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i
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
About the Author
Prof. Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with an efficient technical expertise and
management skills. He obtained his BE in EEE from Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai,
and MS (Electronics and Control) through Distance Learning program of BITS, Pilani.
He started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986–1989) and then moved to teaching in
1989. He has worked as lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College (1989–1990) and as an Assistant
Professor in Sathyabama Engineering College (1990–1997). He started his own coaching centre for
BE students, named as Institute of Electrical Engineering and was renamed as RBA Tutorials in 2005.
He started his own companies in 1997 and his currently running companies are RBA Engineering
(manufacturing of lab equipment and microprocessor trainer kits), RBA Innovations (involved in
developing projects for engineering students and industries), RBA Tutorials (conducting coaching
classes for engineering and GATE students) and RBA Publications (publishing of engineering
books). His optimistic and innovative ideas brought up RBA GROUP successfully.
He is an eminent writer and till now he has authored thirteen engineering books which are popular
among engineering students. He is known by name through his books in all engineering colleges
in South India and in some colleges in North India.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
A. Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Circuit Analysis
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v
Dedicated to
Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

Elder Son, N. Bharath Raj
Younger Son, N. Vikram Raj
vi
vii
CONTENT
PREFACE.............................................................................................. xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................ xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY......... 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.1.1 Basic Phenomena........................................................................................... 1. 1
1.1.2 Ideal Elements ................................................................................................ 1. 1
1.1.3 Electric Circuits .............................................................................................. 1. 1
1.1.4 Units ................................................................................................................ 1. 4
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms.......................................................................... 1. 5
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values.............................. 1. 7
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis............................................. 1. 8
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory...................................................................... 1. 8
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks ................................................................ 1. 9
1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits............................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path................................................................. 1. 10
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections................................................. 1. 12
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit....................................................................... 1. 15
1.2.5 Sign Conventions ............................................................................................ 1. 16
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 17
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources............................................................................ 1. 17
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation............................................................................. 1. 18
1.2.9 Power and Energy............................................................................................ 1. 19
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws........................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law........................................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.4 Resistive Elements........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.1 Resistance........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source ............................................................. 1. 22
viii
1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel...................................................................................... 1. 23
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits........................................... 1. 23
1.4.6 Single Loop Circuit.......................................................................................... 1. 26
1.4.7 Single Node Pair Circuit.................................................................................. 1. 26
1.4.8 Solved Problems.............................................................................................. 1. 27
1.5 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 36
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 36
1.5.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage
and Current Sources........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.3 Supermesh Analysis........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)............................................................. 1. 68
1.5.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 75
1.6 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 86
1.6.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 87
1.6.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both
Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 105
1.6.3 Supernode Analysis......................................................................................... 1.106
1.6.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Node Analysis of Reactive Circuits).............................................................. 1. 120
1.6.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 124
1.7 Network Terminology................................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.1 Graph of a Network ......................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree.......................................................................... 1. 132
1.7.3 Network Variables .......................................................................................... 1. 134
1.7.4 Solution of Network Variables........................................................................ 1. 134
1.7.5 Link Currents (Independent Current Variables)............................................ 1. 135
1.7.6 Twig Voltages (Independent Voltage Variables)........................................... 1. 135
1.8 Incidence and Reduced Incidence Matrices............................................................... 1. 135
1.8.1 Network Analysis using Incidence Matrix..................................................... 1. 138
ix
1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

1.9.1 Fundamental Cut-Sets ................................................................................... 1. 143
1.9.2 Cut-Set Matrix and Cut-Set Schedule............................................................ 1. 148
1.9.3 Node Analysis Using Cut-Sets....................................................................... 1. 151
1.10 Tie-Set.......................................................................................................................... 1. 164
1.10.1 Tie-Set Matrix and Tie-Set Schedule............................................................. 1. 165
1.10.2 Mesh Analysis Using Tie-Sets....................................................................... 1. 168
1.11 Duality.......................................................................................................................... 1. 180
1.11.1 Dual Graphs.................................................................................................... 1. 181
1.11.2 Duality of Network.......................................................................................... 1. 184
1.12 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 1. 194
1.13 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 1. 200
1.14 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 1. 213
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.1 Network Reduction....................................................................................................... 2. 1
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel.................................................................. 2. 1
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 3
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 6
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel................................................................. 2. 8
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel............................................................... 2. 11
2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel ................................................................. 2. 14
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel .................................................................. 2. 16
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel ............................................................. 2. 17
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel ................................................................ 2. 19
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel .............................................................. 2. 22
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters... 2. 22
2.2 Voltage and Current Division ...................................................................................... 2. 25
2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances ....................................... 2. 25
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances ....................................... 2. 26
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances ..................................... 2. 26
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances..................................... 2. 27
2.3 Source Transformation ................................................................................................ 2. 28
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion.................................................................................................. 2. 29
x
2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 31
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction .................................................................... 2. 32
2.6 Network Theorems....................................................................................................... 2. 49
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................................ 2. 49
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem .................................................................................. 2. 76
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .............................................................. 2. 99
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem ....................................................................................... 2. 126
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit.................................... 2. 126
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit .................................... 2. 127
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem.......................................................................................... 2. 137
2.7 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 2. 141
2.8 Short-answer Questions .............................................................................................. 2. 144
2.9 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 2. 159
CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.1 AC Circuits.................................................................................................................... 3. 1
3.2 Sinusoidal Voltage........................................................................................................ 3. 1
3.2.1 Average Value................................................................................................... 3. 2
3.2.2 RMS Value........................................................................................................ 3. 2
3.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor........................................................................... 3. 3
3.3 Sinusoidal Current........................................................................................................ 3. 3
3.4 Inductance..................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.5 Capacitance................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains..................................... 3. 5
3.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance.......................................................... 3. 5
3.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance......................................................... 3. 6
3.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance....................................................... 3. 7
3.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain.............................................. 3. 8
3.8 Power, Energy and Power Factor................................................................................. 3. 8
3.9 Impedance..................................................................................................................... 3. 11
3.10 Solved Problems in AC Circuits.................................................................................. 3. 12
3.11 Resonance .................................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12 Series Resonance ......................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit ................................................. 3. 16
xi
3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

Series RLC Circuit ........................................................................................... 3. 17
3.12.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit ........................................... 3. 18
3.12.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit ................................................................... 3. 21
3.12.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 25
3.12.6 Variation of Voltage across L and C with Frequency..................................... 3. 26
3.12.7 Solved Problems in Series Resonance ........................................................... 3. 27
3.13 Parallel Resonance ...................................................................................................... 3. 32
3.13.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits ............................................... 3. 33
3.13.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in
Parallel RLC Circuit ......................................................................................... 3. 41
3.13.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit .......................................... 3. 42
3.13.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit ................................................................. 3. 45
3.13.5 Selectivity of Prallel RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 51
3.13.6 Variation of Current through L and C with Frequency.................................. 3. 52
3.13.7 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance.......................................................... 3. 53
3.14 Coupled Circuits ........................................................................................................... 3. 61
3.15 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance ..................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.1 Self-Inductance ................................................................................................ 3. 62
3.15.2 Mutual Inductance ........................................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.3 Coefficient of Coupling .................................................................................... 3. 64
3.16 Analysis of Coupled Coils ............................................................................................ 3. 65
3.16.1 Dot Rule ........................................................................................................... 3. 66
3.16.2 Expression for Self-and Mutual Induced EMFs in Various Domains .......... 3. 69
3.16.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils .................................................... 3. 70
3.16.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer) ................... 3. 71
3.16.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection
and Magnetic Coupling ................................................................................... 3. 74
3.16.6 Analysis of Multiwinding Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) ................. 3. 75
3.17 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) .................. 3. 76
3.17.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................... 3. 76
xii
3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

3.17.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................. 3. 78
3.17.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils ............................................ 3. 80
3.18 Tuned Coupled Circuits ................................................................................................ 3. 82
3.18.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits....................................................................... 3. 82
3.18.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits ...................................................................... 3. 87
3.19 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits .......................................................................... 3. 90
3.20 Summary of Important Concepts. ................................................................................ 3. 116
3.21 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 3. 123
3.22 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3. 134
CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Transient Response....................................................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.1 Natural and Forced Response .......................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits ...................................................................... 4. 2
4.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform............................................................. 4. 3
4.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions................................................................... 4. 3
4.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters............................................. 4. 5
4.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform.................... 4. 9
4.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit................................................................................ 4. 10
4.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit.............................................. 4. 10
4.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit
(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 11
4.3.3 Impulse Response of RL Circuit....................................................................... 4. 16
4.3.4 Response of RL Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal................................. 4. 18
4.3.5 RL Transient With Initial Current I0 ................................................................ 4. 19
4.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit ............................................................................... 4. 22
4.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit.............................................. 4. 22
4.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit
(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 24
4.4.3 Impulse Response of RC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 28
4.4.4 Response of RC Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal ................................. 4. 30
4.4.5 RC Transient With Initial Voltage V0 .............................................................. 4. 31
xiii
4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

4.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit............................................ 4. 35
4.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................... 4. 35
4.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit................................ 4. 42
4.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit ..................................................................... 4. 43
4.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 45
4.6 Complete Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source................................... 4. 47
4.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 47
4.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 49
4.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source....................................................... 4. 51
4.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient ................................................................................. 4. 53
4.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient................................................................................. 4. 69
4.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient .............................................................................. 4. 90
4.10 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 4. 100
4.11 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 4. 103
4.12 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 4. 106
CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.1 Two-Port Networks........................................................................................................ 5. 1
5.2 Parameters of a Two-Port Network............................................................................... 5. 2
5.3 Impedance Parameters (or Z-Parameters)..................................................................... 5. 6
5.4 Admittance Parameters (or Y-Parameters).................................................................... 5. 7
5.5 Transmission Parameters (or ABCD-Parameters)........................................................ 5. 8
5.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters (or A’B’C’D’-Parameters)........................................ 5. 9
5.7 Hybrid Parameters (or h-Parameters)............................................................................ 5. 10
5.8 Inverse Hybird Parameters (or g-Parameters) .............................................................. 5. 12
5.9 Relationship Between Parameter Sets.......................................................................... 5. 13
5.10 Properties of Two-Port Networks.................................................................................. 5. 19
5.11 Inter-Connection of Two-Port Networks....................................................................... 5. 19
5.12 T and P Networks.......................................................................................................... 5. 21
5.12.1 Symmetrical Properties of T and P Networks................................................. 5. 22
5.13 Solved Problems ............................................................................................................ 5. 24
xiv
5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

5.15 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 5. 61
5.16 Exercises......................................................................................................................... 5. 65
APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

