seriously

and always follow the rules. It is also recommended to work slowly and be
overly cautious when handling potentially dangerous sources of electricity.
afety Rule 4: Use the Right Tools

S
and Components and Use Them Properly
All tools and components have limitations for both electrical current and
voltage. When used within these limits, the tools and components are safe.
Tools like multimeters can also offer added protection when working with
potentially dangerous electrical sources.
However, tools and components will only function and work as
expected when they are used within the manufacturer ratings. If you are
unsure the part or tool you’re working with is safe to use with the electrical
source, check the datasheet and look for current and voltage limitations.
Why is this important? A tool that is not rated to work with a high-
energy electricity source can fail and may result in electrical shocks or
worse. (It may also melt… I’ve accidentally melted a few holes in more
than one breadboard.) A component that is not rated to work with an
electrical source may burn up or explode.
Wait… now I’m nervous… Is electricity super dangerous?!
Like driving a car, working with electricity is safe when we know
and follow the rules. All of the parts used for projects in this book are
safe to build and to make mistakes with. I purposefully designed all of the
projects in this book to work with one or max two coin cell batteries, which
are low voltage. We will use 9V batteries in a few projects for exploratory
purposes – these have enough energy to burn out LEDs but are generally
safe, and familiar, to work with. This book will give you a safe platform on
which to experiment, test things out, and make mistakes.
So please, make mistakes!
8
The worst mistake you are likely to make as you work through these
projects is to short-circuit the battery. If this happens, it’s okay! The battery
will burn up much more quickly than expected and will need replacing,
but that happens sometimes.
Speaking of materials, onward to see what we will be playing with!
T ools and Materials

Table 1-1 provides the master supply list. You can purchase parts
individually or grab all the materials from the Adafruit Kit #5696
(https://www.adafruit.com/product/5696).
Table 1-1. Master Supply List

Hardware – Nonconsumable Supplies
3 Breadboards (half size) Adafruit Product ID: 64

Self-Adhesive Solderless Half-Size Breadboard
50 Breadboard jumper wires Adafruit Product ID: 1956
M/M Jumper Wires, 26 AWG, Assorted Colors
(3” and/or 6” recommended)
6 Alligator clip wires Adafruit Product ID: 1008
Small Alligator Clip Test Lead
1 Balloon RUBFAC Party Balloon
Any standard party balloon will suffice. Will be
blown up with air. Can find on Amazon, Google,
or your preferred party store!
1 Safety glasses Grainger Part No: 4EY97
CONDOR Safety Glasses: Uncoated, No Foam
Lining, Wraparound Frame, Frameless, Clear,
Clear, Unisex
(continued)
9
Table 1-1. (continued)

Hardware – Consumable Supplies
2 9V alkaline battery Adafruit Product ID: 1321

500mAh 9V Alkaline (MnO2 chemistry) battery
4 Coin cell battery (CR2032) Adafruit Product ID: 654
CR2032 Lithium metal 3V 250mAh
2 Coin cell battery case, Aobao CR2032 Battery Holder with Switch
breadboard-friendly Single CR2032 Battery Holder with On/Off
Switch and colored Leads
Note: Can purchase on Amazon or find via
Google
5–10 LED (5mm, red) Adafruit Product ID: 777
5mm Basic Red LED, forward voltage = 2.0V,
forward current = 20mA
5–10 LED (5mm, green or blue) Adafruit Product ID: 779, 780
5mm Basic Green LED, forward voltage = 2.0V,
forward current = 20mA
2 Buzzer Adafruit Product ID: 1536
Breadboard-friendly 5V Buzzer
2 Electric DC motor (5V or DigiKey Product No: 1528-1177-ND
less) Vibration Motor 11000 RPM 5VDC
1 Resistor variety pack SparkFun Product No: 10969
(1/4Watt, variety between ¼ Watt Through-Hole Resistor Variety Pack
1KΩ and 10KΩ; e.g., (pack of 500)
10KΩ, 4.8KΩ, and 1KΩ)
2 Potentiometer (1KΩ or Adafruit Product ID: 356
10KΩ) TrimPot 10K with Knob
(continued)
10

2 Electrolytic capacitor Adafruit Product ID: 2193 and No:2195
(100μF and 10μF) Electrolytic Decoupling Capacitor, 100uF, 16V
(pack of 10)
Electrolytic Decoupling Capacitor, 10uF, 50V
(pack of 10)
2 Slide switch Adafruit Product ID: 805
Breadboard-friendly SPDT Slide Switch
20 Pushbutton (2-leg) DigiKey Product No: EG4378TB-ND
Tactile Switch SPST-NO 0.05A, 12V, 2-leg
pushbutton
1 Photoresistor Adafruit Product ID: 161
Photo cell (CdS photoresistor)
1 Tilt sensor Adafruit Product ID: 173
Tilt ball switch!
1 Force-sensitive resistor Adafruit Product ID: 1075
(FSR) Square Force-Sensitive Resistor (FSR) – Alpha
MF02A-N-221-A01
Note: Adafruit Product ID: 166 (round FSR) will
also work
1 IR break-beam sensor Adafruit Product ID: 2167
(3mm LEDs) Infrared (IR) Break Beam Sensors with Premium
Wire Header Ends – 3mm LEDs
20 2N7000 transistor DigiKey Product No: 2721-2N7000-ND
(N-Channel MOSFET) 2N7000, TO-92, 60V, 0.2A MOSFET
1 Optional: DigiKey Part No: BS250P-ND
BS250 P-Channel BS250, TO-92 P-Channel MOSFET, 45V, 230mA,
transistor (MOSFET) E-LINE
(continued)
11

Tools: For bonus chapters and optional projects
1 Multimeter Adafruit Product ID: 2034

Digital Multimeter Model 9205B+
1 Conductive fabric tape Adafruit Product ID: 3961
Conductive Nylon Fabric Tape – 5mm Wide x 10
meters long
1 Wire strippers Adafruit Product ID: 4747
Automatic Self-Adjusting Wire Strippers and
Cutter
Reading Circuit Diagrams

Circuit diagrams are pictures of circuits that show us how to build a
specific circuit. In this book, we’ll use Fritzing diagrams2 which are
cartoon-like images that show parts and wires that resemble reality. Grab
your breadboard and let’s look at some circuit pictures!
Circuit diagram A picture that shows us how to wire, or build, a

circuit.
Figure 1-2 shows what a Fritzing diagram looks like.
2
Fritzing is a fantastic, open source program! You can download it here: https://
fritzing.org/
12
Figure 1-2. Fritzing diagram for a simple circuit
The gray block is the breadboard where we connect our battery, light
(specifically an LED), and resistor (to limit the flow of electricity). The red
and black wires show us how to connect the different sides of the circuit.3
The colors of the wires we use to build our circuit do not have to match the
colors in the picture, but it can be helpful to start by using two different
colors as shown in the picture. We’ll learn more about why we have two
different colored wires in Chapter 2. Let’s label the parts in our Fritzing
diagram in Figure 1-3 below.
3
Wait, wait, wait… isn’t a circuit a circle? How can a circle have sides?! Great
question, reader! Circuit circles have a positive (red) and a negative (black) side,
which we’ll dig into in more detail in Chapter 2.
13
This is a light, called an LED, or Light

Emitting Diode. It has 2 different legs.
This is the battery.

It has 2 different
sides.
This is a resistor. It has 2
of the same type of legs.
These are wires. Wires have

two ends that are the same.
Figure 1-3. A Fritzing Diagram with labeled parts
What Other Information Is in This Diagram?

