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Biodegradable Materials
and Their Applications
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Biodegradable Materials
and Their Applications
Edited by
Inamuddin
and
Tariq Altalhi
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-90490-8
Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xxv
1 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 1
S. Vishali, M. Susila and S. Kiruthika
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 3
1.2.1 Advantages of Biodegradable Materials 4
1.3 Silk 5
1.4 Polymers 7
1.4.1 Natural Polymers 7
1.4.2 Synthetic Polymers 8
1.5 Cellulose 10
1.6 Paper 11
1.7 Others 13
1.8 Biodegradable Electronic Components 16
1.9 Semiconductors 17
1.10 Substrate 18
1.11 Biodegradable Dielectrics 18
1.12 Insulators and Conductors 19
1.13 Conclusion 19
Declaration About Copyright 20
References 20
2 Biodegradable Thermoelectric Materials 29
Niladri Sarkar, Gyanaranjan Sahoo, Anupam Sahoo
and Bigyan Ranjan Jali
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Biopolymer-Based Renewable Composites:
An Alternative to Synthetic Materials 32
2.3 Working Principle of Thermoelectric Materials 35
2.4 Biopolymer Composite for Thermoelectric Application 36
v
vi Contents
2.4.1 Polylactic Acid–Based Thermoelectric Materials 36

2.4.2 Cellulose-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 37
2.4.3 Chitosan-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 39
2.4.4 Agarose-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 41
2.4.5 Starch-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 43
2.4.6 Carrageenan-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 45
2.4.7 Pullulan-Based Composites as Thermoelectric
Materials 46
2.4.8 Lignin-Based Biocomposites as Thermoelectric
Materials 46
2.5 Heparin-Based Biocomposites as Future Thermoelectric
Materials 48
2.6 Conclusions 48
References 49
3 Biodegradable Electronics: A Newly Emerging
Environmental Technology 55
Malini S., Kalyan Raj and K.S. Anantharaju
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Properties of Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 57
3.3 Transformational Applications of Biodegradable
Materials in Electronics 58
3.3.1 Cellulose 59
3.3.2 Silk 60
3.3.3 Stretchable Hydrogel 62
3.3.4 Conjugated Polymers and Metals 64
3.3.5 Graphene 65
3.3.6 Composites 67
3.4 Biodegradation Mechanisms 68
3.5 Conclusions 70
Acknowledgements 70
References 71
Contents vii
4 Biodegradable and Bioactive Films or Coatings

From Fish Waste Materials 75
Juliana Santos Delava, Keiti Lopes Maestre,
Carina Contini Triques, Fabiano Bisinella Scheufele,
Veronice Slusarski-Santana and Mônica Lady Fiorese
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Fishery Chain Industry 78
4.2.1 Evolution of the Fishery Chain Industry 78
4.2.2 Applications of Fish Waste Materials 80
4.3 Films or Coatings Based on Proteins From Fish
Waste Materials 85
4.3.1 Films or Coatings for Food Packaging 85
4.3.2 Development of Protein-Based Films or Coatings 89
4.3.2.1 Fish Proteins and Processes for Obtaining
Collagen/Gelatin and Myofibrillar Proteins 89
4.3.2.2 Development of Biodegradable
and Bioactive Films or Coating 94
4.3.3 Development of Protein-Based Films or Coatings
Incorporated With Additives and/or Plasticizers 97
4.3.3.1 Films or Coatings Incorporated
With Organic Additives and/or
Plasticizers and Their Applications 101
4.3.3.2 Films or Coatings Incorporated
With Inorganic Additives and/or
Plasticizers 119
4.4 Conclusion 126
References 127
5 Biodegradable Superabsorbent Materials 141
Marcia Parente Melo da Costa
and Ivana Lourenço de Mello Ferreira
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Biohydrogels: Superabsorbent Materials 142
5.3 Polysaccharides: Biopolymers from Renewable Sources 143
5.3.1 Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) 145
5.3.2 Chitosan (CH) 148
5.3.3 Alginate 149
5.3.4 Carrageenans 150
viii Contents
5.4 Applications of Superabsorbent Biohydrogels (SBHs)

Based on Polysaccharides 152
5.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 159
Acknowledgments 160
References 160
6 Bioplastics in Personal Protective Equipment 173
Tapia-Fuentes Jocelyn, Cruz-Salas Arely Areanely,
Alvarez-Zeferino Juan Carlos, Martínez-Salvador Carolina,
Pérez-Aragón Beatriz and Vázquez-Morillas Alethia
6.2 Conventional Personal Protective Equipment 175
6.2.1 Face Masks 176
6.2.1.1 Surgical Mask 176
6.2.1.2 N95 Face Masks 177
6.2.1.3 KN95 Face Masks 178
6.2.1.4 Cloth Face Masks 179
6.2.1.5 Two-Layered Face Mask (or Hygienic) 180
6.2.2 Gloves 181
6.2.2.1 Latex 181
6.2.2.2 Nitrile 182
6.2.2.3 Vinyl 183
6.2.2.4 Foil (Polyethylene) 184
6.3 Biodegradable and Biobased PPE 185
6.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid 185
6.3.1.2 Polybutylene Succinate 187
6.3.1.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol 188
6.3.2 Gloves 190
6.3.2.1 Butadiene Rubber (BR) 190
6.3.2.2 Polyisoprene Rubber 191
6.4 Environmental Impacts Caused by Personal Protective
Equipment Made of Bioplastics 192
6.4.1 Source and Raw Materials 192
6.4.2 End of Life Scenarios 193
6.4.3 Remarks on Biodegradability 194
6.5 International Standards Applied to Biodegradable
Plastics and Bioplastics 194
6.6 Conclusions 199
References 200
Contents ix
7 Biodegradable Protective Films 211