APPENDIX 2 - IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ................................. A. 3
APPENDIX 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM ............................................................ A. 5
APPENDIX 4 - CRAMER’S RULE ..................................................................... A. 8
APPENDIX 5 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED
PARAMETERS ......................................................................... A. 10
APPENDIX 6 - STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION .............................................. A. 12
APPENDIX 7 - SUMMARY OF THEOREMS ........................................................ A. 13
APPENDIX 8 - IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE....................... A. 14
APPENDIX 9 - PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS ............................................... A. 15
APPENDIX 10 - ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS ........................... A. 16
APPENDIX 11 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED
COUPLED COILS....................................................................... A. 17
APPENDIX 12 - INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED
BY DC SUPPLY......................................................................... A. 18
APPENDIX 13 - R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V-I RELATIONS IN
VARIOUS DOMAINS ................................................................. A. 19
APPENDIX 14 - SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK .............. A. 20
APPENDIX 15 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAMETER SETS .............................. A. 21
APPENDIX 16 - TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS OF T AND P-NETWORK....... A. 22
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS............................................................... Q. 1
INDEX.............................................................................................................. I. 1
xv
Preface
The main objective of this book is to explore the basic concepts of Circuit Analysis in a simple
and easy-to-understand manner.
This text on Circuit Analysis has been crafted and designed to meet students’ requirements.
Considering the highly mathematical nature of this subject, more emphasis has been given on
the problem-solving methodology. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate mathematical
derivations in a step-by-step manner. Exercise problems with varied difficulty levels are given in
the text to help students get an intuitive grasp on the subject.
This book, with its lucid writing style and germane pedagogical features, will prove to be a master
text for engineering students and practitioners.
Salient Features
The salient features of this book are:
- Proof of important concepts and theorems are clearly highlighted by shaded boxes
- Wherever required, problems are solved using multiple methods
- Additional explanations for solutions and proofs are provided in separate boxes
- Different types of fonts are used for text, proof and solved problems for better clarity
- Keywords are highlighted by bold and italic fonts
- Easy, concise and accurate study material
- Extremely precise edition where concepts are reinforced by pedagogy
- Demonstration of multiple techniques in problem solving-additional explanations and
proofs highlighted
- Ample figures and examples to enhance students’ understanding
- Practice through MCQ’s
- Pedagogy:
. Solved Numerical Examples: 232
. Short-answer Questions: 228
. Figures: 1517
. Practice Problems: 143
. Review Questions (T/F): 117
. MCQs: 139
. Fill in the blanks: 118
xvi
Organization of the Book

This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Analysis for engineering students. The
book is organized into five chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and transient
state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the book, carefully
chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the concepts
discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit analysis,
standard symbols and units used in circuit analysis. The basic concepts of circuits are also presented
in this chapter. The mesh and node analyses of circuits are discussed with special attention on
dependent sources.
The second half of Chapter 1 is devoted to basic concepts of network topology with detailed
explanation about formation of tie-sets and cut-sets, and development of mesh and node analyses
from tie-sets and cut-sets. The concepts of dual graph and dual circuits are presented at the end
of the chapter.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2. The analysis of circuits using theorems is also presented in this Chapter.
Chapter 3 starts with fundamental concepts of AC circuits which is a prerequisite for
understanding resonance and coupled circuits. The concepts of resonance are discussed in detail
in this chapter. The analysis of coupled circuits is also discussed.
The transient analysis of circuits is explained in Chapter 4 through Laplace transform.
Transient analysis of circuits excited by impulse, step and exponential signals is also presented in
the chapter.
The concept of two-port network parameters and its properties are presented in Chapter 5.
The relationship between various two-port parameters and symmetrical properties of T and
P network is also presented in this chapter.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of electric circuits. Hence
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book. All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers to
practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Online Learning Center
The OLC of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nagoorkani/ca/au
The author hopes that the teaching and student community will welcome the book. The readers
can feel free to convey their criticism and suggestions to kani@vsnl.com for further improvement
of the book.
A. Nagoor Kani
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
xvii
acknowledgement
I express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani, and
my sons, N. Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N. Vikram Raj, for the support,
encouragement and cooperation they have extended to me throughout my career. I thank
Ms. T. A. Benazir for the affection and care extended during my day-to-day activities.
I am grateful to Ms. C. Mohana Priya for her passion in book work and typesetting
of the manuscript and preparing the layout of the book. It is my pleasure to acknowledge
the contributions of our technical editors, Ms. E. R. Suhasini and Ms. R. Jenniefer Sherine,
for editing and proofreading of the book. I thank all my office staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
My sincere thanks to all the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments
which helped me to explore the subject to a greater depth.
I am also grateful to Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Mr. Hemant K Jha, Ms. Vaishali Thapliyal,
Mr. Ganesh, Mr. Asarab, Mr. Satinder Singh and Ms. Taranpreet Kaur, of McGraw Hill
Education (India) for their concern and care in publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends,
students and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement
to my writing.
A. Nagoor Kani
xviii
xix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
i(0+) - Current at t = 0+
i(0−) - Current at t = 0–
i(∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
i(t) - Current in time domain
xx
ζ - Damping ratio
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
i, i(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
iC - Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
iL - Instantaneous value of current through inductor
iR - Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
xxi
vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

vL - Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
vR - Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
v, v(t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
 - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
OC - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
xxii
pf - Power factor
φ - Power factor angle
P - Power or Active power
PC - Pressure Coil
Q - Quality factor
Qr - Quality factor at resonance
rad/s - Radians/second
X - Reactance
Q - Reactive Power
R - Resistance
ρ - Resistivity
fr - Resonance frequency
s - Second
SC - Short circuit
S - Siemen
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
RS - Source Resistance
B - Susceptance
T - Tesla
t - Time
τ - Time constant
V - Volt
VAR - Volt-Ampere-Reactive
V - Voltage
v(0 +) - Voltage at t = 0+
v(0−) - Voltage at t = 0−
v(∞) - Voltage at t = ∞
V ( jx ) , V - Voltage in frequency domain
V(s) - Voltage in Laplace domain
W - Watt
W-h - Watt-hour
W-s - Watt-second
Wb - Weber/Weber-turn
Chapter 1
BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

NETWORK TOPOLGY
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks
1.1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
1.1.2 Ideal Elements
The ideal resistor offers opposition only to the flow of current. The property of opposition
to the flow of current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
The ideal inductor offers opposition only to change in current (or flux). The property of
opposition to change in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
The ideal capacitor offers opposition only to change in voltage (or charge). The property
of opposition to change in voltage is called capacitance and it is denoted by C.
1.1.3 Electric Circuits
The behaviour of a device to electric current can be best understood if it is modelled using
the fundamental elements R, L and C. For example, an incandescent lamp and a water heater can
be modelled as ideal resistance. Transformers and motors can be modelled using resistance and
inductance.
Practically, an electric circuit is a model of a device operated by electrical energy. The
various concepts and methods used for analysing a circuit is called circuit theory. A typical circuit
consists of sources of electrical energy and ideal elements R, L and C. The practical energy sources
are batteries, generators (or alternators), rectifiers, transistors, op-amps, etc. The various elements
of electric circuits are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2.
1. 2 Circuit Analysis
Elements of Electric Circuits
Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

DC (Direct Current) Sources
DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-
Dependent DC Voltage Source

mVx
Voltage Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,
Dependent DC Current Source

GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled DC Current Source,
AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,
AC (Alternating Current) Sources
AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,
Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 3
Elements of Electric Circuits
Parameters or Loads Energy Sources
Fundamental Parameters
R
Resistance,
Inductance
L
Self-Inductance,
Mutual Inductance, M
C
Capacitance,
Derived Parameters
± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC
Z = R ± jX
Impedance,
Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,
1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL
+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,
Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX
Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore, energy
sources are active elements. Elements which dissipate or store energy are called passive elements.
Resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy in a magnetic field, and
capacitance stores energy in an electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is called a passive
circuit or network.
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. Transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy used to supply electrical energy to various devices
like lamps, fans, motors, etc., are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied is
called power. Power, in turn, is the product of voltage and current.
Circuit analysis relies on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to other. Therefore,
the total energy/power in a circuit is zero.
1.1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering applications, large values are
expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The commonly
used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 : Units and Symbols
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Table 1.1: Continued...
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -
Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

square
density
o
Temperature - Kelvin K - -
Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units
Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor factor
1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

9 −2
10 giga G 10 centi c
6 −3
10 mega M 10 milli m
103 kilo k 10 − 6 micro µ
2 −9
10 hecto h 10 nano n
101 deca da 10 −12 pico p
−15
10 femto f
10 −18 atto a
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

The definitions of various terms that are associated with electrical energy like energy, power,
current, voltage, etc., are presented in this section.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It can also be defined as stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms, such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, light,
chemical, etc. It is measured in joules, which is denoted by J (or the unit of energy
is joules).
In electrical engineering, one joule is defined as the energy required to transfer a power of
one watt in one second to a load (or Energy = Power ´ Time). Therefore, 1 J = 1 W-s.
In mechanical engineering, one joule is the energy required to move a mass of 1 kg
through a distance of 1 m with a uniform acceleration of 1 m/s2.
Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
Power : Power is the rate at which work is done (or it is the rate of energy transfer). The unit of
power is watt and denoted by W. If energy is transferred at the rate of one joule per
second then one watt of power is generated.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
dw dw dq
Also, p = = # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
Charge : Charge is the characteristic property of elementary particles of matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it has equal number of electrons and protons.
The particle is called charged if some electrons are either added or removed from it.
If electrons are added then the particle is called negatively charged. If electrons are
removed then the particle is called positively charged.The unit used for measurement
of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which when placed
in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre repels it
with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence,
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
Current : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. One
ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
where, Q = Charge flowing at a constant rate
t = Time
dq = Change in charge in a time of dt
dt = Time required to produce a change in charge dq
Voltage : Every charge will have potential energy. The difference in potential energy
between the charges is called potential difference. In electrical terminology, the
potential difference is called voltage. Potential difference indicates the amount of
work done to move a charge from one place to another. Voltage is expressed in volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points, when one joule of energy
is utilised in transfering one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A steady voltage can be expressed as,
Energy
Voltage, V = = W .....(1.6)
Charge Q
A time varying voltage can be expressed as,
Instantaneous voltage, v = dw .....(1.7)
dq
Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

1C 1 C/s 1A
` Voltage, V = Power = P .....(1.9)
Current I
One volt is also defined as the difference in electric potential between two points
along a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is one watt.
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values
The quantities like voltage, current, power and energy may be constant or varying with
respect to time. For a time varying quantity we can define the value of the quantity as instantaneous,
average, rms and maximum value. The symbols used for these values are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 : Symbols of DC and AC Variables
AC or Time varying
Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

value value value value or
Vectors
Current I i Iave Im or Ip I I
Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V
Power P p P Pm - S
Energy W w W Wm - -
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