The breadboard has lots of small holes for plugging in wires and circuit
parts. Like a spreadsheet, the holes are ordered into rows that are
labeled with numbers and columns that are labeled with letters. The
breadboard shown in Figure 1-4 below is called a half-size breadboard.
Parts and wires plug

into the holes on
the breadboard.
Green dots indicate breadboard holes that are

electrically connected to a component or wire.
Figure 1-4. A half-size breadboard showing how Fritzing Diagrams

display parts that are electrically connected
14
Check it out: Look on your breadboard and read

the labels for the holes. How many rows are there?
How many columns?
Half-size breadboards have two symmetric sides separated by a trench

in the middle – the trench is handy if you have circuit parts that have
multiple legs because you can place the part over the trench so that all of
its legs are in different rows.
But wait… why does it matter if legs are in different rows?? Because
breadboard holes that are in the same row (on one side of the trench)
are electrically connected.
For example, look at Figure 1-5 where red boxes enclose the holes that
are electrically connected on the left side of the breadboard, all of the holes
in row 1, columns A–E, are connected; all of the holes in row 2,
columns A–E, are connected; etc. Likewise, on the right side of the
breadboard, the holes in row 1, columns F–J, are connected; the holes in
row 2, columns F–J, are connected; etc. The groupings of holes for row 1 are
shown in the picture to the right bounded by red rectangles.
On the outsides of the breadboard are power rails, additional holes for
connecting power sources to our circuits. You might have noticed this is
how we connected the battery in the Fritzing diagrams we saw earlier!
15
Figure 1-5. Breadboard diagram with boxes showing how the

breadboard holes are electrically connected
Trench The middle gap in a breadboard that electrically separates

the two sides.
Power rails Breadboard holes connected vertically for connecting
power sources to a breadboard.
16
Power rails!
Figure 1-6. Breadboard diagram with boxes showing how the holes
in the breadboard power rails are electrically connected
The holes that make up a single power rail are grouped differently
than the holes in the middle of the breadboard: the holes in the outside
column are connected, and the holes on the inside column are connected.
Each power rail is electrically separate. This means we can connect two
different power supplies to one breadboard. Yay!
17
Figure 1-7. Metal strips underneath a breadboard transfer electricity

between the breadboard holes!
Check it out: Peel off part of the adhesive backing

of your breadboard and look at the metal underneath!
If you have an extra breadboard, use pliers to remove
one of the metal bars from the bottom to get a sneak
peak at the metal pins on the inside!
HOW DOES THIS WORK??
If you peel off the sticky bottom of a breadboard, you’ll see strips of metal
on the bottom. The tops of the metal strips have metal pins, or clips, that
are under the plastic holes on the breadboard. When we insert the leg of an
electronic component, like an LED, the metal clips grab onto the component
leg and provide an electrical connection to the rest of the pins in that row.
18
Each circuit we’ll learn in this book will have a Fritzing diagram to
show you how to connect the parts. As we get deeper into circuits and you
get more practice, I’ll challenge you to try on your own before you look at
the Fritzing diagram. Remember: The best way to learn is to do, and I want
you to make some mistakes along the way because you’ll be more likely to
remember what you learned.
Finally, a quick mention on circuit schematics. These are harder to
read than Fritzing diagrams because schematics use symbols to represent
parts. The Fritzing circuit we saw earlier would look like Figure 1-8 as a
circuit schematic.
Figure 1-8. How a Fritzing diagram (left) represents a circuit

schematic (right)
As we learn new electronic components, I’ll also introduce the circuit

schematic symbol for that part. You do not need to memorize these!
My goal is to make it easier for you going forward, so when you see a
schematic or a datasheet, you’ll have a foundation to start from. Besides,
you can always look up a part’s schematic symbol using your favorite
search engine. ☺
19
How to Read This Book

You’re doing it already, yay!!
In all seriousness, you likely noticed that there are different types of
content in this book.
First, we’re working with lots of materials, so material lists for a
section will be called out like this:
Grab These Materials

• Pencil
• Paper
• Stopwatch (a timer on your smartphone works great)
Make sure you have everything on the list unless it’s labeled as
optional. If you like interactive books (I do!), feel free to check off the parts
as you gather them!
Next, helpful vocabulary are called out in text boxes for you to
reference later more easily, like this:
Word A way to share information with and convey meaning to

other humans.
I’ve also included “the more you know” boxes, like this:
20
THE MORE YOU KNOW! (THERE WILL BE A TOPIC HEADLINE OR

QUESTION HERE)
These are fun tidbits of history, deeper dives into specific topics, questions
that commonly pop up in my workshops, and other interesting information that
I thought you might enjoy. These are not “required” reading, and you may skip
if you so choose.
… Although I hope you read this one. ☺
Finally, there are different ways for you to engage with the material in
this book. Research studies on how people learn indicate that applying
knowledge is the best way to get it to stick. Because I’m interested in your
learning outcomes more so than your ability to follow instructions, I’ve
included three ways to apply the knowledge you’re learning. These are
designed to help you better understand the information in this book and to
get it to stick in your brain for longer (or at least be more easily recalled).
The first is what I call “Questions for Thinking,” which are indicated as
follows:
Question 1: What has stood out to you about this

book so far?
Question 2: What are you most excited to learn?

What are you dreading?
While I encourage you to truly consider the preceding Questions for

Thinking, the ones that follow in subsequent chapters will focus on the
learning content.
21
The second is “Mini Observations,” like so:
Check it out: Bring awareness to your body in this

moment. What do you hear? See? Taste? Smell? Feel?
What is happening in your body? Are your shoulders
tense, is your heart fluttering, your breathing slow and
steady or rapid and shallow? Turn your attention
inward for a few minutes (I recommend setting a
five-minute timer) and take some deep breaths. If you
are so inclined, write down your observations using
the pencil and paper from earlier.
The third method of applying this book’s knowledge is “Experiment

Callouts,” which are at-home explorations and/or deeper observations for
you to conduct solo or with a friend or family member.
Like a cat engrossed and delighted in discovering the mysteries

of a ball of string or a child testing the ratio of dirt and water that
makes the best mud pie, experiments are a great way to let loose
your curiosity, awaken your creativity, and probe the mysteries of the
world around you.
In my honest opinion, these experiments are fun ways to discover

the truly bizarre features of electricity, things we might have discovered
as kids and thought, “Huh, this is weird and silly!” I hope the Experiment
Callouts also inspire you to ask more questions and bring curiosity (and
experimentation!) to your everyday life. Remember, you do not need to be
a scientist to do science!
22
Finally, any time we build a circuit, I’ve included some

“Troubleshooting Tips” at the end of the build section, like so:
TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS
1. Check the power source (e.g., the battery).
2. No, really, 90% of the time it’s the power source. I have uttered,
“Oh, wow, it’s not turned on…” more times than I can count.
These are pulled from my own experience building circuits and from
the most common questions I get from students, listed in descending
order based on most likely/common problem. That said, these tips are not
exhaustive and may not always cover a specific problem you encounter.
If you run through the troubleshooting tips and your circuit still does not
work, reach out to a friend, family member, colleague, or another human
for a second set of eyes and brain to help you debug. If that still doesn’t
resolve the problem, you may search online or reach out to me directly
(I can’t promise a quick response, but I will do my best to get to your
question).
I hope you find these tips help the book to be more engaging and fun!
Now let’s learn some science!
Summary
This chapter introduced the book that you’re embarking on! We learned
about the big-picture topics in this book as well as my educational
approach, did a deep dive on safety (yay, safety!), looked at the tools and
materials we’ll need to build the projects in this book, and learned how to
read the circuit diagrams that will help us along the way. Read on to learn
more about the weird and wonderful world of electricity!
23
CHAPTER 2
Paper Circuits
In this chapter, we’ll learn the basics of electricity starting from the
building blocks of matter – protons, neutrons, and electrons. – We’ll learn
common terms and concepts that pop up when working with electricity
and circuits. Let’s get started!
What Is Electricity?
Grab These Materials
• Balloon
• 9V battery
• Coin cell battery

• 1 LED
• 2 alligator clips
• Safety goggles (glasses are fine)
When you think of electricity, what manifests in your mind?