Asra Tariq and Naveed Ahmad
7.1.1 Types of Protective Films 213
7.2 Biodegradable Protective Films 214
7.2.1 Processing of Biodegradable Protective Films 221
7.2.2 Limitations Faced by Biodegradable Protective
Films 222
References 223
8 No Plastic, No Pollution: Replacement of Plastics
in the Equipments of Personal Protection 229
Beenish Saba
8.2 Bioplastics 230
8.3 Biodegradation of Bioplastics 232
8.4 Production of Bioplastics from Plant Sources 234
8.5 Production of Bioplastics from Microbial Resources 234
8.6 What Are PPEs Made Off? 236
8.6.2 Face and Eye Shields 236
8.6.3 Gloves 237
8.7 Biodegradable Materials for PPE 237
References 238
9 Biodegradable Materials in Dentistry 243
Sharmila Jasmine and Rajapandiyan Krishnamoorthy
9.2 Biodegradable Materials 246
9.2.1 Synthetic Polymers 246
9.2.2 Natural Polymers 246
9.2.3 Biodegradable Ceramics 247
9.2.4 Bioactive Glass 247
9.2.5 Biodegradable Metals 247
9.3 Biodegradable Materials in Suturing 248
9.4 Biodegradable Materials in Imaging and Diagnostics 248
9.5 Biodegradable Materials in Oral Maxillofacial
and Craniofacial Surgery 249
9.6 Biodegradable Materials in Resorbable Plate
and Screw System 250
x Contents
9.7 Biodegradable Materials in Alveolar Ridge Preservation 250

9.8 Biodegradable Materials of Nanotopography
in Cancer Therapy 251
9.9 Biodegradable Materials in Endodontics 252
9.10 Biodegradable Materials in Orthodontics 253
9.11 Biodegradable Materials in Periodontics 253
9.12 Conclusion 254
References 254
10 Biodegradable and Biocompatible Polymeric Materials
for Dentistry Applications 261
Pallavi K.C., Arun M. Isloor and Lakshmi Nidhi Rao
10.2 Polysaccharides 264
10.2.1 Chitosan 264
10.2.2 Cellulose 275
10.2.3 Starch 277
10.2.4 Alginate 279
10.2.5 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) 281
10.3 Proteins 283
10.3.1 Collagen 283
10.3.2 Fibrin 285
10.3.3 Elastin 286
10.3.4 Gelatins 287
10.3.5 Silk 288
10.4 Biopolyesters 288
10.4.1 Poly (Glycolic Acid) (PGA) 288
10.4.2 Poly (Lactic Acid) PLA 288
10.4.3 Poly (Lactide-co-Glycolide) (PLGA) 289
10.4.4 Polycaprolactone 290
10.4.5 Poly (Propylene Fumarate) 291
10.5 Conclusion 291
References 292
11 Biodegradable Biomaterials in Bone Tissue Engineering 299
Mehdi Ebrahimi
11.2 Essential Characteristics and Considerations in Bone
Scaffold Design 302
11.3 Fabrication Technologies 303
Contents xi
11.4 Incorporation of Bioactive Molecules During Scaffold

Fabrication 309
11.5 Biocompatibility and Interface Between Biodegradation
and New Tissue Formation 319
11.6 Biodegradation of Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials 320
11.7 Biodegradation of Polymeric Biomaterials 324
11.8 Importance of Bone Remodeling 325
11.9 Conclusion 326
References 327
12 Biodegradable Elastomer 335
Preety Ahuja and Sanjeev Kumar Ujjain
12.2 Biodegradation Testing 337
12.3 Biodegradable Elastomers: An Overview 338
12.3.1 Preparation Strategies 340
12.3.2 Biodegradation and Erosion 342
12.4 Application of Biodegradable Elastomers 342
12.4.1 Drug Delivery 343
12.4.2 Tissue Engineering 345
12.4.2.1 Neural and Retinal Applications 346
12.4.2.2 Cardiovascular Applications 346
12.4.2.3 Orthopedic Applications 347
12.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 347
References 348
13 Biodegradable Implant Materials 357
Levent Oncel and Mehmet Bugdayci
13.2 Medical Implants 358
13.3 Biomaterials 358
13.3.1 Biomaterial Types 359
13.3.1.1 Polymer Biomaterials 359
13.3.1.2 Metallic Biomaterials 360
13.3.1.3 Ceramic Biomaterials 363
13.4 Biodegradable Implant Materials 364
13.4.1 Biodegradable Metals 364
13.4.1.1 Magnesium-Based Biodegradable
Materials 365
13.4.1.2 Iron-Based Biodegradable Materials 367
xii Contents
13.4.2 Biodegradable Polymers 368

13.4.2.1 Polyesters 369
13.4.2.2 Polycarbonates 370
13.4.2.3 Polyanhydrides 370
13.4.2.4 Poly(ortho esters) 370
13.4.2.5 Poly(propylene fumarate) 371
13.4.2.6 Poly(phosphazenes) 371
13.4.2.7 Polyphosphoesters 372
13.4.2.8 Polyurethanes 372
13.5 Conclusion 372
References 373
14 Current Strategies in Pulp and Periodontal Regeneration
Using Biodegradable Biomaterials 377
Mehdi Ebrahimi and Waruna L. Dissanayaka
14.2 Biodegradable Materials in Dental Pulp Regeneration 379
14.2.1 Collagen-Based Gels 380
14.2.2 Platelet-Rich Plasma 382
14.2.3 Plasma-Rich Fibrin 382
14.2.4 Gelatin 383
14.2.5 Fibrin 384
14.2.6 Alginate 386
14.2.7 Chitosan 386
14.2.8 Amino Acid Polymers 388
14.2.9 Polymers of Lactic Acid 389
14.2.10 Composite Polymer Scaffolds 390
14.3 Biodegradable Biomaterials and Strategies for Tissue
Engineering of Periodontium 392
14.4 Coapplication of Auxiliary Agents With Biodegradable
Biomaterials for Periodontal Tissue Engineering 396
14.4.1 Stem Cells Applications in Periodontal
Regeneration 396
14.4.2 Bioactive Molecules for Periodontal Regeneration 398
14.4.3 Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Agents
for Periodontal Regeneration 400
14.5 Regeneration of Periodontal Tissues Complex Using
Biodegradable Biomaterials 401
14.5.1 PDL Regeneration 401
Contents xiii
14.5.2 Cementum and Alveolar Bone Regeneration 402