Circuit analysis can be classified into steady state analysis and transient analysis. The analysis
of circuits during switching conditions is called transient analysis. During switching conditions,
the current and voltage change from one value to the other. In purely resistive circuits this may not
be a problem because the resistance will allow sudden change in voltage and current.
In inductive circuits, the current cannot change instantaneously. In capacitive circuits, the
voltage cannot change instantaneously. Hence, when the circuit is switched from one state to the
other, the voltage and current cannot attain a steady value instantaneously in inductive or capacitive
circuits. Therefore, during switching conditions there will be a small period during which the current
and voltage will change from an initial value to a final steady value. The time from the instant of
switching to the attainment of steady value is called transient period. Physically, the transient can
be realised in switching of tubelights, fans, motors, etc.
In certain circuits, the transient period is negligible and we may be interested only in steady
value of the response. Therefore, steady state analysis is sufficient. The analysis of circuits under
steady state (i.e., by neglecting the transient period) is called steady state analysis. Steady state
analysis of circuits is discussed in this book in all chapters except Chapter 4.
In certain circuits the transient period is critical and we may require the response of the circuit
during the transient period. Some practical examples where transient analysis is vital are starters,
circuit breakers, relays, etc. Transient analysis of circuits is discussed in Chapter 4.
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

In circuit analysis the elements of the circuit are assumed to be linear, bilateral and lumped
elements.
In linear elements, the voltage-current characteristics are linear and the circuit consisting of
linear elements is called linear circuit or network. The resistor, inductor and capacitor are linear
elements. Some elements exhibit non-linear characteristics. For example, diodes and transistors
have non-linear voltage-current characteristics, capacitance of a varactor diode is non-linear
and inductance of an inductor with hysteresis is non-linear. For analysis purpose, the non-linear
characteristics can be linearised over a certain range of operation.
In a bilateral element, the relationship between voltage and current will be the same for
two possible directions of current through the element. On the other hand, a unilateral element
will have different voltage-current characteristics for the two possible directions of current through
the element. The diode is an example of a unilateral element.
In practical devices like transmission lines, windings of motors, coils, etc., the parameters
(R, L and C) are distributed in nature. But for analysis purpose we assume that the parameters
are lumped (i.e., concentrated at one place). This approximation is valid only for low frequency
operations and it is not valid in the microwave frequency range. All analysis in this book is based
on the assumption that the elements are linear, bilateral and lumped elements.
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits
Circuits and Networks
An electric circuit consists of Resistors (R), Inductors (L), Capacitors (C), voltage sources
and/or current sources connected in a particular combination. When the sources are removed from
a circuit, it is called a network.
R1 R1
+
L R2 C L R2 C
E ~
E
Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. 1.3 : Example of circuit and network.
DC Circuits
The networks excited by dc sources are called dc circuits. In a dc source, the voltage and
current do not change with time. Hence, the property of capacitance and inductance will not arise
in steady state analysis of dc circuits.This chapter deals with steady state analysis of dc circuits.
Therefore, only resistive circuits are discussed in this chapter.
Active and Passive Elements
The elements of a circuit can be classified into active elements and passive elements. The
elements which can deliver energy are called active elements. The elements which consume energy
either by absorbing or storing are called passive elements.
The active elements are voltage and current sources. The sources can be of different nature.
The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called direct current
sources or in short dc sources. (But in dc sources, the current/voltage changes with load). The
sources in which the current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal sources
or alternating current sources or in short ac sources.
The passive elements of a circuit are resistors, inductors and capacitors, which exhibit the
property of resistance, inductance and capacitance, respectively under ideal conditions. Resistance,
inductance and capacitance are called fundamental parameters of a circuit. Practically, these
parameters will be distributed in nature. For example, the resistance of a transmission line will exist
throughout its length. But for circuit analysis, the parameters are considered as lumped.
The resistor absorbs energy (and the absorbed energy is converted into heat). The inductor
and the capacitor store energy. When the power supply in the circuit is switched ON, the inductor
and the capacitor store energy, and when the supply is switched OFF, the stored energy leaks away
in the leakage path. (Hence, inductors and capacitors cannot be used as storage devices).
+ +
+ Is
E - E E = EÐq ~ Is = Is Ðq ~
- -
Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

source. source. source. source.
Vs + Is L
-
R C
Vs = RI or A vV Is = GV or A II
Fig. e : Dependent Fig. f : Dependent Fig. g : Fig. h : Fig. i :
voltage source. current source. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance.
Fig. 1.4 : Symbols of active and passive elements of circuits.
Independent and Dependent Sources
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. The electrical energy
supplied by an independent source does not depend on another electrical source. Independent
sources convert energy in some form into electrical energy. For example, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy,
a solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy, a thermocouple converts heat energy into
electrical energy, etc.
The electrical energy supplied by a dependent source depends on another source of electrical
energy. For example, the output signal (energy) of a transistor or op-amp depends on the input
signal (energy), where the input signal is another source of electrical energy.
In the circuit sense, the voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/
current in any part of the circuit. But the voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the
voltage/current in some part of the same circuit.
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path
A typical circuit consists of lumped parameters, such as resistance, inductance, capacitance and
sources of electrical energy like voltage and current sources connected through resistance-less wires.
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then it is called the principal node.
The path between any two nodes is called a branch. A branch may have one or more elements
connected in series.
A closed path is a path which starts at a node and travels through some part of the circuit
and arrives at the same node without crossing a node more than once.
The nodes, branches and closed paths of a typical circuit are shown in Fig. 1.5. The nodes
of the circuit are the meeting points of the elements denoted as A, B, C, D, E and F. The nodes A,
B, C and D are principal nodes because these nodes are meeting points of more than two elements.
E2 R3
+ E
F
E2 R3 A
+ C
E
A R2 B R4
F B C
R2 B R4 B
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R6 R5 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D D
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3
+ E
R2 B R4 R1
R2 R4 R5 R6
E
A C + +
E1 E1
R1 R5 E E
R6 D
E2 R3
+ E
F
Fig. c : Nodes of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3 E2 R3
+ E + E
F F
R2 B B R4 E2 R3
A C A C + E
F
R1 R2 R4
B
R5 R6 R5 A C
E
+
E1
E
E2 R3
D D + E
F
R2 B B R4
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R5 R6 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D
Fig. d : Closed paths of the circuit in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.5 : A typical circuit and its branches, nodes and closed paths.
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

The various types of connections that we may encounter in electric circuits are series,
parallel, star and delta connections.
Series Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the current through them is the same then
the connection is called a series connection. In a circuit if the current in a path is the same then
the elements in that path are said to be in series.
R1 R2 R3 I L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3
I I
Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

series. in series. in series.
V1 V2 V3 L C
I I R L I R C I R
E + E + E +
Fig. d : Voltage Fig. e : Resistance and Fig. f : Resistance and Fig. g : Resistance,
sources in series. inductance in series. capacitance in series. inductance and
capacitance in series.
Fig. 1.6 : Examples of series connected elements.
Ic
Ic
R3 L
R3 L
Ib R2 R4
B Id A C
A C A C
Ia Ie If Ia If
R1 R1
R5 R6 R6
+ +
~ E ~ E
E E
R7 D C R7 D D C
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 1.7 : A typical circuit and its series paths.
Parallel Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the voltage across them is the same then
the connection is called a parallel connection. In a circuit if the voltage across two or more paths
is the same then, they are said to be in parallel.
+ + + +
V R1 R2 R3 V L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3 V R L
V
E E E E
Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

in parallel. in parallel. in parallel.
+ +
V R C V R L C I1 I2 I3
E E
Fig. e : R and C in parallel. Fig. f : R, L and C in parallel. Fig. g : Current sources in parallel.
Fig. 1.8 : Examples of parallel connected elements.
+ R1 R2 + R2 + R1
E ~ E ~ R1 E ~ R2
E E E
L C C L
Fig. a : The voltage source, series Fig. b : The voltage source, Resistance Fig. c : The voltage source,
combination of R1 and L and series R1 and series combination of R2 series combination of R1 and L
combination of R2 and C are in parallel. and C are in parallel. and resistance R2 are in parallel.
Fig. 1.9 : Simple circuits with parallel branches.
R6 G L
R2 R3 R3
B B B
A C C
R6 L +
G
R1
F R4 R5 R4 R5
V BD
+ VAC
E ~ + _
C A C C _
E
D A C D
E R2 B R3 E D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : The path AGC is parallel Fig. c : The path BCD is parallel
to the path ABC. to the path BED.
R2 R3
R2 A B B C
A B
A A C
+ _ B B _
+ VAB + VBC
R1 R1
F V AE R4 F R4 R4 R5
+ +
E ~ _ E
E E
~ C
E D
E E E
Fig. d : The path ABE is Fig. e : The path AFEB is parallel Fig. f : The path BEDC is parallel
parallel to the path AFE. to the resistance R2 . to the resistance R3 .
Fig. 1.10 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
R1 R3 R5 R5 D
A B C D CC
+
+
R4 VCE R6
E R2 R4 R6
E
_
E E E EE E
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

combination of R5 and R6.
B B R3 C R1
A B B
+ +
+
R2 VBE R4 VBE
E R2
E
_ _
E E E E E
Fig. c : The path BCE is in parallel Fig. d : The path EAB is in parallel
to resistance R2 . to resistance R2 .
Fig. 1.11 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
Star-Delta Connection 1
R1 R2
N
R1 1 2
If three elements are connected
N
to meet at a node then the three R3 R2
R3
elements are said to be in a star 2
connection. If three elements with 3

3 3
a node in between any two elements Fig. a : Star connection. Fig. b : T-connection.
are connected to form a closed path 1 1
then they are said to be in a delta 1 2
R1 R2 R2
connection. The star connection
R1 R3
is also called T-connection and 3 2
R3 2
delta connection is also called 3 3
3
P-connection.
Fig. c : Delta connection. Fig. d : -connection.
Fig. 1.12 : Basic star and delta connections.
R5 R5
R1 B R3 R1 B R3 B R3
A C A C A C
+
E R2 R4 R2 R4
E
D D D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

R5 R3
B
C
R1 B R3 R2 R4
A C
D
Fig. c : Delta connections in circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.13 : A typical circuit and its star and delta connections.
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

In a circuit if there is an open path or path of infinite resistance between two nodes then
that path is called an open circuit (OC). Since current can flow only in closed paths, the current
in the open circuit will be zero.
2 5
A A
A 1
Circuit OC 10 V +E 4 OC OC
N1
B 20 V +E
B B
1 3
Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).
While applying KVL to closed paths, the open circuit can be included as an element of
infinite resistance in the path because a voltage exists across the two open nodes of a circuit.
In a circuit if there is a closed path of zero resistance between two nodes then it is called
short circuit (SC). Since the resistance of the short circuit is zero, the voltage across the short
circuit is zero.
2 5 A A
A
1
Circuit I SC 10 V +E 4 SC SC
N1
20 V +E
B
3 B B
1
Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).
In a circuit if there are elements parallel to a short circuit then they will not carry any
current because the current will prefer the path of least resistance (or opposition) and so the entire
current will flow through the short circuit. Hence, the elements parallel to a short circuit need not
be considered for analysis as shown in the example circuit of Fig. 1.16.
1W 2W A 4W 2W 1W 2W A
10 V +- 2W SC 1W 1W Þ +
10 V - 2W SC
B B
2W A 2W A
5 V +- 3W 4W SC 5 V +- SC
Þ
6W
B B
6W
Fig. 1.16 : Examples of short circuit.
1.2.5 Sign Conventions

The elements of a circuit are two terminal elements. When a circuit is excited (i.e., power
supply is switched ON) a voltage is developed across the two terminals of the element such that
one end is positive and the other end is negative, and a current flows through the element. When
an element delivers energy, the current leaves the element from the positive terminal and when an
element absorbs energy, the current enters at the positive terminal.
In a circuit, normally the sources deliver energy and the passive elements−resistance,
inductance and capacitance absorb energy. Therefore, in a voltage/current source, when it delivers
energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal. In the parameters R, L and C, the current
enters at the positive terminal when they absorb energy.
I I I
+ + + +
+
E E I V R V L V C V
E E E E
Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

source source Resistance absorbing absorbing energy.
delivering energy. delivering energy. absorbing energy. energy.
Fig. 1.17 : Sign conventions for sources when they deliver energy
and parameters when they absorb energy.
A chargeable battery is the best example I
for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

E
V
I
and absorption by sources. When the battery +
is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

the battery is charged, it absorbs energy. When a Fig. a :Voltage source Fig. b : Current source
absorbing energy.
source absorbs energy, the current enters the source absorbing energy.
at the positive terminal, as shown in Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 : Sign conventions for sources when
they absorb energy.
The resistance always absorbs energy but
the inductance and capacitance can deliver the stored energy temporarily. The inductance and
capacitance store energy when the supply is switched ON and when the supply is switched OFF
the stored energy is discharged in the available paths or leakage paths. When the inductance and
capacitance discharge energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal as shown in Fig. 1.19.
I I
+ +
L V C V
E E
Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.