Maybe you imagined a bright bolt of lightning illuminating the sky,
or you were reminded that you need to charge your phone (always), or
perhaps you chuckle at your childhood discovery that shuffling across
carpet in socks gave you zapping powers. Electricity is all these things, and
© Jennifer Fox 2023 25

J. Fox, Beginning Breadboarding, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9218-1_2
Chapter 2 Paper Circuits
so much more! Like gravity, electricity is one of those phenomena in this

big, beautiful universe that pops up everywhere once you know where, and
how, to look.
This also means that it can be tricky to define electricity because it
often depends on context. I’ll do my best, and there are tons of other great
resources like Wikipedia to fill in any gaps or answer burning questions.
While gravity is due to matter, or mass, electricity is due to charges.
There are two different types of electric charges: positive and negative.
Like magnetic poles, charges that are the same repel each other, and
charges that are different attract each other.
Question 1: If you moved a positive charge close

to another positive charge, what would happen?
Question 2: If you moved a positive charge close

to a negative charge, what would happen?
Electricity A form of energy due to charged particles. Similar

charges repel; dissimilar charges attract.
Figure 2-1 can help us visualize how charges affect each other.
Figure 2-1. Electric field lines between a positive and a negative

charge. Source: Wikimedia Commons
26
The positive charge is illustrated on the left and the negative charge
on the right. The lines between the charges are called field lines. Field
lines tell us the direction of a force between two objects. For example, in
Figure 2-1, the field lines tell us that the two charges feel a pull toward each
other because the arrows point from one charge to the other. If we have
two of the same charges, like in Figure 2-2 below, we see field lines that
show how the charges are pushing away from each other.
Electric field lines A representation of the force between two

charges that points from positive charges to negative charges.
Figure 2-2. Electric field lines between two negative charges. Source:
Wikimedia Commons
Electric field lines are defined to point from positive charges to

negative charges – you do not need to remember this, but it’s helpful
to have a basic understanding of why the field line arrows are pointing
the way that they do. This will also come up when we talk about electric
current in the next section.
27
Figure 2-3. Field lines showing the magnitude, or size, of two

different negative charges
Typically, field lines also tell us the size, or magnitude, of that force
based on the proportion of the number of lines. For example, in Figure 2-3,
the charge on the right is two times larger than the charge on the left.
Even if the right-side charge wasn’t labeled to tell us how big it is, we
could figure out that it’s got twice as much charge than the left-side charge
because the right-side charge has eight field lines coming out of it, while
the left-side charge only has four. Hooray for visual math!
The number of lines doesn’t tell us exactly how strong the force is, it
only gives us a relationship, or proportion, between charges. This means
that all we can conclude about the preceding two charges is that the right-
side charge is twice as strong. We don’t know if it is a tiny charge or a huge
charge, just that it’s two times stronger than the left-side charge.
28
WHAT DO THE TERMS “POSITIVE” AND “NEGATIVE” MEAN?
Like most labels, “positive” and “negative” are arbitrary. The important thing
is that there are two kinds of different charges. The difference between the
charges determines how the charges behave under different conditions.
For example, even if we called “positive” charges “green” charges and

“negative” charges “blue” charges, “green” charges would repel “green”
charges and attract “blue” charges.
Wait, wait, wait… what exactly are charges?? Great question, my dear
reader friend! This gives us a perfect excuse to learn about one of my
favorite topics: atoms! If you are already familiar with atoms, you may skip
the next section and move on to the first experiment.
Atoms: The Building Blocks of Nature

Everything that we can see, hear, feel, and touch is made up of the same
types of building blocks called atoms. At the center of an atom is a teeny-
tiny, super dense cluster of particles that we call the nucleus. The nucleus
has two types of particles: protons, which are positively charged (hey,
charges!!), and neutrons, which are neutrally charged. Surrounding the
nucleus is a cloud of particles called electrons,1 which are negatively
charged (more charges!). An image of a helium atom is shown in
Figure 2-4 below.
1
Electrons are real bizarre particles (but then again, most of quantum mechanics
is real weird and SUPER cool). They are both a particle and a wave at the same
time . Even when they are behaving as a particle, they are a “point particle”
which means that they have mass but no volume. Yea… real weird. And super
cool!! For the purposes of this book, we can treat electrons as mostly regular
particles that absorb energy and bounce off things like billiard (pool) balls.
29
Atoms The basic building blocks of nature! Atoms have a heavy,

dense nucleus at the center made of particles called protons and
neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud (it’s real
weird and cool; see the following footnote).
Figure 2-4. A diagram of a helium atom (in ground state). Source:

Wikipedia
Atoms are hilariously small – like, 100 picometers across, which is 1

x 10-12m (0.000000000001m). For context, our eyes can see things about
as small as 0.0001m – atoms are nine times smaller than that!! That is so,
so small.
Anyway! Back to how atoms affect electricity. With these three basic
building blocks – protons, neutrons, and electrons – we get all the elements
on the periodic table (hey, chemistry!). The simplest element is hydrogen,
which has one proton, one neutron, and one electron, followed by helium
30
which has two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons; the third is
lithium which has three protons, three neutrons, and three electrons, and
so on.2 Yay for patterns in nature!
Protons and neutrons are really intensely attracted to each other (via
a force called the strong nuclear force) and stay clustered close together
at the center of the atom. Electrons are attracted to the nucleus because of
the electromagnetic force (protons are positively charged so the nucleus
has an overall positive charge), our first peek at atomic electricity! There
are strict rules about how electrons can stack up around the nucleus
because negative charges repel each other. I’m simplifying a lot, but these
rules basically translate into specific distances, or orbitals, where only two
electrons are allowed to be at a time (Figure 2-5). Once that orbital is full,
a new electron must orbit the nucleus at a farther distance. A full orbital
is more stable than a not full orbital, and atoms prefer stability (like most
things in this universe, including us humans).
Figure 2-5. The first two orbitals for atoms. Source: Wikipedia
In the case of hydrogen, the first electron hangs out in the first orbital
but doesn’t fill it completely. Helium has two electrons, which fill its first
orbital and makes it super, super stable – it doesn’t want to add or give
up its happy lil’ electrons which is why helium doesn’t interact with other
substances. For lithium, the first orbital is full, and the third electron
has to go farther away from the nucleus to the second orbital. Lithium
2
… mostly. The pattern of increasing and equivalent numbers of protons,
neutrons, and electrons holds for many elements on the periodic table, but not
all. Since chemistry is not my wheelhouse, I’d recommend looking up the periodic
table in your favorite search engine! Wikipedia is also a great resource.
31
(and hydrogen) is an example of why metals conduct electricity – there

is a single electron in an orbital that it can “share” with other elements.
This sharing causes atoms to bond with each other and to do things like
allow electricity to flow.
Metals are good conductors3 because there are what are called “free
electrons”: excess electrons that float freely through the metal. Without
electricity, these electrons are moving randomly, and the net effect of all
the electrons cancels out (like a bunch of fish swimming around in a lake).
But, when an electric force is applied, the electrons move in the direction
of the force (like how the fish will all swim away from a predator).
Free electrons Electrons within a conducting substance

(e.g., metal) but not permanently attached to a specific atom.
Most atoms, or elements, are neutral because they have an equal

number of protons (positively charged) and electrons (negatively charged).
Some elements exist as ions, where there is an imbalance of either protons
or electrons, giving the element a net charge (a net positive charge if there
are fewer electrons than protons and a net negative charge if there are
excess electrons).
Ion Atoms, or elements, that have an overall net charge (either