14.5.3 Integrated Regeneration of Periodontal
Complex Structures 402
14.6 Recent Advances in Periodontal Regeneration
Using Supportive Techniques During Application
of Biodegradable Biomaterials 404
14.6.1 Laser Application in Periodontium Regeneration 404
14.6.2 Gene Therapy in Periodontal Regeneration 405
14.7 Conclusion and Future Remarks 408
References 409
15 A Review on Health Care Applications of Biopolymers 429
Vijesh A. M. and Arun M. Isloor
15.2 Biodegradable Polymers 431
15.3 Metals and Alloys for Biomedical Applications 437
15.4 Ceramics 441
15.5 Biomaterials Used in Medical 3D Printing 445
15.6 Conclusion 446
References 446
16 Biodegradable Materials for Bone Defect Repair 457
Sharmila Jasmine and Rajapandiyan Krishnamoorthy
16.2 Natural Materials in Bone Tissue Engineering 460
16.2.1 Collagen 460
16.2.2 Chitoson 460
16.2.3 Fibrin 460
16.2.4 Silk 461
16.3 Other Materials 461
16.4 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers on Bone
Tissue Engineering 461
16.4.1 Poly (ε-caprolactone) 462
16.4.2 Polyglycolic Acid 462
16.4.3 Polylactic Acid 462
16.4.4 Poly d,l-Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid 462
16.4.5 Poly (3-Hydroxybutyrate) 463
16.4.6 Poly (para-dioxanone) 463
16.4.7 Hyaluronan-Based Biodegradable Polymer 463
xiv Contents
16.5 Biodegradable Ceramics 463

16.6 Conclusion 465
References 465
17 Biosurfactant: A Biodegradable Antimicrobial Substance 471
Maria da Gloria C. Silva, Anderson O. de Medeiros
and Leonie A. Sarubbo
17.2 Biosurfactants 474
17.2.1 Biodegrability of Biosurfactants 476
17.3 Biodegradation Method Tests for Surfactants Molecules 478
17.3.1 OECD Biodegradability Tests 478
17.3.2 ASTM Surfactants’ Biodegradability Test 479
17.4 Antimicrobial Activity of Biosurfactants 479
17.5 Progress in Industrial Production of Sustainable
Surfactants 480
References 481
18 Disposable Bioplastics 487
Tuba Saleem, Ayesha Mahmood, Muhammad Zubair,
Ijaz Rasul, Aansa Naseem and Habibullah Nadeem
18.2 Classes of Disposable Bioplastics 489
18.2.1 Structure and Characteristics of Most Common
Degradable PHAs 489
18.2.2 Properties of PHAs 489
18.2.2.1 Thermal Properties 489
18.2.2.2 Mechanical Properties 490
18.3 Pros and Cons 491
18.4 Substrates for the Production of Bioplastics 491
18.4.1 Agro-Waste as Substrate for PHA Synthesis 491
18.4.2 Cassava Peels as Substrate for PHAs Synthesis 492
18.4.3 Dairy Processing Waste as Substrate
for PHA Synthesis 492
18.4.4 Sugar Industry Waste (molasses) as Substrate
for PHA Synthesis 493
18.4.5 Waste Plant Oil as Substrate for PHA Synthesis 494
18.4.6 Coffee Industry Waste Carbon Substrate
for PHAs Synthesis 494
Contents xv
18.4.7 Paper Mill Waste as Substrate for PHAs Synthesis 496

18.4.8 Kitchen Waste as Substrate for PHAs Synthesis 496
18.5 Microbial Sources of Bioplastic Production 497
18.6 Upstream Processing 498
18.6.1 Fermentation Strategies for PHA Production 498
18.7 Metabolic Pathways 499
18.7.1 Enzymes Involved in the Synthesis of PHAs 499
18.8 Microbial Cell Factories for PHAs Production 501
18.8.1 Pure Culture for PHA Synthesis 501
18.8.2 Mixed Cultures for PHA Synthesis 502
18.9 Synthesis 502
18.9.1 Blending Methods of PHB and PHBV
Lignocellulosic Biocomposites 503
18.9.1.1 Solvent Casting 503
18.9.1.2 Extrusion Method 503
18.10 Factors Affecting PHA Production 504
18.10.1 Effect of pH 504
18.10.2 Composition of Feedstock 505
18.10.3 Inoculum Size and Fermentation Mode 505
18.11 Downstream Processing of Disposable Biopolymers 505
18.12 PHA Extraction and Purification Methods 506
18.13 Applications of Bioplastics/Disposable Bioplastics 506
18.13.1 Denitrification Applications in Wastewater
Treatment 508
18.13.2 PHAs in Bone Scaffolds 509
18.14 Characterization of PHA 510
18.15 Biodegradation 510
18.15.1 Biodegradation of PHAs 510
18.16 Plastics Versus Bioplastics 511
18.17 Challenges and Prospects for Production of Bioplastics 512
References 512
19 Plastic Biodegrading Microbes in the Environment
and Their Applications 519
Pooja Singh and Adeline Su Yien Ting
Abbreviations 520
19.2 Occurrence and Diversity of Plastic-Degrading
Microbes in Natural Environments 522
xvi Contents
19.3 Application of Plastic-Degrading Microbes 533