Fig. 1.19 : Sign conventions for inductance and capacitance parameters when they discharge energy.
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources

Voltage and current are two quantities that decide the energy supplied by the sources of
electrical energy. Usually, the sources are operated by maintaining one of the two quantities as
constant and by allowing the other quantity to vary depending on the load.
When voltage is maintained constant and current is allowed to vary, the source is called a
voltage source. When current is maintained constant and voltage is allowed to vary, the source is
called a current source.
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources
In ideal conditions the voltage across an ideal voltage source should be constant for
whatever current is delivered by the source. Similarly, the ideal current source should deliver a
constant current for whatever voltage across its terminals.
Is
E
I
+
+ V
E E Is
E
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of an ideal voltage source. Fig. b : Characteristics of an ideal current source.
Fig. 1.20 : Characteristics of ideal sources.
In reality, ideal conditions never exist (but for analysis purpose, the sources can be
considered ideal). In a practical voltage source, the voltage across the source decreases with
increasing load current and the reduction in voltage is due to its internal resistance. In a practical
current source, the current delivered by the source decreases with increasing load voltage and
the reduction in current is due to its internal resistance.
E Is
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of a practical Fig. b : Characteristics of a practical

voltage source. current source.
Fig. 1.21 : Characteristics of practical sources.
Let, Es = Voltage across ideal source (or internal voltage of the source)
Is = Current delivered by ideal source (or current generated by the source)
V = Voltage across the terminals of the source
I = Current delivered through the terminals of the source
Rs = Source resistance (or internal resistance).
A practical voltage source can be IRs I
V, E
+ E
considered as a series combination of an ideal +
Rs
voltage source and a source resistance, Rs. The E Vs I
E +E
}IRs
reduction in voltage across the terminals with V VV
sI
increasing load current is due to the voltage drop
E
in the source resistance. When the value of source I
resistance is zero, the ideal condition is achieved in V = E E IRs

voltage sources. Hence, “the source resistance for Fig. 1.22 : A practical dc voltage source.
an ideal voltage source is zero”.
Is, I
I
A practical current source can be +
Ish
considered as a parallel combination of an ideal Is Vs V
current source and a source resistance, Rs. The Is Rs I Vs

}Ish
V V
reduction in current delivered by the source is
due to the current drawn by the parallel source E V
resistance. When the value of source resistance is I = Is E Ish
infinite, the ideal condition is achieved in current Fig. 1.23 : A practical dc current source.
sources. Hence, “the source resistance for an ideal
current source is infinite”.
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation

A practical voltage source can be converted into an equivalent practical current source and
vice versa, with the same terminal behaviour. In these conversions the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be the same as that of the original source, so that the power
delivered to a load connected at the terminals of original and equivalent source is the same.
Rs
A A
+ + +
IRs - I Ish I
E +- V RL Þ Is Rs V RL
- -
B Is = E/Rs B
Fig. a : Voltage source. Fig. b : Equivalent current source of the

voltage source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.24 : Conversion of voltage source to current source.
A voltage source with series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 1.24. Similarly, a current source with parallel resistance
can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with series resistance as shown in Fig. 1.25.
The proof for source conversions are presented in Chapter 2.
A Rs
A
+ + - +
V I IRs I
Rs
Is Rs V RL Þ E +- V RL
- -
B E = Is R s B
Fig. a : Current source. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source of the

current source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.25 : Conversion of current source to voltage source.
1.2.9 Power and Energy

Power is the rate at which work is done or it is the rate of energy transfer.
Let, w = Instantaneous value of energy
q = Instantaneous value of charge.
dq
Now, Instantaneous power, p = dw = dw #
dt dq dt Refer equations
dq (1.5) and (1.7).
We know that, dw = v and = i
dq dt
` p = vi
Therefore, power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by dc sources,
the voltage and current are constant and so the power is constant. This constant power is called
average power or power and it is denoted by P.
\ In DC circuits,
Power, P = VI
Power is the rate of work done and Energy is the total work done. Hence, energy is given
by the product of power and time. When time is expressed in seconds, the unit of energy is watt-
second and when the time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
\ Energy, E = P t in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of electrical energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy
is called one unit.
` Energy, E = Pt in kWh
1000 # 3600
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws

The three fundamental laws that govern the electric circuit are Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (or voltage) across any two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing between the two ends provided the temperature of the conductor remains constant.
The constant of proportionality is the resistance R of the conductor.
\V a I ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.10)
From equation (1.10), we can say that when a current I flows through a resistance R, the
voltage V, across the resistance is given by the product of current and resistance.
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) (AU Dec’15, 2 Marks)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero.
∑I=0
I4
Hence, we can say that current cannot stay at a point. While
applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to a node we have to R4
Node
assign polarity or sign (i.e., + or −) for the current entering and
leaving that node. Let us assume that the currents entering the I1 R1 R3 I3
node are negative and currents leaving the node are positive. R2
With reference to Fig. 1.26, we can say that currents I1 and

I2
I2 are entering the node and the currents I3 and I4 are leaving the
node.Therefore, by Kirchhoff’s Current Law we can write, Fig. 1.26 : Currents in a node.
−I1 − I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
∴ I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 ..... (1.11)
From equation (1.11), we can say “the sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving that node”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems using KCL.
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

C R2 D R3 I E
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of + E + E
IR2 IR3
voltages in a closed path is zero. I
+
E
IR4 R4
∑V=0 R1 IR1
+ E
A closed path may have voltage rises and voltage falls B F

+ E
when it is traversed or traced in a particular direction.While E1 E2
IR5
+ +
applying KVL to a closed path we have to assign polarity E E
A I G
R5
or sign (i.e., + or -) to voltage fall and rise. Let us assume
Fig. 1.27 : A circuit with a single
voltage rise as positive and voltage fall as negative. closed path.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.27. Let us trace the circuit in the direction of
current I. In the closed path ABCDEFGA, the voltage rise are E1 and E2 and voltage fall are IR1,
IR2, IR3, IR4 and IR5.
Therefore, by KVL we can write,
E1 + E2 - IR1 - IR2 - IR3 - IR4 - IR5 = 0
∴ E1 + E2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5 ..... (1.12)

From equation (1.12) we can say “the sum of voltage rise in a closed path is equal to the
sum of voltage fall in that closed path”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems
using KVL.
1.4 Resistive Elements
The devices that can be operated by electrical energy can be modelled by fundamental
parameters R, L and C. In certain devices L and C are negligible and such devices can be
modelled by pure resistance and so can be called resistive elements. Examples of such devicces
are incandescent lamp, water heater, ironbox and copper and aluminium wires.
1.4.1 Resistance (AU May’15, 2 Marks)
Resistance is the property of an element (or matter) which opposes the flow of current
(or electrons). The current carrying element is called a conductor. The resistance of a conductor
(in the direction of current flow) is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional
to the area of cross section a.
` Resistance, R α l
a
The proportionality constant is the resistivity r of the material of the conductor.
ρl
` R =
a
The unit of resistivity is ohm-metre(Ω-m). The resistivity of a material at a given temperature
is constant. For example, the resistivity of copper is 1.72 ´ 10–8 W-m and that of aluminium is
2.69 ´ 10−8 Ω-m at 20o C.
The resistance of a conductor is distributed Lumped resistance
throughout the length of the conductor. For analysis R
purpose, the resistance is assumed to be concentrated

at one place, which is called lumped resistance. For
connecting the lumped resistance to the other part resistance-less wire
of the circuit, resistance-less wires are connected to Fig. 1.28 : A lumped resistance with
its ends as shown in Fig. 1.28. (Normally, the term resistance-less wires connected to its ends.
resistance in circuit theory refers only to lumped
resistance).
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source

Consider a resistance R connected to dc source of voltage V volts as shown in Fig. 1.29.
Since the resistance is connected across (or parallel to) the source, the voltage across the resistance
is also V volts.
By Ohm’s law, the current through the resistance is given by,
I = V ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.13)
R I
Power in the resistance, P = VI ..... (1.14)

+
Using equation (1.13), equation (1.14) can also be written as, V E
+ V R
2 E
P = VI = V # V = V and P = VI = IR ´ I = I2 R
R R
2 Fig. 1.29 : Resistance
` Power, P = VI or P = V or P = I2 R connected to a DC source.
R
1.4.3 Resistance in Series

R1 R2 Req = R1 + R2
Consider a circuit with + E + E
IR1 IR2
series combination of two
resistances R 1 and R 2 connected
to a dc source of voltage V as I
I
shown in Fig.1.30(a). Let the +
V
E + E
V
current through the circuit be I. Fig. a : Resistances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.30 : Resistances in series.
It can be proved that the
series-connected resistances R 1 and R 2 can be replaced by an equivalent resistance R eq given by
the sum of individual resistances R 1 and R 2 as shown in Fig. 1.30(b). The proof for resistance in
series is presented in Chapter 2.
Voltage Division in Series Connected Resistances

R1 R2
Equations (1.15) and (1.16) given below can be used I
+ +
to determine the voltages across series connected resistances V1
E
V2
E
shown in Fig. 1.31 in terms of total voltage across the series

combination and the values of individual resistances. Hence,
these equations are called voltage division rule. The proof for
+E
voltage division rule is presented in Chapter 2. V
Fig. 1.31 : Resistances in series.
V1 = V # R1 .....(1.15)
R1 + R2
V2 = V # R2 .....(1.16)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the voltage division rule.
In two series connected resistances,
Total voltage across Value of the
#
series combination resistance
Voltage across one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel I

I1 I2
Consider a circuit with two resistances in parallel + +
V + V R1 V R2
and connected to a dc source of voltage V as shown in E
E E
Fig. 1.32(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and
I 1 and I2 be the current through R1 and R2, respectively. Since
Fig. a : Resistances in parallel.
the resistances are parallel to the source, the voltage across I
them will be the same.
+
V +
eq V R
It can be proved that the inverse of the equivalent E
E 1 R R
Req a a 1 2
resistance of parallel connected resistances is equal to the 1
C
1 R1 C R2
R1 R2
sum of the inverse of individual resistances. The proof for Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
resistance in parallel is presented in Chapter 2. Fig. 1.32 : Resistances in parallel.
Current Division in Parallel Connected Resistances
I
Equations (1.17) and (1.18) given below can be used to
I1 I2
determine the currents in parallel connected resistances shown in
Fig. 1.33 in terms of total current drawn by the parallel + +
+
V E V R1 V R2
combination and the values of individual resistances.
Hence, these equations are called current division rule.
E E
The proof for current division rule is presented in Chapter 2.