positive or negative).
3
Conductors are materials that easily conduct electricity. Most metals, e.g.,
copper, silver, and gold, are good conductors. Insulators are materials that resist
the flow of electricity. Most materials besides metal are insulators, like plastic,
wood, and glass.
32
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elapsed, when the respiration became slow, and it ceased at two
minutes and three-quarters after the mouse was introduced. It was
removed at this time, and it gasped a few seconds afterwards; this
gasp was soon followed by another; the gaspings became more
frequent, and in a short time, the natural breathing was resumed. In
five minutes, the mouse was able to walk.
The third, fourth, and fifth of the above experiments show that one
grain of chloroform to each hundred cubic inches of air suffices to
induce the second degree of narcotism, or that state in which
consciousness and voluntary motion are disturbed, but not entirely
abolished. Now one grain of chloroform produces 0·767 of a cubic
inch of vapour at 60°, when its specific gravity is 4·2; and, when the
vapour is inhaled, it expands somewhat, as it is warmed to the
temperature of the lungs; but it expands only to the same extent as
the air with which it is mixed, and therefore the proportions remain
unaltered. But air, when saturated with vapour of chloroform at
100°, contains 43·3 cubic inches in 100; and
As 0·767 : 43·3 :: 0·0177 : 1.
So that if the point of complete saturation be considered as unity,
0·0177 or 1–56th, will express the degree of saturation of the air from
which the vapour is immediately absorbed into the blood; and,
consequently, also the degree of saturation of the blood itself.
I find that serum of blood at 100°, and at the ordinary pressure of
the atmosphere, will dissolve about its own volume of vapour of
chloroform; and since chloroform of specific gravity 1·483 is 288
times as heavy as its own vapour, 0·0177 ÷ 288 gives 0·0000614, or
one part in 16,285, as the average proportion of chloroform by
measure in the blood, in the second degree of narcotism.
It is evident, from the experiments numbered 9 to 12 inclusive,
that two grains of chloroform to each hundred cubic inches of the
inspired air cause a state of very complete insensibility,
corresponding with what I have designated the fourth degree of
narcotism; and by the method of calculation employed above we get
0·0354, or 1–28th, as representing the degree of saturation of the
blood, and 0·0001228 the proportion by measure in the blood.
In experiments 6, 7, and 8, in which quantities of chloroform were
employed intermediate between one and two grains to each hundred
cubic inches of air, a moderate amount of insensibility was induced,
corresponding very much with the state of patients during operations
under chloroform.
The experiments from 13 to 18 show that quantities of chloroform,
exceeding two grains to 100 cubic inches of air, have a tendency to
embarrass and arrest the function of respiration, if the inhalation is
continued. I have not yet been able to determine satisfactorily the
exact proportion of chloroform which requires to be absorbed to
arrest the respiration of animals of warm blood. I believe there is a
definite proportion which has this effect, but there are two reasons
why it is not so easy to ascertain it, as to ascertain the proportion
which causes the minor degrees of narcotism. In the first place, the
breathing often becomes very feeble before it ceases, so that the
animal inhales and absorbs but very little chloroform, and remains
on the brink of dying for some time. In the next place, the
temperature of the body falls in a deep state of narcotism, especially
in small animals; and, as the temperature falls, the amount of
chloroform which the blood can dissolve from any given mixture of
air and vapour increases.
Judging from the experiments numbered 14 to 18, three grains of
chloroform to each hundred cubic inches of air must be very nearly
the quantity which has the power of arresting the breathing when the
temperature of the body is 100°; and as three grains of chloroform
produce 2·3 cubic inches of vapour, and air at 100° is capable of
taking up 43·3 per cent. of its volume, it follows that the blood must
contain between 1–18th and 1–19th as much chloroform as it is
capable of dissolving, at the time when the respiration is arrested. In
the 14th experiment, the breathing of the two mice was on the point
of being stopped by two and a half grains of chloroform in each
hundred cubic inches of air, but during the thirteen minutes which
the mice breathed the vapour, their temperature fell to about 90°.
Air, when saturated with the vapour of chloroform at this
temperature, contains 35 per cent., and two grains and a half of
chloroform yield 1·917 cubic inches of vapour; so by a calculation
similar to that made at page 68, the mice at the time when the
breathing was about to cease must have absorbed 1–18th part as
much chloroform as their circulating fluids were capable of
dissolving.
The reader will have observed that, in the experiments related
above, the mice became much more quickly affected than the
guineapigs and cats. The reason of this is their quicker respiration
and circulation, and much more diminutive size. Little birds, such as
linnets and sparrows, are also very quickly affected by chloroform.
Frogs are more slowly affected, owing to their languid respiration,
unless the vapour to which they are exposed is very strong.
They can, however, owing to their low temperature, be rendered
insensible by proportions of vapour too small to affect animals of
warm blood; and as they have no proper temperature of their own,
the amount of vapour (in proportion to the air in which they are
placed) that will affect them, depends entirely on the temperature of
that air.
The following experiment was several times performed on frogs
with the same result, the temperature of the room being about 55°,
as it was in winter.
Experiment 19. 4·6 grains of chloroform were diffused through the
air of a jar of the capacity of 920 cubic inches, and a frog was
introduced. In a few minutes, it became affected, and at the end of
ten minutes, was quite motionless and flaccid; but the respiration
was still going on. Being now taken out, it was found to be insensible
to pricking: it recovered in a quarter of an hour.
In a repetition of this experiment, in which the frog continued a
few minutes longer in the vapour, the respiration ceased, and the
recovery was more tardy. On one occasion, the frog was left in the jar
for an hour, but when taken out, and turned on its back, the
pulsations of the heart could be seen. In an hour after its removal, it
was found to be completely recovered.
The first of the experiments related above (page 60), showed that
an atmosphere containing half a grain of chloroform to each hundred
cubic inches, produced scarcely any appreciable effect on animals of
warm blood; but the following calculation explains why this quantity
acts so energetically on the frog, and proves that this creature is
affected by chloroform according to the same law as animals of warm
blood. The vapour is absorbed into the blood and lymph of the frog
at the temperature of the external air, whose point of relative
saturation therefore remains unaltered, both in the lungs and in
contact with the skin of the animal; and as half a grain of chloroform
produces 0·383 cubic inches of vapour, and air at 55° contains, when
saturated, 10 per cent. of vapour; 0·0383, or 1–26th, expresses the
degree of saturation of the air, and also of the blood of the frog. And
this is a very little more than the quantity (0·0354 or 1–28th) which
was calculated above to be the greatest amount which could be
absorbed with safety into the blood of the mammalia. It must be
observed, however, that the pulmonary respiration of the frog was
arrested by this proportion of 1–26th as much chloroform as the
blood would dissolve, whilst we calculated that it required about as
much as 1–18th to arrest the breathing of animals of warm blood. It
must be remembered, however, that the pulmonary respiration of
frogs is a process of swallowing air, which only goes on when the
creature is comparatively active. In the torpid state, the respiration
takes place only by the skin, and the frog never breathes with the aid
of the same muscles and nerves as mammalia and birds.
By warming a frog, together with the air in which it is placed, it is,
in accordance with the law explained above, rendered comparatively
proof against an amount of chloroform which would otherwise
render it insensible.
Experiment 20. A frog, which had been a few days previously
subjected to the experiment just narrated, was put into the same jar,
which was placed near the fire, till a thermometer inside marked 75°
Fah.; 4·6 grains of chloroform were then introduced, and diffused
through the air in the jar. The jar was kept for twenty minutes, with
the thermometer indicating the same temperature within one degree.
For the first seventeen minutes, the frog was unaffected; and only
was dull and sluggish, but not insensible, when taken out. Air at 75°,
when saturated with vapour of chloroform, contains 22 per cent.,
and therefore the 0·383 per cent. of vapour, which at 55° was capable
of saturating the fluids of the frog to the extent of 1–26th of what
they would dissolve, was, at 75°, capable of saturating them only to
the extent of 1–57th.
At one of Dr. Wilson’s Lumleian Lectures, at the College of
Physicians, on March 29th, 1848, I had the honour of performing
some experiments, and making some remarks, on chloroform, and I
combined together two experiments on frogs and small birds, in a
way which shows how entirely the effects of a narcotic vapour
depend on the quantity of air with which it is mixed, and on other
physical conditions.
Experiment 21. I introduced a chaffinch, in a very small cage, into
a glass jar holding nearly 1,000 cubic inches, and put a frog into the
same jar, covered it with a plate of glass, and dropped five grains of
chloroform on a piece of blotting paper suspended within. In less
than ten minutes, the frog was insensible, but the bird was not
affected.
Experiment 22. I then placed another frog and another small bird
in a jar containing but 200 cubic inches, with exactly the same
quantity of chloroform. In about a minute and a half, they were both
taken out,—the bird totally insensible, but the frog not appreciably
affected, as from its less active respiration it had not had time to
absorb much of the vapour.
The blood in the human adult is estimated by M. Valentin to
average about thirty pounds. M. Valentin’s experiments were so
conducted that this quantity must include the extra vascular liquor
sanguinis, as well as the blood actually contained within the vessels.
On this account, his estimate is all the better fitted for calculating the
amount of chloroform absorbed, since this medicine, when inhaled
gradually, passes by exosmosis through the coats of the bloodvessels
into the fluid in which the tissues are immediately bathed. The above
quantity of blood would contain 26 pounds 5 ounces of serum,
which, allowing for its specific gravity, would measure 410 fluid
ounces. This being reduced to minims, and multiplied by 0·0000614,