19.3.1 Role of Bacteria in Plastic Degradation 534
19.3.1.1 Actinobacteria 534
19.3.1.2 Bacteroidetes 535
19.3.1.3 Firmicutes 535
19.3.1.4 Proteobacteria 537
19.3.1.5 Cyanobacteria 538
19.3.2 Role of Fungi in Plastic Degradation 539
19.3.2.1 Ascomycota 539
19.3.2.2 Basidiomycota 541
19.3.2.3 Mucoromycota 541
19.4 Factors Influencing Plastic Degradation by Microbes 542
19.4.1 Microbial Factor 542
19.4.2 Polymer Characteristics 543
19.4.3 Environmental Condition 544
19.5 Biotechnological Advances in Microbial-Mediated Plastic
Degradation 545
19.5.1 Biosourcing for Plastic Degraders from Various
Environments 546
19.5.2 Multiomics Approach 547
19.5.3 Analytical Tools to Optimize Plastic
Degradation 548
19.6 Conclusion 550
Acknowledgment 551
References 551
20 Paradigm Shift in Environmental Remediation
Toward Sustainable Development: Biodegradable
Materials and ICT Applications 565
Biswajit Debnath, Saswati Gharami, Suparna Bhattacharyya,
Adrija Das and Ankita Das
20.2 Methodology 568
20.3 Application of Biodegradable Materials
in Environmental Remediation
and Sustainable Development 568
20.3.1 Biodegradable Sensors 568
20.3.2 Biosorbents and Biochars 573
Contents xvii
20.3.3 Bioplastics 575

20.4 Discussion and Analysis 577
20.4.1 Application of ICT as Future Vision 577
20.4.2 Sustainability Aspects 579
20.5 Conclusion 581
Acknowledgment 581
References 581
21 Biodegradable Composite for Smart Packaging Applications 593
S. Bharadwaj, Vivek Dhand and Y. Kalyana Lakshmi
21.1 Introduction to Packing Applications 594
21.1.1 Current Materials 595
21.1.2 Issues and Concerns 597
21.2.1 What are Biopolymers? 598
21.2.1.1 Starch 599
21.2.1.2 Cellulose 599
21.2.2 Advantages of Biopolymer Composites 599
21.2.3 List of Biopolymer Materials 600
21.3 Preparation of Composite 600
21.3.1 Identify the Materials 600
21.3.2 Fabrication of Biopolymer Composites 605
21.4 Indicators of Performance 607
21.5 Mechanical Properties 610
21.6 Biodegradable Test 612
21.7 Smart Packing Applications 612
21.7.1 Active Biopackaging 613
21.7.2 Informative and Responsive Packaging 614
21.7.3 Ergonomic Packaging 614
21.7.4 Scavenging Films 614
21.7.5 NanoSensors 615
21.7.6 Product Identification and Tempering
Proof Product 615
21.7.7 Indicators 616
21.7.8 Nanosensors and Absorbers 616
21.8 Testing of Packaging Using Different Standard 616
21.9 Conclusions 617
References 617
xviii Contents
22 Impact of Biodegradable Packaging Materials

on Food Quality: A Sustainable Approach 627
Mohammad Amir, Naushin Bano, Mohd. Rehan Zaheer,
Tahayya Haq and Roohi
22.2 Food Packaging 628
22.3 Food Packaging Material 629
22.3.1 Types of Food Packaging Materials 630
22.3.1.1 Paper-Based Packaging 631
22.3.1.2 Glass-Based Packaging 632
22.3.1.3 Metal-Based Packaging 633
22.3.1.4 Plastic-Based Packaging 634
22.4 Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials 635
22.5 Different Biodegradable Materials for Food Packaging 636
22.5.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 637
22.5.2 Polyhydroxybutyrates 638
22.5.3 Poly (4-Hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB) 639
22.5.4 Poly-(3-Hydroxybutyrate-Co-3-Hydroxy Valerate) 640
22.5.5 Poly-Hydroxy-Octanoate 640
22.5.6 Starch-Based Material 640
22.5.7 Thermoplastic Starch 641
22.5.8 Starch-Based Nanocomposite Films 642
22.5.9 Cellulose-Based 643
22.5.10 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 644
22.6 Applications of Biodegradable Material in Edible
Film Coating 646
22.7 Conclusion 647
Acknowledgment 648
References 648
23 Biodegradable Pots—For Sustainable Environment 653
Elsa Cherian, Jobil J. Arackal, Jayasree Joshi T.
and Anitha Krishnan V. C.
23.2 Biodegradable Pots 655
23.3 Materials for the Fabrication of Biodegradables Pots 656
23.3.1 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based
on Bioplastics 656
23.3.2 Biopots Based on Industrial
and Agricultural Waste 658
Contents xix
23.4 Synthesis of Biodegradable Pots 661

23.5 Effect of Biopots on Plant Growth and Quality 663
23.6 Quality Testing of Biodegradable Pots 664
23.7 Consumer Preferences of Biodegradable Pots 665
23.8 Future Perspectives 666
23.9 Conclusion 667
References 667
24 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers and Plastics 673
Parveen Saini, Gurpreet Kaur, Jandeep Singh
and Harminder Singh
24.2 Biopolymers/Bioplastics 675
24.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers/Plastics 677
24.3.1 Biomedical Applications 677
24.3.1.1 Biodegradable Polymers
in the Development of Therapeutic
Devices in Tissue Engineering 677
24.3.1.2 Biodegradable Polymers as Implants 678
24.3.1.3 Biobased Polymers as Drug Delivery
Systems 679
24.3.2 Other Commercial Applications 679
24.3.2.1 Biodegradable Polymers as Packaging
Materials 680
24.3.2.2 Biodegradable Plastics in Electronics,
Automotives, and Agriculture 681
24.3.2.3 Biobased Polymer in 3D Printing 681
24.4 Conclusion 682
References 682
25 Biopolymeric Nanofibrous Materials for Environmental
Remediation 687
Pallavi K.C. and Arun M. Isloor
25.2 Fabrication of Nanofibers 689
25.3 Nanofibrous Materials in Environmental Remediation 691
25.3.1 Water Purification 691
25.3.2 Air Filtration 702
25.3.3 Soil-Related Problems 705
25.4 Conclusions 708
References 709
xx Contents
26 Bioplastic Materials from Oils 715