I1 = I # R2 .....(1.17) Fig. 1.33 : Resistances
R1 + R2 in parallel.
I2 = I # R1 .....(1.18)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the current division rule.
In two parallel connected resistances,
Total current drawn by Value of the
#
parallel combination other resistance
Current through one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits

A typical circuit consists of a series-parallel connection of passive elements like resistance,
inductance and capacitance and excited by voltage/current sources. The sources circulate current
through all the elements of the circuit. Due to current flow, a voltage exists across each element
of the circuit.
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class, the other regent might form those that had been kept back, and
qualified newcomers with them, into a properly sequent first class;
and so the routine would be established. The advice was adopted;
and, on Rollock’s recommendation, the person chosen to be
Humanity teacher in the meantime, and second regent in regular
course, was a Mr. Duncan Nairne, a young man from Glasgow
University. Thus all was arranged; and the work of the first session of
the University of Edinburgh proceeded,—Rollock teaching his
“Bajans,” and Nairne following with the ragged troop whom he was
working up in Latin to fit them for the “Bajan” class of next year.
The “session” in each of the Scottish universities extended then
over ten, or even eleven, months of every year, i.e. from the
beginning of October to, or well into, August. The practice was for
the students, or a proportion of them, to reside within the University
walls; and, though this practice soon fell into disuse in Edinburgh, it
held good at first so far that at least some of the students were
boarded and lodged in some rough fashion within the College. The
original regulation also was that students should wear academic
costume; but against this regulation Edinburgh opinion seems from
the first to have set its face most determinedly. It was never really
obeyed.
The infant years of the University were years of trial and rough
usage. In the jars between the different political factions round the
young King, and struggling for the possession of him, the infant
institution was much shaken and disturbed. The Magistrates and
Town Council, however, did their best; and Rollock was persevering
and judicious. The severest interruption to his labours came in his
second session, or 1584–5. That session had been begun with good
prospects, the property of the College having been increased by a
royal grant, and by a collection of about 300 volumes bequeathed by
Mr. Clement Little to form the nucleus of a college library. Rollock
was proceeding, accordingly, with his second or semi class; and
Nairne, having worked up the laggards by this time, was teaching his
first class of Bajans. But in the course of the winter Edinburgh was
visited by that scourge, “The Plague,” of the frequency of the visits of
which in those times, and their paralysing effects on industry of all
kinds, no one can be aware who is not versed in the old annals of
English and Scottish cities. In May 1585, most of the students having
already dispersed, it was necessary to stop the session entirely. This
would not have mattered so much, had not the alarm of the Plague
continued into the following session. That session, the third in the
history of the University, ought to have begun in October 1585; at
which time, as Rollock would then have been carrying his students
into their third or bachelor class, and Nairne would have been
carrying his into their second or semi class, a third regent would have
had to be appointed, to undertake the new class of freshmen. But it
was not till February 1586, or four months after the proper beginning
of the session, that the College was reopened, and then it was
deemed best not to attempt a new Bajan class at all that year, but
simply to go on with the semies and bachelors. Even in this
arrangement there came a difficulty. Scarcely were the classes begun
when the promising young Mr. Duncan Nairne died, and, in order
that the semi class might be carried on at all, the Town Council had
to elect a professor in his room. They chose Mr. Charles Lumsden, a
young man who had been one of Rollock’s pupils at St. Andrews. The
services of this, the third regent or Professor of Philosophy in the
University, did not, however, outlast the remainder of the session in
which he had been appointed. A College professorship was not then a
post of such attraction that it could be thought strange that Mr.
Lumsden should resign it when, in the following October, he received
a call to be minister of Duddingston parish. By his resignation at that
moment, however, the College would have been left crippled, had not
two new regents been at once appointed. These new regents, chosen
by competitive trial out of six candidates, were Mr. Adam Colt and
Mr. Alexander Scrimgeour. The last of these, Scrimgeour, took
charge of the new class of entrants or Bajans; as there had been no
class of Bajans in the former year, the semi class was this year a
blank; the former pupils of Lumsden and Nairne, now in the third or
bachelor class, were entrusted to Mr. Colt; and Rollock himself,
proceeding with the pupils who had already been continuously in his
charge for three years, carried them through the last or magistrand
class.
In August 1587, six months after the execution of Queen Mary at
Fotheringay, the fourth session of Edinburgh University was brought
to a close by the first act of laureation or graduation in its annals.
Forty-seven of Rollock’s pupils, who had remained with him steadily
through the entire four years, were then made masters of arts,—a
larger number than was to be seen at any subsequent graduation for
more than half a century. The signatures of the forty-seven are still to
be seen in the preserved graduation-book, appended to a copy of that
Scottish Confession of the Reformed Faith to which it was the rule
that all graduates should swear everlasting fidelity. Several of the
names are those of persons afterwards of some note in Scotland. To
three of them is affixed in the graduation-book, in later handwriting,
the dreadful word Apostata, signifying that those three disciples of
Rollock afterwards apostatised from the Protestant religion.
Having thus followed Rollock through one complete cycle of his
regency or professorship in Arts, one would like to know something
as to the nature and methods of his teaching. On this head the
information is as follows:—He began, as we have seen, by testing his
students in the indispensable Latin. But, though ability to read
ordinary Latin authors, to write in Latin, and also to speak Latin in
some fashion and understand spoken Latin, were prerequisites to his
course, the business of that course itself included necessarily much
reading in particular Latin classics, whether for their matter or for
their style. Very soon in his first class, however, he attacked Greek,
teaching it from the grammar upwards, until easy Greek authors
could be read. Greek was continued, for its own sake, into the second
and third years of the course; but the chief business of those years,
and of the fourth, was “Philosophy,” as divided into Logic, Ethics,
and Physics. In each of these departments the philosophical teaching
consisted chiefly of expositions of Aristotle. Whether in the original
Greek, or, as is more probable, in Latin versions, Rollock, we are
expressly told, read Aristotle daily with his pupils, beginning with the
Organon Logicum, and then going through the Nicomachean Ethics
and the Physics. The Physics came probably in the last year, and in
this year also (for mathematics and physical science were then
usually delayed till the end) certain additions to Aristotle: to wit, the
principles of Arithmetic, a sketch of the Anatomy of the human body,
Astronomy as taught in the then standard treatise of Joannes a Sacro
Bosco De Sphæra, and finally Geography. Conceive the routine so
sketched; conceive the steady plodding on day after day, for some
hours every day, through four sessions of ten or eleven months each;
and conceive also the disputations in Latin among the students
themselves every Saturday, and the express catechisings of them in
religion on Sundays: and you will have an idea of what it was to be
under Rollock in the first years of the University of Edinburgh.
A still more minute account of what constituted the curriculum
of study in the Faculty of Arts during the first age of the University is
furnished by an abstract of the “Order of Discipline” in the
University, drawn up in the year 1628. One cannot be sure that in
every particular this “Order of Discipline” accords with what had
been the practice of Rollock; but, as the abstract professes to be
mainly a digest of rules and customs that had been already in force, it
probably describes substantially the scheme of teaching introduced
by Rollock and bequeathed by him to his successors. The scheme
may be tabulated thus:—
First Year: Latin, Greek, and the Elements of Logic—(1) Latin: Exercises in
turning English into Latin and in translation from Latin; with readings in Latin
authors, chiefly Cicero. There seems also to have been practice in Latin verse-
making. (2) Greek: The Greek Grammar of Clenardus; Readings in the New
Testament, in the Orations of Isocrates, and, for poetry, in Phocylides, Hesiod, and
Homer; also translation of Latin themes into Greek, and of Greek into Latin.
Passages of the Greek authors read were got by heart, and publicly recited on
Saturdays. (3) Logic: This was reserved till near the end of the session, and Ramus
was the author used.—There were disputations on Saturdays, and catechisings on
Sundays.
Second Year: Recapitulation of previous studies, with Rhetoric, Logic, and
Arithmetic—(1) Recapitulation: For the first month, with a final examination in
Greek. (2) Rhetoric: Talæus’s Rhetoric (a short and very flimsy compend on the
figures of speech, with instructions in delivery), and portions of other manuals,
such as Cassander’s Rhetoric and Aphthonius’s Progymnasmata (a collection of
specimens of Greek composition to illustrate various styles); also oratorical
exercises by the students themselves. (3) Logic: Perphyry’s Introduction to
Aristotle’s Organon, and then, in the Organon itself, the Categories, the Prior
Analytics, and portions of the Topics and the Sophistics. (4) Arithmetic: towards
the end of the session.—Disputations and declamations on Saturdays, and
catechisings on Sundays.
Third Year: Recapitulation of previous studies, with Hebrew Grammar,
Logic, Ethics, and Physical Science—(1) Recapitulation: This went back upon the
Greek, and included examinations in Rhetoric and in Logical Analysis. (2) Hebrew
Grammar: taught apparently from the beginning of the session. (3) Logic: The two
Books of Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics. (4) Ethics: The first, second, half of the
third, and the fourth and fifth Books of Aristotle’s Ethics. (5) Physical Science:
Aristotle’s Acroamatics, taught partly textually, partly in compend, followed, at the
close of the session, by a descriptive sketch of Human Anatomy.—Disputations on
prescribed theses on Saturdays, and theological instruction on Sundays.
Fourth Year: Recapitulation of previous studies, with Astronomy,
Cosmography, and other portions of Physics, and Disputations and other
preparations for the Laureation. Among the books used in this year were the
Sphæra of Joannes a Sacro Bosco, the books of Aristotle De Cælo, De Ortu, De
Meteoris, and De Anima, and Hunter’s Cosmography. Atlases and the celestial
globe were also in requisition, and the most notable constellations were pointed
out in the heavens themselves. But much of the work of this session consisted in
logical disputations in the evenings, whether among the magistrands, or between
them and the third year’s men.—On Sundays, instruction in Dogmatic and
Polemical Theology.
To return to Rollock personally:—We have spoken of him
hitherto as only the first regent or Arts professor of Edinburgh
University. In reality, however, since February 1586, when he was in
his third session and had Nairne as his single fellow-regent, he had
borne, along with his regency, the higher dignity of the
Principalship,—the Town Council having concluded that the time
had come for the institution of such an office in the University, and
for Rollock’s promotion to it. Accordingly, when Rollock had the
satisfaction of seeing the forty-seven students who had gone through
their full four years’ curriculum with him made Masters of Arts, he
was not only senior Regent, but also Principal of the University, with
a right of superintendence over Colt and Scrimgeour, the other two
regents. But no sooner had this first Edinburgh graduation taken
place than there was a further change. Rollock, satisfied with having
taken one class of students through the full course of four years,
resigned his regency or Arts professorship, in order to become
Professor of Divinity. As it was desirable that those of the new
graduates and others who might be going forward to the Church
should have the means of a theological education within Edinburgh,
this was a natural arrangement. It amounted to the institution,
though on a small scale, of a Theological Faculty in the University, in
addition to the general Faculty of Arts or Philosophy. The
Theological Faculty was represented solely by Rollock, who was also
Principal of the University; while the Arts or Philosophical Faculty
was represented for the time in Colt, Scrimgeour, and a third regent,
Mr. Philip Hislop, one of Rollock’s recent graduates, appointed to the
place which Rollock had just left vacant. In 1589, however, Mr.
Charles Ferme, also one of Rollock’s graduates, was added to the
staff of regents, so as to complete the number of four, necessary for
the full conduct of the Arts classes.
No need to narrate here the rest of Rollock’s life in detail.
Enough if we imagine him going on for ten years more in the exercise
of the double duties of his Professorship of Theology and his
Principalship in the infant University. As Professor of Theology, he
may be said to have founded the Divinity School of Edinburgh. He
trained up assiduously, not only by his lectures on Dogmatic and
Polemical Theology, but also by his personal influence, the first
ecclesiastics whom the University of Edinburgh gave to the Kirk of
Scotland. Some of these attained subsequent distinction, and,
remembering Rollock with reverence, carried his name into the next
generation. Nor was his Principalship a sinecure. He visited the
Philosophy classes, gave special lectures to them on Theology, and
kept them and the regents to their work. Add to this much exertion
beyond the bounds of the University. For a time he delivered Sunday
evening sermons to crowded congregations in the East Kirk of St.
Giles, by way of volunteer assistance to the four city ministers; and,
latterly, when these four were increased to eight, and a division of
the city-pastorate was made into eight districts or parishes, the full
ministerial care of one of these city-charges was entrusted to Rollock.
It was an anxious time, too, in the politics of the Kirk. King James
had begun those efforts of his for the subversion of the Presbyterian
constitution of the Kirk, as it had been established by statute in 1592,
in which he was to persevere so unflinchingly through the remainder
of his resident reign in Scotland, though it was not till he removed to
England, and could act upon his native kingdom from the vantage-
ground of his acquired English sovereignty, that the results were
fully seen in the abolition of the Presbyterian constitution of the Kirk
altogether and the substitution of Episcopacy. Already in Rollock’s
time all Scotland was in anxious agitation in consequence of this