the proportion of chloroform in the blood required to produce
narcotism to the second degree (see page 68), gives 12 minims as the
whole quantity in the blood. More than this is used in practice,
because a considerable portion is not absorbed, being thrown out
again when it has proceeded no further than the trachea, the mouth
and nostrils, or even the face-piece. But I find that if I put twelve
minims into a bladder containing a little air, and breathe it over and
over again, in the manner of taking nitrous oxide, it suffices to
remove consciousness, producing the second degree of its effects.
To induce the third degree of narcotism, or the condition in which
surgical operations are usually commenced, would require that about
18 minims should be absorbed by an adult of average size and health,
according to the above method of calculation; and to induce the deep
state of insensibility, which I have termed the fourth degree of
narcotism, would require 24 minims; whilst to arrest the function of
respiration would require that about 36 minims should be absorbed.
PREPARATIONS FOR INHALING
CHLOROFORM.
The only direction which it is usually requisite to give beforehand,
to the patient who is to inhale chloroform, is to avoid taking a meal
previous to the inhalation; for chloroform is very apt to cause
vomiting, if inhaled whilst there is a quantity of food in the stomach.
The sickness is not attended with any danger, but it constitutes an
unpleasantness and inconvenience which it is desirable to avoid. The
best time of all for an operation under chloroform is before
breakfast, but the customs and arrangements of this country do not
often admit of that time being chosen, and it is unadvisable to make
the patient fast beyond his usual hour. It answers very well to
perform an operation about the time when the patient would be
ready for another meal, or, if the time of operation fall two or three
hours after the usual time of eating, to request the patient to make
only a slender repast at that time, so as just to prevent the feeling of
hunger. It is impossible to prevent vomiting in some cases with the
best precautions, for the stomach occasionally will not digest when
the patient is expecting a surgical operation, and the breakfast may
be rejected in an unaltered state hours after it has been taken. In
other cases the patient does not vomit, even when he inhales
chloroform shortly after a full meal.
The most convenient position in which the patient can be placed
whilst taking chloroform is lying on the back, or side, as he is then
duly supported in the state of insensibility, and can be more easily
restrained if he struggle whilst becoming insensible. The semi-
recumbent posture on a sofa does very well, and there is no objection
to the sitting posture, when that is most convenient to the operator.
In that case, however, the patient should be placed in a large easy
chair with a high back, so that the head as well as the trunk may be
supported without any effort, otherwise he would have a tendency to
slide or fall when insensible. It has been said that it is unsafe to give
chloroform in the sitting posture, on the supposition that it would in
some cases so weaken the power of the heart, as to render it unable
to send the blood to the brain. Observation has proved, however, that
chloroform usually increases the force of the circulation; and
although the horizontal position is certainly the best for the patient
under an operation in all circumstances, I consider that the sitting
posture is by no means a source of danger, when chloroform is given,
if the ordinary precaution be used, which would be used without
chloroform—that of placing the patient horizontally if symptoms of
faintness come on. I have preserved notes of nine hundred and forty-
nine cases in which I have given chloroform to patients in the sitting
posture, and no ill effects have arisen in any of these cases.
The person who is about to inhale chloroform is occasionally in a
state of alarm, either about that agent itself or the operation which
calls for its use. It is desirable to allay the patient’s fears, if possible,
before he begins to inhale, as he will then be able to breathe in a
more regular and tranquil manner. In a few cases, however, the
apprehensions of the patient cannot be removed, and they subside
only as he becomes unconscious from the inhalation. It has been said
that chloroform ought not to be administered if the patient is very
much afraid, on the supposition that fear makes the chloroform
dangerous. This is, however, a mistake; the danger, if any, lies in the
fear itself. Two cases will be related hereafter in which the patients
died suddenly from fear, whilst they were beginning to inhale
chloroform, and before they were affected by it; but the probability is
that, if they had lived till the chloroform took effect, they would have
been as safe as other patients who inhaled it. If chloroform were
denied to the patients who are much afraid, the nervous and feeble,
who most require it, would often be deprived of its benefits.
Moreover, the patients would either be prevented altogether from
having the advantage of surgery, or they would be subjected to the
still greater fear of the pain, as well as the pain itself; for whatever
undefined and unreasoning fears a patient may have when the
moment comes for inhaling chloroform, he has only chosen to inhale
it on account of a still greater fear of pain.
Fear and chloroform are each of them capable of causing death,
just as infancy and old age both predispose to bronchitis, but it
seems impossible that fear should combine with the effects of
chloroform to cause danger, when that agent is administered with
the usual precautions. Fear is an affection of the mind, and can no
longer exist when the patient is unconscious; but the action of that
amount of chloroform which is consistent even with disordered
consciousness is stimulating, and increases the force and frequency
of the pulse, in the same way as alcohol. I believe that no one would
assert that a person would die the sooner of fright for having taken a
few glasses of wine, or a small amount of distilled spirits, whatever
might be the state of his health. When chloroform has been absorbed
in sufficient quantity to cause unconsciousness, fear subsides, and
with the fear its effects on the circulation. It is a subject of almost
daily observation with me that the pulse, which is extremely rapid
from some ill defined apprehension, when certain patients begin to
inhale chloroform, settles down to its natural frequency after they
become unconscious.
The practice I have always followed has been to try to calm the
patient, by the assurance that there was nothing to apprehend from
the chloroform, and that it would be sure to prevent all pain; but
where it has been impossible to remove the fears of the patient in
this way, I have always proceeded to remove them by causing a state
of unconsciousness. It would of course be wrong to choose a moment
for beginning the inhalation, when fear was producing a very marked
depression of the circulation. On feeling the pulse of a gentleman,
about twenty-one years of age, in March 1855, who had just seated
himself in the chair to take chloroform, previous to having some
teeth extracted, by Mr. Thos. A. Rogers, I found it to be small, weak,
and intermitting, and it became more feeble as I was feeling it. I told
the patient that he would feel no pain, and that he had nothing
whatever to apprehend. His pulse immediately improved. He inhaled
the chloroform, had his teeth extracted, woke up, and recovered
without any feeling of depression. Now if the inhalation had been
commenced in this case, without inquiry or explanation, the syncope
which seemed approaching would probably have taken place, and it
would have had the appearance of being caused by the chloroform,
although not so in reality.
MODE OF ADMINISTERING CHLOROFORM.
The experiments previously related show that air containing rather
less than two grains of chloroform, in one hundred cubic inches, is
capable of causing a state of insensibility, sufficiently deep for
surgical operations; but in a creature the size of the human being, an
inconvenient length of time would be occupied in causing
insensibility with vapour so much diluted. About four cubic inches of
vapour, or rather more than five grains of chloroform to each
hundred cubic inches of air, is the proportion which I have found
most suitable in practice for causing insensibility to surgical
operations. In medical and obstetric cases, it should be inhaled in a
more diluted form.
Dr. Simpson recommended chloroform to be administered on a
handkerchief—the method in which sulphuric ether was
administered by Dr. Morton, in the first case in which he exhibited
that medicine. The objection to giving chloroform on a handkerchief,
especially in surgical operations, where it is necessary to cause
insensibility, is that the proportions of vapour and of air which the
patient breathes cannot be properly regulated. Indeed, the advocates
of this plan proceed on the supposition that there is no occasion to
regulate these proportions, and that it is only requisite that the
patient should have sufficient air for the purposes of respiration, and
sufficient chloroform to induce insensibility, and all will be right.[53]
The truth is, however, that if there be too much vapour of chloroform
in the air the patient breathes, it may cause sudden death, even
without previous insensibility, and whilst the blood in the lungs is of
a florid colour. Chloroform may indeed be inhaled freely from a
handkerchief without danger, when it is diluted with one or two parts
by measure of spirits of wine, but the chloroform evaporates in
largest quantity at first, and less afterwards, until a portion of the
spirit is left behind by itself. The process, however, of inhaling
chloroform from a handkerchief is always uncertain and irregular,
and is apt to confirm the belief in peculiarities of constitution,
idiosyncrasies and predispositions, which have no existence in the
patient.[54]
The most exact way in which it is practicable to exhibit chloroform
to a patient about to undergo an operation, is to introduce a
measured quantity into a bag or balloon of known size, then to fill it
up by means of the bellows, and allow the patient to inhale from it;
the expired air being prevented from returning into the balloon, by
one of the valves of the face-piece to which it is attached. I tried this
plan in a few cases, in 1849, with so much chloroform in the balloon
as produced four per cent. of vapour in proportion to the air. The
effects were extremely uniform, the patients becoming insensible in
three or four minutes, according to the greater or less freedom of
respiration; and the vapour was easily breathed, owing to its being so
equally mixed with the air. I did not try, however, to introduce this
plan into general use, as the balloon would sometimes have been in
the way of the surgeon, and filling it with the bellows would have
occasioned a little trouble. It seemed necessary to sacrifice a little of
absolute perfection to convenience, and I therefore continued the
plan which I had already followed.