Aansa Naseem, Farrukh Azeem, Muhammad Hussnain Siddique,
Sabir Hussain, Ijaz Rasul, Tuba Saleem, Arfaa Sajid
and Habibullah Nadeem
26.2 Natural Oils 720
26.2.1 Bioplastic Production from Natural Oils 720
26.3 Waste Oils 720
26.4 Types of Oily Wastes 721
26.4.1 Cooking Oil Waste 721
26.4.2 Fats from Animals 721
26.4.3 Effluents from Plant Oil Mills 722
26.5 Bioplastic Production from Oily Waste 722
26.6 Improvement in Bioplastic Production from Waste Oil
by Genetic Approaches 723
26.7 Impact of Bioplastic Produced from Waste Cooking Oil 726
26.7.1 Health and Medicine 726
26.7.2 Environment 727
26.7.3 Population 727
26.8 Assessment Techniques for Bioplastic Synthesis
Using Waste Oil 727
26.8.1 Economic Assessment 727
26.8.2 Environment Assessment 728
26.8.3 Sensitivity Analysis 728
26.8.4 Multiobjective Optimization 728
26.9 Conclusion 728
References 729
27 Protein Recovery Using Biodegradable Polymer 735
Panchami H. R., Arun M. Isloor, Ahmad Fauzi Ismail
and Rini Susanti
27.2 Biodegradability and Biodegradable Polymer 737
27.2.1 Natural Biodegradable Polymers 739
27.2.1.1 Extracted from the Biomass 739
27.2.1.2 Extracted Directly by Natural
or Genetically Modified Organism 740
27.2.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers 740
27.3 Recovery of Protein by Coagulation/Flocculation
Processes 740
Contents xxi
27.3.1 Categories of Composite Coagulants 741

27.3.1.1 Inorganic Polymer Flocculants 741
27.3.1.2 Organic Polymer Flocculants 741
27.3.2 Mechanism of Bioflocculation 742
27.3.3 Some of the Examples for Protein Recovery
Using Biodegradable Polymer 743
27.3.3.1 Chitosan as Flocculant 743
27.3.3.2 Lignosulfonate as Flocculant 745
27.3.3.3 Cellulose as Flocculant 747
27.4 Recovery of Proteins by Aqueous Two-Phase System 747
27.5 Types of the Aqueous Two-Phase System
and Phase Components 748
27.6 Recovery Process and Factors Influencing
the Aqueous Two-Phase System 749
27.7 Partition Coefficient and the Protein Recovery 751
27.8 Some of the Examples of Recovery of Protein
by Biodegradable Polymers 751
27.9 Advantages of ATPS 752
27.10 Limitations 752
27.11 Challenges and Future Perspective 752
27.12 Recovery of Proteins by Membrane Technology 753
27.12.1 Classification of Membranes 753
27.12.2 Membrane Fouling by Protein Deposition 754
27.12.3 Recovery of a Protein by a Biodegradable Polymer 755
27.13 Limitations to Biodegradable Polymers 762
27.14 Conclusions and Future Remarks 762
References 763
28 Biodegradable Polymers in Electronic Devices 773
Niharika Kulshrestha
28.2 Role of Biodegradable Polymers 776
28.3 Various Biodegradable Polymers for Electronic Devices 777
28.3.1 Biodegradable Insulators 777
28.3.2 Biodegradable Semiconductors 779
28.3.3 Biodegradable Conductors 781
28.4 Conclusion 783
References 784
xxii Contents
29 Importance and Applications of Biodegradable Materials

and Bioplastics From the Renewable Resources 789
Syed Riaz Ahmed, Fiaz Rasul, Aqsa Ijaz, Zunaira Anwar,
Zarsha Naureen, Anam Riaz and Ijaz Rasul
29.2 Bioplastics 791
29.3 Biodegradable Polymers 794
29.3.1 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers 794
29.3.1.1 Gelatin 795
29.3.1.2 Chitosan 796
29.3.1.3 Starch 797
29.3.2 Properties of Bioplastics and Biodegradable
Materials 797
29.4 Applications of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Materials
in Agriculture 799
29.4.1 State-of-the-Art Different Applications
of Bioplastics in Agriculture 800
29.4.1.1 Agricultural Nets 803
29.4.1.2 Grow Bags 803
29.4.1.3 Mulch Films 804
29.5 Applications of Microbial-Based Bioplastics in Medicine 805
29.5.1 Polylactones 805
29.5.2 Polyphosphoesters 805
29.5.3 Polycarbonates 806
29.5.4 Polylactic Acid 806
29.5.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 806
29.5.6 Biodegradable Stents 806
29.5.7 Memory Enhancer 807
29.6 Applications of Microbial-Based Bioplastics in Industries 808
29.6.1 Aliphatic Polyester and Starch 808
29.6.2 Cellulose Acetate and Starch 808
29.6.3 Cellulose and Its Derivative 808
29.6.4 Arboform 809
29.6.5 Mater-Bi 809
29.6.6 Bioceta 809
29.6.7 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 809
29.6.8 Loctron 810
29.6.9 Cereplast 810
Contents xxiii
29.7 Application of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Materials

in Food Industry 811
29.7.1 Bioplastic and Its Resources 812
29.7.2 Food Packaging 812
29.7.3 Natural Polymers Used in Food Packaging 816
29.7.3.1 Starch-Based Natural Polymers 816
29.7.3.2 Cellulose-Based Natural Polymers 817
29.7.3.3 Chitosan or Chitin-Based Natural
Polymers 817
29.7.4 Protein-Based Natural Polymers 818
29.7.4.1 Whey Protein 818
29.7.4.2 Zein 818
29.7.4.3 Soy Protein 818
29.7.5 Bioplastics Derived Chemically From Renewable
Resources 819
29.7.5.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 819
29.7.5.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Composite 819
29.7.5.3 Polybutylene Succinate Composite 820
29.7.5.4 Furandicarboxylic Acid Composite 821
29.8 Application of Bioplastic Biomass for the Environmental
Protection 821
29.8.1 Biodegradation of Bioplastics 822
29.8.2 Biodegradability and Environmental Effect of
Renewable Materials 823
29.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects 825
References 825
Index 837
Preface
Biodegradable materials have today become more compulsory due to an