anti-presbyterian policy of the King and the vehement resistance to it
offered by the majority of the Scottish clergy and of the Scottish
people. Rollock himself, as a public man and leading Edinburgh
minister, had to take his part in the controversy. It was a mild part, it
would seem, and not entirely satisfactory to the more resolute
Presbyterian spirits, but truthful and characteristic. Without
following him, however, over this dangerous ground, farther than to
say that he was Moderator of the General Assembly held at Dundee
in 1597, at which the King was present in person and there were
some not unimportant attempts at a compromise, let us pass on to
the year 1599, the last year but one of the sixteenth century.
Rollock was then in his forty-fourth year. He could look back on
his services in connection with Edinburgh University as the most
important work of his life. He had seen fifteen sessions of that
University begun and ended, during four of which he had been senior
regent or Arts professor, and during the remaining eleven Principal
and Professor of Theology. He had seen eleven graduations and a
total of 284 Edinburgh Masters of Arts sent forth by these
graduations into the world. The University, it is true, remained still
but a fragment of what a complete university ought to have been. It
contained as yet no Faculty of Law and no Faculty of Medicine. For
education in these professions Scottish students had still to resort to
foreign universities, as indeed they had to do for more than a century
yet to come. But it was something to have established a Theological
Faculty and a Faculty of Arts. The Theological Faculty was still
represented entire in Rollock’s own person; but in the Arts Faculty,
on which the University depended most, he had seen thirteen regents
after himself appointed. The tenure of office of most of these had
been vexatiously short, drawn off as they had been by the more
tempting emoluments of parish-charges and the like; but the four
who were now in office as regents,—Mr. Henry Charteris, Mr.
Charles Ferme, Mr. John Adamson, and Mr. William Craig,—were all
graduates of the University itself, and therefore all Rollock’s own
men. Moreover, the Arts Faculty had just been increased by the
institution of a separate Professorship of Humanity, distinct from the
four rotating regencies. To this professorship, the first holder of
which was a certain excellent Mr. John Ray, fell a part of the work
that had formerly been assigned to the regents of the first and second
classes: viz. instruction mainly in Latin, but also in elementary Greek
and the rudiments of rhetoric. Such was the staff of Edinburgh
University as Rollock left it. Though yet but in the prime of
manhood, he had been long in ill-health, and was now suffering from
a painful and incurable disease. There are affectionate details of his
death-bed doings and sayings: how he sent messages to the King,
how the ministers and leading citizens of Edinburgh visited him,
what advices he gave them, what pious ejaculations he uttered, and
how, in especial, he spoke of the University of his love, and
recommended it to the care of those who had the power to promote
its interests. On the 9th of February 1599, the sixteenth session of the
University being then in progress, he breathed his last. There was a
great concourse of citizens of all ranks at his funeral, and all over
Scotland the rumour ran that the nation was poorer by the loss of the
eminent Rollock. Verses in Latin, Greek, and English, by old pupils
and others, were showered upon his grave. He left a widow, whom
the Magistrates and Town Council of Edinburgh pensioned; and a
daughter, posthumously born, was also provided for. In deference to
his dying injunctions, the Town Council appointed Mr. Henry
Charteris, his favourite pupil, and then one of the regents, to be his
successor in the principalship and in the professorship of Divinity.
Looked back upon now through the dense radiance of the
subsequent history of the University of Edinburgh, expanded as that
University has been in the course of centuries into its present four-
facultied completeness, each faculty of larger dimensions than
Rollock could ever have dreamt of, and each with its memories of
scores or hundreds of more or less shining celebrities that have
belonged to it in past generations, Rollock himself, it must be
admitted, dwindles into a mere telescopic star. That he is
remembered at all now is due mainly to the fact that he was the first
president of one of the most important institutions of the Scottish
nation, and charged with the affairs of that institution in its
struggling commencement, its “day of small things.” This in itself
would be something. Many men have merited well of society simply
because they have performed diligently the routine duties of the
office they chanced to hold, and so have woven something of their
own personality, though it may be hardly distinguishable afterwards,
into the context of passing affairs and exigencies. Is this all, however,
that we can say of Rollock? Not quite. Though the best of him is
probably imbedded in the beginnings of the University of Edinburgh,
and much of that even in the unrecorded beginnings, he has left
some memorials of himself besides. His writings, all or nearly all of a
theological nature, some published during his life, and others edited
after his death by admiring friends, are so considerable in bulk that
even the selection of them reprinted by the Wodrow Society fills two
thick volumes. The more important and formal of them were
dogmatic treatises or analytical Latin commentaries on portions of
Scripture, some of which were of sufficient ability, after their kind, to
have won recognition from Beza and other foreign theologians. More
interesting, however, now are the specimens that remain of Rollock’s
popular sermons in the vernacular English, or rather the vernacular
Scots, of his day. Two extracts from one of these sermons will enable
us to know Rollock somewhat more intimately, and will give an idea
at the same time of the tastes of the Edinburgh folks of those days in
the matter of pulpit oratory.
Understand that the text of the discourse is 2 Cor. v. 1, 2,
running thus in the old version then in use: “For we knaw that, gif
our earthly hous of this tabernacle be destroyit, we have a buylding
given of God; that is, a house nocht made with hands, bot eternall in
the heavens. For therefore we sigh, desiring to be clothed with our
hous whilk is from heaven.” The thoughts suggested by this text
being those of the evanescence of the present life and the aspiration
after another life of higher expansion, Rollock’s handling of them
takes this form:—
“The Apostle having spoken this, that his eye was set on that hevinly glory, it
micht have been said, ‘Thou settis thine eye upon ane life above; bot tak heid, Paul!
Thou sall die in the mean time; is not life and deith twa contrares? thou mon die,
and that body of thine mon be dissolvit. Luikis thou ever to rise again? thinkis thou
any other thing bot to be disappointed of life? Luikis thou that that body of thine,
being dissolvit in dust, sall rise again to glory?’ This is are fair tentatioun, and
sundry thinkis efter this maner.... Leirne ane lesson here. Ye see, while ane man is
luiking to hevin, he will not be without tentatioun,—nay, not Paul himself, nor nae
other man nor woman that hes their conversatioun in hevin. And the special
tentatioun of him wha wald fain have life is deith, and the dreidful sicht of deith;
and deith is ever in his eye. He was never born bot deith will tempt him, deith will
be terrible to flesh and blude; and, when he is luiking up to that licht and glory in
hevin, it will come in betwixt his eye and the sicht of hevin, as it were ane terrible
black cloud, and some time will twin [sunder] him and that licht of hevin. As, when
ane man is luiking up to the sun, ane cloud will come in on ane suddenty and tak
the sicht of the sun frae him, sae when ane man is luiking up to the Sun of
Richteousness, Christ Jesus, that cloud of deith will come in and cleik [catch] the
sicht of Christ frae him. This is our estate here, and there is nane acquainted with
hevinly things bot he will find this in experience as Paul did. But what is the
remedy? In the first word of the text that we have read he says ‘we knaw,’ that is,
‘we are assured’; for the word imparts ane full assurance, and faith, and are full
persuasion. Then the remedy aganis this tentatioun of deith is only faith, ane full
persuasion and licht in the mind of the knawledge of God in the face of Christ, with
ane gripping and apprehension thereof. This is the only remedy.”
“Thou mon have ane warrand of thy salvation in this life, or ellis I assure thee
in the name of God thou sall never get to hevin. It is ane strait way to come to
hevin, and it is wonder hard to get the assurance of it: it is nae small matter to get
ane assurance of life everlasting efter death. Then luik what warrandis this man
Paul had, that thou may preis to have the like. The first ground of his assurance is
in this second verse. ‘For,’ says he, ‘this cause we sigh, desiring to be clothed’ (to
put on as it were ane garment). Wherewith? ‘With our house whilk is frae hevin.’
Thir [these] are his wordis. Then his first warrand and ground of his assurance is
ane desire of that samin glory. What sort of desire? Ane earnest desire, with
siching and sobbing; not ane cauld desire, but day and nicht crying and sobbing for
life. Trowis thou sae easily to get hevin that can never say earnestly in thy heart,
‘God give me that hevinly life!’ Na, thou will be disappointed; it is the violent that
enters in hevin (Matt. xi. 12), as ye will see ane man violently thring [squeeze] in at
are yett [gate]. Thou that wald gang to hevin, make thee for thringing through
while [until] all thy guttis be almaist thrustit out. Paul, in the viii. chapter to the
Romans, the 22 and 23 verses, usis thir argumentis againis those wickit men that
cannot sich for hevin. First he takis his argument frae the elementis, the senseless
and dumb creaturis, wha sobbis and groanis for the revelation of the sonnis of God.
O miserable man, the eirth sall condemn thee; the flure thou sittis on is siching,
and wald fain heave that carcase of thine to hevin. The waters, the air, the hevinis,
all siching for that last deliverance, the glory apperteinis to thee; and yet thou is
lauchand. What sall betide thee?”
There is evidence here that Rollock cannot have been merely a
stiff scholastic and pedagogue, but was a man of some real, if
coarsish, fervour of heart, of whom it might be expected that he
would have the power on occasion of putting his hand on the
shoulders of any promising youth among his pupils, and doing him
good by some earnest words of moral and spiritual stimulus. On the
whole, however, the impression from the sermons and the other
writings is that he was by no means a man of such extraordinary
calibre intellectually as it was desirable, and perhaps possible, that
the University of Edinburgh should have had for its first regent and
principal, the shaper of its methods and its tendencies from the
outset. High forms of study and speculation were then asserting
themselves in the intellectual world of the British Islands, the
influence of which had never reached Rollock, or to which, in his
place and circumstances, he remained necessarily impervious. His
administration of the University could only be according to the lights
in which he had himself been educated, and which he brought with
him from St. Andrews. What if the Town Council of Edinburgh,
instead of sending to St. Andrews for Rollock to be the first head of
the new University, had invited their neighbour, Napier of
Merchiston, to the post? He was Rollock’s senior by five years, the
one man in all Scotland supremely fitted for the post; and, as he was
to outlive Rollock eighteen years, how different might have been the
infancy of the University had he been in Rollock’s place! But Napier
was a layman and a laird; and the heavens would have fallen on the
Edinburgh Town Council of 1583, as indeed they would have fallen
on any subsequent Edinburgh Town Council till 1858, if they had
thought of choosing any one but an ecclesiastic for the University
Principalship. Besides, it is possible that the Laird of Merchiston, a
man of many acres, and the owner and inhabitant of one of the finest
turreted mansions near Edinburgh, would have regarded the offer as
a joke.
It is in accordance with our estimate of Rollock all in all that,
though, among the students sent forth from the University of
Edinburgh during his Principalship, there were some who
distinguished themselves subsequently by their force and hard-
headedness in the routine affairs of the Scottish Kirk and State, we
do not find any among them whom the historian of the higher
thought and literature of Britain cares to remember now. Among the
284 Masters of Arts who left the University before Rollock died, the
most memorable are perhaps these: Henry Charteris and Patrick
Sands, pupils of Rollock’s own regency, and his successors in the
principalship; Alexander Gibson of Durie, afterwards a judge of the
Court of Session; James Sandilands, afterwards commissary of
Aberdeen; Thomas Hope, afterwards Sir Thomas Hope, and of
celebrity as a lawyer and as King’s Advocate; David Calderwood, the
Presbyterian historian of the Kirk; and Robert Boyd of Trochrig,
sometime minister in France, and afterwards Principal successively
of the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. To these may be
added, as memorable on another ground, John Ruthven, Earl of
Gowrie, and his brother Alexander Ruthven, the two young chiefs or
victims of the mysterious Gowrie conspiracy of 1600. The elder
brother, a favourite of Rollock’s, was a graduate of 1593, and the
younger graduated in 1598. Other names of some interest to the
Scottish literary antiquarian may be found in the list of the
Edinburgh graduates of Rollock’s time, but hardly one now
interesting to the general British muses. But, indeed, Scotland had
then entered on a period of her history during which the higher and
more meditative muses found themselves dismissed from her
territory for a while. Precisely at the time when the University of
Edinburgh was founded, the age of Scotland’s richest outburst in all
forms of a thoroughly native literature had come to an end,—closed,
we may say, by the deaths of Knox and Buchanan, save that in Napier
of Merchiston there was one peculiar survivor. From that date
onwards through the whole of the seventeenth century the energies
of Scotland were to be locked up all but continually and exclusively in
one protracted business of political and ecclesiastical controversy.
From that date, accordingly, the successive batches of graduates sent
forth from the four Scottish Universities,—or rather, we should now
say, from the five Scottish Universities, for the University of
Marischal College, Aberdeen, was added as a fifth in 1593,—were
absorbed, as clerics, lawyers, soldiers, and what not, into the service
of a troubled social element requiring labours that left little sap in
them for literary delights or for purely speculative exertions.
Exceptions, of course, there are; and the two most notable of these
belong to the University of Edinburgh. Drummond of Hawthornden
was a graduate of that University in 1605, six years after Rollock’s
death. Robert Leighton, so dear to Coleridge as one of the finest
Platonic spirits among the British theologians of the seventeenth
century, was an Edinburgh graduate of 1631, and was Rollock’s sixth
successor in the Principalship of the University, and known for ten
years in that capacity before they induced him to become Bishop and
Archbishop.
KING JAMES’S FAREWELL TO HOLYROOD[3]
It is a Saturday evening in Holyrood,—the evening of Saturday,