The great point to be observed in causing insensibility by any
narcotic vapour, is to present to the patient such a mixture of vapour
and air as will produce its effects gradually, and enable the medical
man to stop at the right moment. Insensibility is not caused so much
by giving a dose as by performing a process. Nature supplies but one
mixture of diluted oxygen, from which each creature draws as much
as it requires, and so, in causing narcotism by inhalation, if a proper
mixture of air and vapour is supplied, each patient will gradually
inhale the requisite quantity of the latter to cause insensibility,
according to his size and strength. It is indeed desirable to vary the
proportions of vapour and air, but rather according to the purpose
one has in view, whether medicinal, obstetric, or surgical, than on
account of the age or strength of the patient; for the respiratory
process bears such a relation to the latter circumstances, as to cause
each person to draw his own proper dose from a similar atmosphere
in a suitable time.
The inhaler represented in the adjoining engraving is, with some
slight alterations, the same that I have employed since the latter part
of 1847. It is made of metal, and consists of a double cylinder, the
outer space of which contains cold water, and the inner serves for the
evaporation of the chloroform which the patient is to breathe. Into
the inner part of the cylinder there is screwed a frame, having
numerous openings for the admission of air, and four stout wires
which descend nearly to the bottom of the space, and are intended to
support two coils of stout bibulous paper, which are tied round them,
and reach to the bottom of the inhaler. In the lower part of this paper
four notches are cut, to allow the air to pass in the direction indicated
by the arrows. As the quantity of chloroform which is put in should
never fill the apertures or notches, the air which passes through the
inhaler meets with no obstruction whatever. There is a glass tube
communicating with the interior of the inhaler, and passing to the
outside, to enable the operator to see when the chloroform requires
to be renewed. The elastic tube which connects the inhaler to the
face-piece is three-quarters of an inch in internal diameter, to allow
of the passage of as much air as the patient can possibly breathe. On
the introduction of the practice of inhaling sulphuric ether there was
no tubing in this country fit to be breathed through; that in ordinary
use was only about one-third, or three-eighths of an inch in
diameter,—not more than a quarter of the proper calibre.
The face-piece, to include both the mouth and nostrils, of which
that shown in the engraving is one of the modifications, is one of the
greatest mechanical aids to the process of inhalation which has been
contrived in modern times. Dr. Francis Sibson is its inventor. Dr.
Hawkesley did indeed contrive a very similar one about the same
time as Dr. Sibson,—early in 1847,—but he did not make it known.
Dr. Ingen Housz made patients inhale oxygen through the nostrils by
means of a bottle of India rubber with the bottom cut off; and Mr.
Waugh, of Regent Street, had more recently contrived a mouth-piece
to be adapted outside the lips, but the usual practice of inhalation
previous to 1847, was for the patient to draw in the medicated air by
means of a tube placed in the mouth. This led generally to great
awkwardness at first, as the patient usually began to puff as if he
were smoking a pipe; and it had the further inconvenience, in the
administration of ether, that the tube dropped from the mouth, and
the patient began to breathe by the nostrils, just as he was getting
unconscious. The sides of the face-piece delineated in the engraving
are made of thin sheet lead, which is pliable, and enables it to be
adapted exactly to the inequalities of the face, and the patient can
breathe either by the nostrils or mouth, just as his will, or instinct, or
other nervous functions, determine.
I have introduced two valves into this face-piece, one which rises
on inspiration, to admit the air and vapour from the inhaler, and
closes again on expiration, and the other which rises to allow the
expired air to escape. I contrived the latter valve to turn more or less
to one side, as indicated by the additional line in the engraving, and
thus admit more or less of the external air to dilute still further that
which has passed through the inhaler, and become charged with
vapour. By this means the patient can begin by breathing air
containing very little vapour, and more and more of the air which has
passed over the moistened bibulous paper can be admitted, as the
air-passages become blunted to the pungency of the vapour.
The object of the water-bath is to supply the caloric which is
rendered latent, and carried off, as the chloroform is converted into
vapour, and thus to render the process of inhalation steady and
uniform. Without the water-bath, the evaporation of the chloroform
would soon reduce the temperature of the inhaler below the freezing
point of water, and limit very much the amount of vapour the patient
would inhale; and if the apparatus were warmed by the hand, the
temperature would be too high, and the amount of vapour too great.
A medical author of great reputation in Paris sent to inquire at what
temperature I used the water-bath, and being informed, at the
ordinary temperature, published his opinion that it had no effect,
and might as well be left off. He appeared not to have considered the
relations of heat, either to liquids or vapours.
In arranging the bibulous paper in the inhaler, it is my object to
contrive that the air passing through, in the ordinary process of
inhalation, and at the ordinary temperature of about 60°, shall take
up about five per cent. of vapour. This quantity can be diminished, as
much as is desired, by turning the expiratory valve of the face-piece a
little to one side; and in winter I usually place a short coil of bibulous
paper against the outer circumference of the inside of the inhaler, in
addition to the central coils which are delineated.
I commonly put two, or two and a half, fluid drachms of
chloroform into the inhaler at first. About a drachm of this is
absorbed by the filtering paper, and the rest remains at the bottom of
the inhaler; and in a protracted operation, when it is seen, by means
of the glass tube, that the latter part of the chloroform has
disappeared, more is added, by a drachm or so at a time, to prevent
the paper ever becoming dry. Mr. Matthews, 8, Portugal Street,
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, makes the inhaler. There are smaller face-pieces
for children. The patient never inhales in so upright a posture as the
artist has represented.
There are several other kinds of apparatus in use for the inhalation
of chloroform. The most usual consist of Dr. Sibson’s face-piece more
or less altered, and with a small piece of sponge placed inside. The
apparatus which is in most reputation on the continent is that of M.
Charrière; it consists of a glass vase with suitable valves, and a fabric
for exposing a surface wetted with chloroform to the air which passes
through it.
M. Duroy, of Paris, has contrived an ingenious, but very
complicated, apparatus, which he calls an anæsthesimeter. The
object of it is to regulate the amount of chloroform which is inhaled
in a given time, and this can be varied from four to sixty drops in the
minute; but the experiments which I have related show that the
quantity of chloroform employed is not so important as the
proportion of it in the inspired air; and although each of these
circumstances has considerable influence over the other, in many
cases there are conditions in which no regular relation exists between
them. For instance, if the inhaler were supplied with sixty drops of
chloroform per minute, these sixty drops weigh twenty grains, and
produce 15·3 cubic inches of vapour; and if an adult patient were
breathing the average quantity of four hundred cubic inches per
minute, the air he would breathe would contain nearly four per cent.
of vapour, which would answer extremely well; but if the breathing
were slow or feeble, or if he should hold his breath for an interval
and commence again, he might breathe air much more highly
charged with vapour. Indeed it would depend on the amount of
surface moistened with chloroform, the temperature of the air, and
other physical conditions, whether or not the air he inhaled might
not be charged with chloroform to a dangerous degree; whilst, on the
other hand, if the breathing were deep and rapid, as often happens
whilst the patient is getting slightly under the influence of the
chloroform;—if, for instance, the patient were to breathe at the rate
of 1,600 cubic inches, instead of 400, the air he would inhale would
contain less than one per cent. of vapour, and he would not become
insensible with the utmost supply of the anæsthesimeter, till his
breathing should be moderated. M. Duroy also follows the rude and
objectionable plan of using a nose clasp, and thus compelling the
patient to breathe by the mouth alone.
It is advisable to request the patient to breathe gently and quietly,
when he commences to inhale chloroform; in other words, to do
nothing but conduct himself as if he were about to fall asleep
naturally; for, if he breathes deeply, the vapour feels much more
pungent than it otherwise would do, and is apt to excite coughing, or
a feeling of suffocation.
In using the inhaler described above, the patient should commence
to inhale with the expiratory valve of the face-piece turned on one
side, and it should be gradually advanced to the required extent, over
the opening it is intended to cover, as the sensibility of the lungs
becomes diminished. Not only patients with phthisis or bronchitis,
but many sensitive and irritable persons with sound lungs, have a
great intolerance of the vapour of chloroform at first, on account of
its pungency; and it is necessary to occupy two or three minutes in
gradually commencing the inhalation, before the patient makes any
appreciable progress towards insensibility. In administering
chloroform to children also, it is desirable to begin very gently; by
this means, and with a little persuasion, one generally succeeds in
getting them to inhale voluntarily; although, occasionally, it is
necessary to use a little force to accomplish one’s purpose.
In certain cases of the medicinal application of chloroform, and
also in obstetric cases, where the pains are not severe, it is
unnecessary to render the patient unconscious, but for surgical
operations this is nearly always requisite. No force should ever be
employed so long as the patient is conscious, unless it be to children
or lunatics; but some patients become excited as soon as they are
unconscious, and attempt to leave the couch, or push away the
chloroform; under such circumstances, if they cannot be calmed by
what is said to them, they should be held, and the vapour should be
steadily and gently continued, for a minute or two, till a state of
quietude is produced. By far the greater number of patients remain
quiet as they become unconscious, but there is no difficulty in
ascertaining whether a patient is unconscious or not. If the eyelids