alarming environmental concern and growing demand for polymeric and
plastic materials. Despite our sincere efforts to recycle used plastic materi-
als, they ultimately tend to enter into the oceans. It is necessary, therefore,
to ensure that these wastes do not produce any hazards in the future. This
has made it urgent to replace the synthetic material with green material
in almost all possible areas of application. In the field of medicine, bio-
degradable polymers are finding an immediate replacement to synthetic
polymers as these materials are closest to humans. Poor management of
large quantities of e-waste also attracts the application of biodegradable
materials. The sudden growth of demand for online food delivery services
created the need for packaging with green materials. Sooner or later, it is
inedvitable these materials will find their way into almost every sphere of
material application.
Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications covers a wide range of
subjects and approaches starting with a general introduction of biodegrad-
able material applications. Chapters focus on the development of various
types of biodegradable materials with their applications in electronics,
medicine, packaging, thermoelectric generations, protective equipment,
films/coatings, 3D printing, disposable bioplastics, agriculture, and other
commercial sectors. In biomedical applications, their use in the advance-
ment of therapeutic devices, like temporary implants, tissue engineering,
and drug delivery vehicles are summarized. This work is an indepth exam-
ination of the subject and it will be useful for environmentalists, engineers,
faculty, students, researchers, and laboratory workers that are associated
with biodegradable materials. The summaries of the work reported in the
following 29 chapters are as follows:
Chapter 1 explains the necessity of the development of biodegradable

materials in the electronics field. It reviews the list of suitable materials and
xxv
xxvi Preface
their properties to replace the conventional components. The improve-

ment in the performance and the reduction in the origin of e-waste are
also incorporated.
Chapter 2 focused on the synthesis and properties of various low-cost
bio-composites/bio-nano composites which showed improved electrical/
ionic conductivity along with the thermoelectric behaviors and can be
referred to as the active component in the thermoelectric generator.
Chapter 3 outlines the advances in biodegradable materials as a strat-
egy to manage escalating volumes of e-waste from the electronics industry.
The properties and novel applications of various biodegradable materials
with the greatest potential are discussed with an emphasis on revealing the
composition and working mechanism reported in the literature.
Chapter 4 presents a literature review on methods of obtaining proteins
from fish waste materials and on the development of biodegradable and
bioactive fish protein-based films or coatings. The incorporation of organic
and inorganic additives and plasticizers can improve the functional and
structural properties of materials.
Chapter 5 addresses biodegradable biohydrogels, a superabsorbent
material based on polysaccharides. Properties of carboxymethylcellulose,
chitosan, alginate, and carrageenan are detailed. Works on applications of
superabsorbent biohydrogels are described. A panoramic overview of lit-
erature based on a bibliographic search in the ScienceDirect database from
2010 to 2021 is also presented.
Chapter 6 describes the use of biodegradable and bioplastic in per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE), the characteristics, and properties of
the materials used to make them, the regulations applicable to this type
of materials, as well as their protective efficiency against harmful external
agents.
Chapter 7 focuses on the various applications and materials used for
biodegradable protective films. Processing and fabrication of biodegrad-
able-based protective films are also discussed in detail for industrial-level
production. Moreover, the limitations in the use of biodegradable protec-
tive films in daily life applications are also explained in this chapter.
Chapter 8 discusses the plastic materials currently in use to make
personal protective equipment. Sources of bioplastic and biodegradable
plastics developed recently from plants and microbes are also discussed.
Suggestions are made on how eco-friendly plastics can replace conven-
tional plastics in the PPE.
Chapter 9 focuses on the cutting-edge technology of novel bioactive
and biodegradable materials as essential components in modern dentistry.
Preface xxvii
A review on the development of biodegradable materials and speculations

on future research directions have been made.
Chapter 10 illustrates the information about widely applicable biode-
gradable and biocompatible polymeric materials in dentistry. It also con-
tains studies related to the model polymeric materials incorporated with
some bioactive agents such as bio-glass that aids in several dental condi-
tions. The structure, properties, and dental applications of various bio-
based compounds have been explained based on the traced literature.
Chapter 11 highlights the current fabrication technologies and essential
considerations in the production of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.
The biodegradation mechanism and interface biology are also discussed
in detail. A comprehensive summary of the available biodegradable bone
substitutes is provided, detailing the composition and indication of each
product.
Chapter 12 discusses the biodegradation testing of elastomers along
with the preparation strategies of biodegradable elastomers. A brief over-
view details their biocompatibility in the degradation profile. The focus is
given to the potential of these biodegradable elastomers in medical field
tests along with their significance in the medical field of tissue engineering
and drug delivery.
Chapter 13 gives comprehensive information about biodegradable
implant materials. The biodegradability concept is explained, and detailed
information about biodegradable metals and biodegradable polymers is
shared. Properties and degradation mechanisms of these materials are
given and also examples of the usage of these materials in biomedical
applications are presented in the chapter.
Chapter 14 details the recent advancements in the regeneration of pulp
and periodontal complex using biodegradable biomaterials. The applica-
tion of 3D printing, nanotechnology, and stem cell/gene therapy in the
functional regeneration of periodontium is discussed. Furthermore, the
challenges and barriers in the clinical translation of research studies are
addressed.
Chapter 15 explores the recent developments in biomaterial research
mainly for medical applications. Different types of biocompatible materials
like polymers, metals, and ceramics used in various healthcare applications
are discussed in detail. This chapter also emphasizes the comprehensive
report of the biomaterials used in medical 3D printing technology.
Chapter 16 emphasizes the recent development and advancement of
new generation biodegradable materials that enhance cell proliferation
and differentiation for the treatment of hard and soft tissue defects, espe-
cially in bone defects.
xxviii Preface
Chapter 17 discusses aspects related to the biodegradability of biosur-