the 26th of March 1603. All is dull and sleepy within the Palace, the
King and Queen having retired after supper, and the lights in the
apartments now going out one by one. Suddenly, hark! what noise is
that without? There is first a battering at the gate, and then the
sound of a horse’s hoofs in the courtyard, and of a bustling of the
palace servants round some late arriver. It is the English Sir Robert
Cary, brother of Lord Hunsdon. He had left London between nine
and ten o’clock in the forenoon of the 24th; he had ridden as never
man rode before, spur and gallop, spur and gallop, all the way,
through that day and the next and the next, the two intervening
nights hardly excepted; and here he is at Holyrood on the evening of
the third day,—an incredible ride! His horse, the last he has been on,
is taken from him all a-foam; and he himself, his head bloody with a
wound received by a fall and a kick from the horse in the last portion
of his journey, makes his way staggeringly, under escort, into the
aroused King’s presence. Throwing himself on his knees before his
half-dressed Majesty, he can but pant out, in his fatigue and
excitement, these words in explanation of the cause of his being
there so unceremoniously: “Queen Elizabeth is dead, and your
Majesty is King of England.”
It was the most superb moment of King James’s life. He was in
the thirty-seventh year of his age, and had been King of Scotland for
nearly thirty-six years; but through the last twenty of these,—or, at
all events, ever since February 1586–7, when the captivity of his
mother came to its tragical close at Fotheringay,—his constant
thought had been of the chance he had of being one day King also of
England. Latterly the chance had grown into a probability; but it had
never become a certainty. Although, according to all ordinary legal
construction of the case, his hereditary claim to the English
succession was paramount, there were impediments in the way.
There were vehement objections to him on the part of large sections
of the English community; and that especial and official recognition
of his claims which might have gone far to overcome these
objections, or to neutralise them, had remained wanting. Queen
Elizabeth herself had, or was supposed to have, the right of
nominating her successor; but, though her relations to James
through the whole of his Scottish reign had been condescendingly
kindly,—though she had been in the habit of sending him letters of
semi-parental advice, and sometimes of rebuke, in his minority, and
had then and since shown her interest in him by allowing him a
regular annual pension of English money, of no great amount but
very welcome to him as a substantial supplement to his scanty
Scottish revenues,—she had always resisted his importunities in
what was with him the all-important matter of his succession to her
crown. Her declaration on that subject had been tantalisingly
postponed; and James had been obliged to content himself with
secret negotiations with such of her English statesmen and courtiers
as might be able to persuade her to some distinct decision in his
favour while there was yet time, or, if that should not be
accomplished, might have influence themselves in bringing about the
event which she had left undetermined. Such negotiations round the
imperious old queen, clinging to life and sovereignty as she did, and
regarding as little better than treason all speculation as to what
would be after her death, were necessarily perilous; but they had
been going on for some time, with the result that a party had been
formed in the English Court favourable to the succession of King
James, should circumstances make it possible. At the centre of this
party was Secretary Sir Robert Cecil, Elizabeth’s chief minister since
the death of his father, the great Lord Burleigh, in 1598.
Elizabeth died in her palace at Richmond, in the seventieth year
of her age, about three o’clock in the morning of Thursday the 24th
of March 1602 (so in the English reckoning, but in the Scottish it was
1603), after an illness of some days, during the first four of which she
lay in great pain on cushions, and partly delirious, refusing to go to
bed or to take any food. Her Councillors, Secretary Cecil and
Archbishop Whitgift among them, had been in attendance from the
first; and they had contrived, on the day before her death, while she
was lying speechless in the bed into which they had at last forced her,
to extract a sign from her which intimated her consent that James
should be her successor, or which they found it convenient to
construe to that effect. No sooner was she dead than there was a
meeting of the Council in an apartment near that in which the corpse
lay, to draft a proclamation of James as the new sovereign, and to
take other measures necessary in the crisis. Secrecy was essential for
a few hours; and, as the palace was full of people, including the
weeping court-ladies and others not of the Council, there were orders
that the gates should be shut, and that no one should be permitted
either to leave the palace or to enter it without special warrant.
One person managed to evade the order and get in. This was the
Sir Robert Cary of whom we have just heard. He was then a man of
about forty-three years of age, and well known at Court, both from
his high family connections and on his own account. His father, the
late Lord Hunsdon, had been distinguished among Elizabeth’s
councillors by being related to her by cousinship; his brother, the
present Lord Hunsdon, was now of the Council; and a sister of his,
Lady Scroope, was one of the Queen’s ladies-in-waiting. His own
services in the Queen’s employment had been very various and had
extended over many years. Among diplomatic missions on which she
had sent him in his youth had been several to King James in
Scotland; and latterly he had been in charge of one of the English
wardenships on the Scottish Borders, and conspicuous for his vigour
in the garrisoned defence of those northern parts of England against
the cattle-lifting raids of their rough Scottish neighbours. While in
this post, he had incurred the Queen’s disfavour by marrying,—a
fault which she always resented in any of her courtiers; and for a
while she had refused to see him or speak with him. He had
contrived, however, to pacify her in a skilfully obtained interview;
and that cloud had blown over. Hence, having come south on
furlough from his wardenship just about the time when the Queen
was seized with her fatal illness, and having taken lodgings in
Richmond to await the issue, he had been admitted easily enough
into the dying Queen’s presence. “When I came to Court,” he tells us,
“I found the Queen ill-disposed, and she kept her inner lodging; yet
she, hearing of my arrival, sent for me. I found her in one of her
withdrawing chambers, sitting low upon her cushions. She called me
to her. I kissed her hand, and told her it was my chiefest happiness to
see her in safety, and in health, which I wished might long continue.
She took me by the hand, and wrung it hard, and said ‘No, Robin, I
am not well,’ and then discoursed with me of her indisposition, and
that her heart had been sad and heavy for ten or twelve days; and in
her discourse she fetched not so few as forty or fifty great sighs. I was
grieved at the first to see her in this plight; for in all my lifetime
before I never knew her fetch a sigh, but when the Queen of Scots
was beheaded.” This interview was on the night of Saturday, the 19th
of March; and it was within the next day or two that, learning from
his sister that the Queen had become worse and worse, and that
there was no hope of her recovery, and remembering his friendly
intercourse with the Scottish King on former occasions, he
despatched a letter to James announcing the condition of affairs at
Richmond, and resolved moreover that, when the Queen was actually
dead, he would be himself the first man to carry the great news to
Edinburgh. Once again he was in the death-chamber. It was on the
day before the Queen’s death,—that Wednesday, the 23d of March,
on which, lying speechless in bed, she gave the sign which Cecil and
the other councillors construed as they desired. Among those who
stood by her bedside on the evening of that day, while Archbishop
Whitgift prayed with her several times in succession, was Sir Robert
Cary. It was late, he tells us, when the group broke up, and the Queen
was left to die, with only her waiting-women around her. Sir Robert
had then gone to his lodgings in the town, and had given instructions
that he should be called at the proper moment. Accordingly, about
three o’clock on the following morning, when he knew for certain
that the Queen was dead, he was at the palace gate. The porter had
just received his orders not to admit any one that was not privileged;
and even the bribe with which Sir Robert had already primed that
official would not have been enough, had not one of the councillors,
who chanced to be at the gate at the time, taken the responsibility of
passing him in. He made his way through the chamber in which the
weeping ladies were to that in which the councillors were assembled
and were drafting their documents. His brother, Lord Hunsdon, and
his sister, Lady Scroope, being already in his confidence, and his
purpose having been guessed by Cecil and the rest, he found that
they were very angry with him, and were making arrangements of
their own for the necessary despatches to Edinburgh. In fact, they
laid hold of him, told him he must remain where he was till their
pleasure should be known, and, to show that they were in earnest,
sent peremptory fresh orders to the porter that no one was to be
allowed to pass the gates except the servants that were to be sent
presently to get ready the coaches and horses for the conveyance of
the councillors themselves to Westminster. For an hour or so, Sir
Robert walked about in the palace chagrined and disconcerted. He
had got in with difficulty; but his exit seemed impossible. Bethinking
himself at last, he went to the private chamber of his brother, Lord
Hunsdon. His lordship, overpowered with the fatigues of the
preceding days, was asleep, but was soon roused, and willing to
assist. The two went together to the porter’s gate, where the Council’s
servants were just making their egress to bring the horses and