remain open, the countenance shows whether the patient is
conscious or not; and, if they are closed, it is only necessary to touch
them gently, to ascertain this circumstance. If he is still conscious, he
will look at his medical man, and probably speak, or, at all events,
show intelligence in his countenance.
Signs of Insensibility. The absence of consciousness, and a state of
quietude, are both requisite before the commencement of a surgical
operation, and they go a good way towards the preparation of a
patient for it, but these symptoms may be present and the patient not
be ready for an operation. The surgeon wishes to know whether he
will lie still under the knife, or whether he will make a resistance and
outcry which he would probably not make in his waking state. Some
surgeons have recommended that the patient should be pricked with
the point of a knife or some other instrument. This is not a good or
satisfactory plan, however, for a person will often show no sign of
feeling a slight prick, when a severe incision would rouse him to
resistance. A more elegant and successful plan is to raise the eyelid
gently, by placing one finger just below the eyebrow, and then to
touch its ciliary border very lightly with another finger. This should
not be done roughly nor too frequently, for fear of exhausting the
sensibility when it is slight. Just after unconsciousness is induced,
the eyelids are often closed very strongly when their margins are
touched, especially in females, and there seems to be a positive
hyperæsthesia; this, however, is only apparent, and arises from the
control of the will being removed, whilst sensibility remains. By
continuing the chloroform, the sensibility of the edges of the eyelids
diminishes until, at last, they may be touched without causing
winking. Under these circumstances, the most severe operation may,
in almost every case, be commenced without sign of pain. I have
employed this test of the sensibility or insensibility of the patient
ever since chloroform has been in use, and also in the employment of
ether in 1847, and I am satisfied that it affords more reliable
information on this point than any other single symptom. It even
indicates the amount of sensibility where a little remains; when, for
instance, touching the margin of the eyelids causes very slight and
languid winking, the patient will commonly flinch a little if the knife
is used, but only in a manner that can be easily restrained, and will
not interfere with the majority of operations. The cases, in which the
indication afforded by the eyelids is not always to be depended on,
are those of hysterical patients, in whom there is sometimes no
winking on touching the eyelids, even when unconsciousness is
scarcely induced. In such cases, one must judge by the other
symptoms, and also by the length of time the patient has inhaled, the
strength of the vapour, and depth and activity of the breathing.
Indeed, these conditions should be observed and taken into account
in every case; and all the symptoms exhibited by the patient should
be watched, such as the expression of the face, the state of the
breathing, and the condition of the limbs with regard to their tension
or relaxation. The last is indeed sometimes relied on as the chief or
sole sign whether the operation may be commenced, but it is of itself
very insufficient, and even fallacious. The patient may allow his
limbs to lie relaxed when he is scarcely unconscious, and not at all
insensible, merely because he is not exerting his will upon them; if
the arm is lifted, it may fall listlessly down again, at a time when the
knife of the surgeon would rouse the patient to active resistance.
Indeed, the limbs, which have been lying relaxed, may become tense
as the effect of the chloroform increases, and may remain so during a
short operation, in which there is no sign of pain.
Although the pulse of itself gives no indication as to how far a
patient is under the influence of chloroform, it is proper to pay
attention to it, not only during the first administration of the
chloroform, but also throughout the operation, especially if it be
attended with much bleeding. The pulse sometimes becomes
intermittent or irregular during the administration of chloroform,
more especially in elderly persons. This more commonly happens in
the first exhibition of it, than when it is repeated during the course of
an operation. I have not seen any harm from either of these
conditions, but it is well to intermit the chloroform for ten or fifteen
seconds, and let the patient have a few inspirations without it, if the
pulse is not in a satisfactory condition. If the precaution be taken to
ensure that the air the patient breathes shall never contain more
than five per cent. of vapour, the pulse can never be seriously
affected by the direct action of the chloroform, and the state of the
breathing affords the best warning against continuing the inhalation
too long at a time.
The breathing is fortunately also a sign that cannot be overlooked.
It is by the breath that the chloroform enters, and it is extremely
improbable that any one would go on giving the vapour after the
breathing became stertorous and laboured.
The patient sometimes holds his breath after he is unconscious,
and before he is insensible; this occurs under two conditions: first,
after deep and rapid breathing, during which the patient seems to
absorb more oxygen than is immediately required, under the
circumstances; and in this condition, I have known him hold his
breath for a whole minute, whilst the pulse was unaffected. The other
condition in which the breathing is suspended, is when there is
rigidity in the third degree of narcotism, and the respiratory muscles
seem to partake of the general rigidity; the holding of the breath in
these cases seldom continues so long as under the former
circumstances. I do not consider that there is any danger from either
of these kinds of suspension of breathing. I believe it always returns
as soon as there is a want of oxygen in the system. Of course the
inhaler need not be applied to the face when the patient is not
breathing, and he may as well have an inspiration or two without
chloroform when the breathing is renewed. It is seldom requisite to
carry the effects of chloroform so far that the breathing becomes
stertorous, and whenever stertor is observed, the inhalation should
be suspended; under these circumstances, the patient is always
insensible. In some cases, in which a little more chloroform has been
inhaled than is necessary, the patient breathes for half a minute or so
by the diaphragm only, and breathes in fact hardly at all. The
abdomen rises and falls freely, but, from the muscles of the chest not
fixing the ribs, hardly any air enters the lungs, and the face becomes
rather livid; meanwhile the pulse goes on very well, and at last the
patient draws a deep, sonorous inspiration, the face resumes its
proper colour, and all is right again. I have not heard of any accident
from chloroform commencing in this manner. This state of
breathing, when it does occur, usually takes place a few seconds after
the inhalation has been left off, and arises from the accumulation of
the effects of the chloroform, owing to the absorption into the system
of the vapour which was contained in the lungs at the time when the
inhalation was discontinued.[55] This accumulation or increase of the
effects of chloroform lasts for about twenty seconds; it is not
dangerous unless the vapour is inhaled of too great strength, but it
should be borne in mind in all cases. It may be prevented altogether,
by reducing the strength of the vapour, just as the patient is getting
insensible, or by giving it with intermissions of a few seconds, at this
time.
The rigidity and struggling previously mentioned (pages 39 and
50) as occurring occasionally in the third degree of narcotism, more
particularly in robust persons, often form a very prominent feature
in the effects of chloroform; and have sometimes caused the medical
man to discontinue the exhibition of chloroform, under the belief
that it did not agree with the constitution of the patient, and that its
further exhibition would be unsafe. The proper course to pursue is to
continue the inhalation gently, till the struggling and rigidity are
subdued. The patient is often insensible before these symptoms are
subdued, but it is necessary to have him quiet, in order to enable the
surgeon to operate with convenience and safety. I have always
succeeded in subduing the involuntary struggling and rigidity, but
have occasionally occupied five or six minutes in doing so. It is
desirable to proceed slowly and cautiously, because, when these
symptoms occur, the patient has already absorbed nearly the usual
quantity of chloroform, and he often holds his breath, and then takes
a sudden and deep inspiration, when he might inhale an overdose of
vapour, unless it were presented to him in a well diluted state.
When the rigidity and struggling are subdued, the breathing, in
some cases, becomes stertorous, and relaxation of the muscles takes
place, the limbs appearing quite flaccid; but by proceeding gently,
these effects may generally be avoided, and the patient becomes
quiet, whilst the breathing is natural, and the muscles are in a
moderate state of tension. If the operator should be afraid to proceed
with the exhibition of chloroform, on account of the violence of the
muscular spasm and rigidity, it will be satisfactory to him to know
that, if the inhalation is resumed in a few minutes, these symptoms
will be less violent than at first.
Struggling and rigidity are less likely to occur, when chloroform is
administered slowly, than under opposite circumstances; but it is
impossible to prevent these phenomena altogether in certain
patients. After they are once subdued, they but very rarely recur
during the operation; the patient, in most cases, seems to take on,
when he is subdued by the chloroform, the same relation to it that
women, children, and persons in a state of debility have from the
first. M. Chassaignac has called this condition one of tolerance of the
chloroform. It is a condition in which the patient bears both the
chloroform and the operation very comfortably; but tolerance of a
medicine is generally meant to imply that the patient can take it in
larger quantity than before. But this is the reverse of what occurs
when the patient is in a tranquil state from chloroform; he has
already absorbed a considerable quantity, which has most likely
penetrated deeply into the tissues, and he certainly does not require,
and could not bear, so much as in the earlier stage of inhalation,
where he is restless and breathing more quickly, and thus exhaling
and getting rid of the chloroform at a greater rate.
It might be a question whether the absence of muscular
excitement, in a number of cases, does not arise from the
circumstance that anæsthesia, or absence of common sensibility, is
obtained, and the operation performed, at a stage of narcotism
anterior to that in which the muscular rigidity and spasm occur. This
is true in a few cases, but I am satisfied by careful observation that,
in the greater number of instances in which muscular excitement is
absent, it would not occur at all, though the inhalation should be