factants, ways of cleavage of surfactant molecules, how to make them more
biodegradable, and the main biodegradation method used to confirm this
characteristic, studies on antimicrobial aspects and related bioactivity, as
well as the search for new sustainable surfactants.
Chapter 18 details the disposable bioplastic, classes, and most com-
monly used bioplastic nowadays. Their production methods, substrates,
microbial sources, upstream and downstream processing are discussed in
detail. The major focus is given to address the applications, properties, bio-
degradation, comparison of plastic and bioplastic, challenges, and pros-
pects to commercialize the disposable bioplastic.
Chapter 19 discusses microbes that are capable of plastic degradation.
The various microbial species, from different environmental conditions,
and their role in the plastic biodegradation process are presented. In addi-
tion, factors affecting microbial degradation, recent biotechnological tools,
and future opportunities to enhance biodegradation by these microbes are
also addressed.
Chapter 20 discusses the paradigm shift in environmental remediation
using biodegradable materials. The chapter focuses on biosensors, biochar,
biosorbent, and bioplastics. As a future vision for environmental pollu-
tion remediation, the role of information and communication technology
(ICT) is discussed. Finally, sustainability aspects are described and links
with sustainable development goals are established.
Chapter 21 illustrates the importance of biodegradable composites as
an eco-friendly alternative medium for the packaging industry. A frame-
work for the packaging industry is an essential criterion in meeting the
requirements while selecting the most low-cost and compatible bio-
composites which are easily biodegraded in nature.
Chapter 22 highlights the benefits of biodegradable plastics that have
the possibilities to replace conventional plastics. The main focus is on the
exposure of the various biological materials that are used for its production.
Chapter 23 discusses the environmental benefits of using alternative
containers which are nature friendly. This chapter covers a variety of sub-
jects, including materials for creating biodegradable pots, synthesis of bio-
degradable pots, the impact of biodegradable pots on plant development,
and the quality and testing of biodegradable pots.
Chapter 24 focuses on the growth of various types of biodegradable
polymers/plastics and their applications in medicine, packaging, electron-
ics, 3D printing, agriculture, and other commercial sectors. The uses of
biopolymers in the advancement of therapeutic devices like temporary
Preface xxix
implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery vehicles are discussed in

detail.
Chapter 25 discusses aspects regarding the use of bio-polymeric nanofi-
brous materials for environmental restoration. It describes the methodolo-
gies and parameters that are employed in the fabrication of nanofibers. The
structure, properties, and applications of the different bio-polymeric nano-
fibrous materials that are reported have been traced. It also includes the
latest advancements employed in the tailoring of nanofibrous materials.
Chapter 26 discusses the various sources of natural and waste oils for
the production of bioplastics. The most common oil discussed in the chap-
ter is waste cooking oil. Some genetic approaches are also discussed for
the improvement in bioplastic production from waste cooking oil with its
impact and assessment techniques.
Chapter 27 endows an inclusive introduction to the biodegradable
polymers for the protein recovery process. A concise summary of the
techniques using biodegradable polymers such as coagulation/floccula-
tion, aqueous two-phase system, and membrane technology are discussed.
Lastly, it highlighted the challenges and the future perspective of using bio-
degradable polymers for protein recovery.
Chapter 28 discusses the types of polymers based on their production
and the nature of biodegradability. Additionally, the classification of bio-
degradable polymers as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors is dis-
cussed. The major focus is given to communicate the role and applications
of biodegradable polymers in various electronic devices.
Chapter 29 discusses the importance of biodegradable materials, envi-
ronmental threats from non-biodegradable materials, and their replace-
ment by biodegradable materials is discussed. Moreover, the classification,
properties, applications, and prospects of biodegradable materials, as well
as bioplastics in different sectors such as agriculture, medicines, food, and
industries, are covered.
The Editors
July 2022
1
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
S. Vishali1*, M. Susila2 and S. Kiruthika1
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology,
SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
The generation of E-waste is escalating both in developed and developing coun-
tries. The impact on the environment and human health is huge due to the toxic
chemical components. E-waste management needs more sophisticated technol-
ogies, where it could be carried out only by developed countries and due to
the various associated challenges, developing countries could not. The usage of
biodegradable material could act as a better replacement to address this issue.
The possibilities of using the biodegradable material in the field of electronic
industry and the advantages, challenges, limitations associated with it are dis-
cussed in this chapter.
Keywords: Electronics, E-waste, electronic devices, biodegradable material
1.1 Introduction
In today’s modern communication world, users demand high speed, high
data rate communication, and reliable short-range communication. The
latest smart electronic gadgets that communicate are catching up in med-
ical, elderly assistance, fitness, and whatnot. These electronic gadgets have
improved our day-to-day lifestyle and communication with anyone in any
corner of the world. These electronic gadgets have taken control in almost
all communication, medical, entertainment, environment monitoring,
*Corresponding author: meet.vishali@gmail.com
Inamuddin and Tariq Altalhi (eds.) Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications, (1–28) © 2022
Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
agriculture, and health care [1–4]. On the other hand, these electronic
devices have created a massive amount of electronic waste, a big challenge
as new devices are hitting the market almost every day. This fast-growing
e-waste is dumped directly on land, as recycling is difficult in these devices.
Most of the materials are toxic, which definitely will pollute land, air, and
water [5].
With the world’s second huge population of 1.39 billion [6], India faces a
hasty risk under the E-waste and other wastes. India is the world’s second-
largest producer of mobile phones and one of the top 4 countries for poten-
tial E-waste output [7, 8]. Approximately 80% to 20% of discarded and
partially obsolete electronics are illegally dumped in India from the United
States and the European Union [9]. According to the Global E-Waste
Monitor Report 2020, India’s e-waste generation has increased over 2.5
times to 3.23 million metric tonnes in the 6 years leading up to 2019.
Around 70% comes from the government, private sector, and IT indus-
try [10, 11], with 15% coming from the home household, which delivers a
wide variety of white goods and other electrical devices [12]. In India, the
top 3 states, which contribute more amount of E-waste, are Maharashtra
(19.8%), Tamil Nadu (10.1%), and Uttar Pradesh (9.8%). Maharashtra gen-
erates the most E-waste, whereas Delhi has the most per-capita consump-
tion. This reveals that Delhi faces a significant threat of 388 environmental
pollutions, resulting in deteriorating air quality and bad health. In terms of
electrical items, the mobile phone had the most significant share of 366%
in 2017 and was followed by other components. Due to inadequate legisla-
tion, the country again obtains fractionally out of dated and trash electron-
ics from western countries, just as television, personal electronic goods,
monitors and accessories, projectors, laptops and mobile phones, among
others [13–16]. It is also vital to create and implement safe and ecologically
friendly technology, including initiatives, systematically. The sources of the
e-wastes are given in Figure 1.1.
At present, initial steps were taken to select materials to use in the devices
used for a short period to be biodegradable, nontoxic, and safe to use. Also,
researches have been concentrated on packaging materials for these elec-
tronic devices, which takes years for decomposing. Because the residues
are harmless byproducts, designing and developing electrical gadgets
from renewable or biodegradable materials is of significant interest. This
“green” electronic device must be mass-produced on a substantial indus-
trial scale using low-energy and low-cost technologies involving nontoxic
or low-toxic functional materials or solvents [17]. Biodegradable materials
should be decomposed, disintegrated, dissolved by natural organisms or in
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 3
CELLPHONE
PERSONAL ELECTRONIC AUDIO DEVICES