coaches. The porter could not prevent a great officer like Lord
Hunsdon from going out with them; but he stopped Sir Robert. It
needed some exertion and some angry words from Lord Hunsdon to
cow the man; but this was accomplished, and Sir Robert, to his great
relief, found himself outside the gate in the raw air of the dim March
morning.
Not even yet were his difficulties over. Speeding from Richmond
as fast as he could, he was in Westminster by himself, and in a
friend’s house there, some time before the Lords of Council arrived
in their coaches. Learning, however, after they had arrived, that they
were holding a meeting in Whitehall Gardens to make final
arrangements for the proclamations of the new sovereign both in
Westminster and in the City, he thought it might be as well to try
again whether they would employ him for the service on which he
had set his heart. He sent them word, therefore, that he was in town,
and was waiting their pleasure. It was now past nine o’clock, and the
proclamations were to be at ten. The answer of the Council was a
request to Sir Robert to come to them immediately; and, as it was
conveyed with a kind of intimation that he would find them perfectly
agreeable now to his proposal, he hastened to attend them. He was
actually between the outer and the inner gate of Whitehall for this
purpose, when a word sent out to him by a friendly councillor made
him aware that the Council were deceiving him, and that, if he
appeared among them, he would be laid fast. Then he hesitated no
longer. Giving the Council the slip, and not staying for the
proclamations or for anything else, he took horse at once, somewhere
near Charing Cross, and was off for his tremendous ride northwards.
He himself tells us the successive stages of his ride. He was at
Doncaster that night, a distance of 155 miles from London; next
night he reached a house of his own at Witherington in
Northumberland, about 130 miles from Doncaster; leaving
Witherington on Saturday morning, he accomplished some 50 miles
more before noon that day, bringing him to Norham, close to the
Tweed; after which there were still about 65 miles of that Scottish
portion of his ride which lay between Norham and Edinburgh. He
had hoped to be at Holyrood House before supper-time; but his
dizziness and loss of blood from the fall from his horse in this last
portion of his journey delayed him, as we have seen, for an hour or
two.
After his first abrupt salutation of King James in Holyrood that
Saturday night, there was naturally a longish colloquy between them.
In the course of this colloquy the King’s first excitement of joy was
damped for a moment by the reflection that the messenger had come
of his own motive merely, and without letters from the English Privy
Council. The production of a sapphire ring by Sir Robert removed, he
tells us, all doubts. The ring, it appears, had been thrown to him out
of one of the windows of Richmond Palace, just before he left, by his
sister Lady Scroope; and one account makes it out that it had been a
gift by King James himself to Queen Elizabeth, and that Lady
Scroope took it off the withered finger of the Queen after her death,
to serve as a token that could not be mistaken. Sir Robert’s own
account does not quite imply this, but may be so interpreted. All the
members of the Hunsdon family, one gathers, were known to King
James as having been for some time active in his interest. It was late
before the colloquy ended, and Sir Robert was dismissed by the King
for his much-needed rest of some days, in or near Holyrood, in
charge of the Master of the Household, and under care of a surgeon.
Next day was Sunday; and, whatever whispers of the great event
there may have been round King James himself in Holyrood, it does
not appear that there was any hint of it that day among the
congregations of the lieges in the Edinburgh churches. It is hardly
possible that on the following day, when the proclamations of the
new sovereign were palpitating northwards through England, with
huzzas from town to town, in the very track of Sir Robert’s ride (he
had himself ordered them in Northumberland), the community of
Edinburgh could still have remained ignorant of what had happened.
There could be no public recognition of it, however, till the arrival of
the authorised envoys from the English Privy Council; and they did
not arrive,—the laggards!—till the morning of Tuesday, the 29th of
March. They were Sir Charles Percy, brother of the Earl of
Northumberland, and Thomas Somerset, Esq., one of the sons of the
Earl of Worcester; and they brought with them two documents. One
was a copy of the Proclamation of King James that had been made in
London and Westminster on the 24th. It was certified by the
signatures of the Lord Mayor of London, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, Lord Chancellor Egerton, and twenty-seven more of the
noblemen, prelates, and knights of the English Council; and it
opened thus—“Forasmuch as it hath pleased Almighty God to call to
his mercy out of this transitory life our Sovereign Lady, the high and
mighty princess, Elizabeth, late Queen of England, France, and
Ireland, by whose death and dissolution the Imperial crowns of these
realms foresaid are now absolutely, wholly, and solely, come to the
high and mighty prince, James the Sixth, King of Scotland, who is
lineally and lawfully descended from the body of Margaret, daughter
of the high and renowned prince, Henry the Seventh, King of
England, France, and Ireland, his great-great-grandfather,—the said
Lady Margaret being lawfully begotten of the body of Elizabeth,
daughter to King Edward the Fourth, by which happy conjunction
both the Houses of York and Lancaster were united, to the joy
unspeakable of this kingdom, formerly rent and torn by long
dissension of bloody and civil wars,—the same Lady Margaret being
also the eldest sister of Henry the Eighth, of famous memory, King of
England as aforesaid: We therefore, the Lords Spiritual and
Temporal of this realm, being here assembled, united and assisted
with those of her late Majesty’s Privy Council, and with great
numbers of other principal gentlemen of quality in the kingdom,
with the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of London, and a
multitude of other good subjects and commons of this realm,
thirsting now after nothing so much as to make it known to all
persons who it is that, by law, by lineal succession, and undoubted
right, is now become the only Sovereign Lord and King of these
imperial crowns, to the intent that, by virtue of his power, wisdom,
and godly courage, all things may be provided for which may prevent
or resist either foreign attempts or popular disorder, tending to the
breach of the present peace or to the prejudice of his Majesty’s future
quiet, do now hereby, with one full voice, and consent of tongue and
heart, publicly proclaim that the high and mighty prince, James the
Sixth, King of Scotland, is now, by the death of our late Sovereign,
Queen of England, of famous memory, become also our only lawful
and rightful liege lord, James the First, King of England, France, and
Ireland, Defender of the Faith.” The other document was a missive
letter to King James, signed by nearly the same persons, and
expressing their profound allegiance to him individually, and their
desire to see him in England as speedily as possible. It contained,
however, this paragraph:—“Further, we have thought meet and
necessary to advertise your Highness that Sir Robert Cary is this
morning departed from hence towards your Majesty, not only
without the consent of any of us who were present at Richmond at
the time of our late Sovereign’s decease, but also contrary to such
commandment as we had power to lay upon him, and to all decency,
good manners, and respects which he owed to so many persons of
our degree; whereby it may be that your Highness, hearing by a bare
report of the death of our late Queen, and not of our care and
diligence in establishing of your Majesty’s right here in such manner
as is above specified, may either receive report or conceive doubts of
other matter than (God be thanked) there is cause you should: which
we would have clearly prevented if he had borne so much respect to
us as to have stayed for our common relation of our proceedings and
not thought it better to anticipate the same; for we would have been
loth that any person of quality should have gone from hence who
should not, with report of her death, have been able to relate the just
effects of our assured loyalties.” Both documents were read that day
in the Scottish Privy Council in Edinburgh; and their purport was
published for the general information.
What commotion in Edinburgh through the next few days! The
King’s leave-taking had to be hurried; and it was on Sunday the 3d of
April that, rising from his place in St. Giles’s Church after the
sermon, he made what had to pass as his farewell speech to all his
Scottish subjects. It was a speech intended to console them for their
grievous loss. “There is no more difference,” he said, “betwixt
London and Edinburgh, yea, not so much, as betwixt Inverness or
Aberdeen and Edinburgh; for all our marches are dry, and there be
no ferries betwixt them”; and, after dilating somewhat further on the

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Circuit Analysis A.

Circuit Theory A. Nagoor Kani

Circuit Theory 3rd Edition A Nagoor Kani

Engineering Circuit Analysis – Ebook PDF Version

Introductory Circuit Analysis - 14th Global Edition

Engineering Circuit Analysis, 10e 10th Edition William

Introductory Circuit Analysis. (Global Edition) (14th

Circuit Theory and Networks—Analysis and Synthesis (MU

Circuit Theory and Networks Analysis and Synthesis 2nd

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Copyright © 2018, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

ISBN (13): 978-93-87572-72-0

Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

Organization of the Book

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

Dependent DC Voltage Source

Dependent DC Current Source

AC (Alternating Current) Sources

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Parameters or Loads Energy Sources

Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units

Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.

1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.