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Beginning Breadboarding: Physical

Computing and the Basic Building

Beginning Breadboarding: Physical Computing and the

Learning the Art of Helping: Building Blocks and

Learning the Art of Helping: Building Blocks and

Chiral Building Blocks in Asymmetric Synthesis:

Beginning Azure Functions: Building Scalable and

Beginning Azure Functions: Building Scalable and

Beginning Helidon: Building Cloud-Native Microservices

Beginning Helidon: Building Cloud-Native Microservices

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9217-4 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9218-1

Copyright © 2023 by Jennifer Fox

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction, Supplies, and Circuit Diagrams���������������������1

Chapter 2: Paper Circuits��������������������������������������������������������������������25

Project 2-2: Playing with Voltage������������������������������������������������������������������������36

Chapter 3: Breadboards and Outputs�������������������������������������������������75

Schematic Symbol for a Speaker������������������������������������������������������������������96

Chapter 4: Controlling Electricity (Passive Components)�����������������113

How Is a Capacitor like a Flood Gate?���������������������������������������������������������142

Chapter 5: Interacting with Electricity via Buttons and Switches!

Chapter 6: Encoding Information into Electricity!

AND Logic Gate Schematic Symbol�������������������������������������������������������������192

FSR: Converting Touch into Electricity���������������������������������������������������������229

Chapter 8: Transistors: The Building Blocks of Computers!�������������249

P-cause We Can: P-Channel FETs (Optional)�����������������������������������������������������271

Chapter 9: Logic Gates Round 2!������������������������������������������������������281

Chapter 10: A Simple Computer!������������������������������������������������������323

How to Build a (Simple) Computer��������������������������������������������������������������������347

Appendix 1: Applied Project 1: Using a Multimeter!������������������������389

Appendix 2: Applied Project 2: Ohm’s Law!��������������������������������������407

Appendix 3: Applied Project 3: PCB Identification����������������������������429

1. To give you a behind-the-scenes look at the

© Jennifer Fox 2023 1

2. To provide you with some useful knowledge and

3. To enable you to bring your own wild ideas to life!

This book is a beginner-friendly introduction to electronics and

Figure 1-1. A half-size breadboard for building electronic circuits!

WHERE DOES THE TERM “BREADBOARD” COME FROM??

Engineers and hobbyists used to build circuits on wooden cutting boards

The breadboard is sometimes called a “plugboard” or “terminal array board.”

There are many benefits to building circuits on breadboards, including

Safety Rule 1: Short Circuits

1. Short-circuiting a battery or other source of

2. Short-circuiting a battery or other source of

Note: None of the batteries we will work with in

3. Short-circuiting a component can result in excess

Safety Rule 2: Right-Hand Rule

However, the right-hand rule is a last resort. Before touching

 afety Rule 3: What’s More Dangerous –

For these reasons, it is important to take electrical safety seriously

 afety Rule 4: Use the Right Tools

T ools and Materials

Table 1-1. Master Supply List

3 Breadboards (half size) Adafruit Product ID: 64

Table 1-1. (continued)

2 9V alkaline battery Adafruit Product ID: 1321

Table 1-1. (continued)

Table 1-1. (continued)

1 Multimeter Adafruit Product ID: 2034

Reading Circuit Diagrams

Circuit diagram A picture that shows us how to wire, or build, a

Figure 1-2 shows what a Fritzing diagram looks like.

About the Technical Reviewer��xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction, Supplies, and Circuit Diagrams��1

Chapter 2: Paper Circuits��25

Project 2-2: Playing with Voltage��36

Chapter 3: Breadboards and Outputs��75

Schematic Symbol for a Speaker��96

Chapter 4: Controlling Electricity (Passive Components)��113

How Is a Capacitor like a Flood Gate?��142

AND Logic Gate Schematic Symbol��192

FSR: Converting Touch into Electricity��229

Chapter 8: Transistors: The Building Blocks of Computers!��249

P-cause We Can: P-Channel FETs (Optional)��271

Chapter 9: Logic Gates Round 2!��281

Chapter 10: A Simple Computer!��323

How to Build a (Simple) Computer��347

Appendix 1: Applied Project 1: Using a Multimeter!��389

Appendix 2: Applied Project 2: Ohm’s Law!��407

Appendix 3: Applied Project 3: PCB Identification��429

Safety Rule 1: Short Circuits

Safety Rule 2: Right-Hand Rule

afety Rule 3: What’s More Dangerous –

afety Rule 4: Use the Right Tools

T ools and Materials

Reading Circuit Diagrams

What Other Information Is in This Diagram?

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