DEVICES
LAPTOP VIDEO DEVICES
SOURCES OF E-WASTE TELEVISION

MONITOR
ELECTRONIC SCANNERS
DEVICES
COPIERS
KEYBOARD
MOUSE
Figure 1.1 Sources of E-waste generation.
aqueous solutions and not be adding to pollution [18]. This chapter high-
lights different biodegradable materials that are used in the fabrication of
electronic equipment.
1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics

Biodegradable materials in electronics have emerged as an ideal and reli-
able solution to address uncontrollable e-waste. The vital characteristics
of biodegradable materials are that they can disintegrate, dissolve, are
eco-friendly, and are human-friendly. Traditional electronic devices will
provide stability, reliability, long-term performance, durability, and scal-
ability; however, biodegradable electronics is mainly used for a shorter
span. Once the operation is completed, it automatically dissolves and
physically disappears in a controlled manner in the physiological envi-
ronment [19]. As the critical characteristics of these materials are the
ability to resorb, dissolve, and physically disappear, they are mainly used
in the medical field for various applications like biosensors; biomedical
implants, such as stunts, sutures, etc.; biomedical capsules assisting heal-

ing process and so on [20].
The primary classification of biodegradable materials is biodegradable
organic materials and biodegradable inorganic materials [21]. The biode-
gradable organic materials are natural polymers or synthesized ones that
act as passive components regarding their structure and mechanics. They
are extensively used in biomedical implants [22]. On the other hand, bio-
degradable inorganic materials, like metals, semiconductors, and dielec-
trics, have good properties of degradation and electronics. When these two
types of materials are combined, it enhances the performance of sensors
and active devices [23–26]. Biodegradable polymers are one of the widely
used excellent substrates. Poly lactic-glycolic acid, polyglycolic acid, poly-
caprolactone, silk fibroin, rice paper, cellulose nanofibril paper are some of
the examples [27–31]. The devices or electronics developed on these poly-
mers disintegrate and dissolve when it comes to aqueous solutions due to
their swelling property. For instance, when the rice paper undergoes rapid
water intake, it gets bulged and disintegrates itself [17]. On the other hand,
polymers with slower swelling rates maintain the device’s performance for
a specific lifetime, especially for a few days to a week [32]. The material
used for encapsulation or covering the device should also be biodegrad-
able. Encapsulation materials, together with substrate materials, define the
lifespan of biodegradable electronics [30].
1.2.1 Advantages of Biodegradable Materials

Softness and flexibility: Materials used in electronics are
mainly used on the body. Hence, these electronics prefer
softness and flexibility so that it allows devices to conform
to different shapes.
Time Limits: Biodegradable electronics should have con-
trollable time limits because the electronics used should have
the property to dissolve, reabsorb, and disappear after their
lifespan at controlled rates. This capacity has made these val-
ued temporary medical implants as they do not require any
additional surgeries for removing them.
Biodegradable materials have extended their wings to various areas in

the field of agriculture to medical applications. Figure 1.2 shows the appli-
cations of biodegradable materials in various manufacturing of electronic
components.
RESISTOR
INSULATOR
CAPACITOR
TRANSISTOR
ELECTRODE
THERAPEUTIC DEVICES
OPTOELECTRONICS
SENSORS
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Figure 1.2 Application of biodegradable material in the field of electronics.
1.3 Silk
The protein fiber that is natural in its form, obtained from silkworm lar-
vae’s cocoons (Bombyx mori), is named silk. Fibrin and sericin are the two
primary proteins in this polypeptide polymer. Fibroin is predominantly
made up of repeating units of glycine, serine, and alanine that allow for
inter-chain hydrogen bonding, which gives silk fibers their mechanical
strength. Now, silicon-based electronics are fabricated onto silk material
[30, 33]. The minimal tensile strength made the silk into a nonbiodegrad-
able material and an external component is required for its degradation.
United States Pharmacopeia also confirmed it. The enzymes crumble the
fibroin into lower amino acids and accelerate the degradation rate, making
the aspect of the enzyme as high. Silk is another natural-based material
used both as substrate and conductors [34, 35].
The degradation rate could be regulated from days to minutes and

vice versa, also under the controlled environment. The advancement
in the research conducted by the scientists found the way for that [36].
Traditionally silk has been used as a primary choice for textile and medical
sutures due to its outstanding mechanical properties, chemical stability,
comfort processing, and flexibility. Silk is a viable material for biodegrad-
able and implanted electronic therapeutic devices due to its exceptional
biocompatibility, nontoxic nature with adjustable shelf life, bioresorbabil-
ity, and nontoxicity. These attributes may let silk be used as a substrate for
various electrical devices, such as sensors and transistors [37, 38].
The application of electrodes on the silk substrate was found on ther-
apeutic devices. It could be resorbed into the tissue ringed, in reach thus
exclude the demand of betterment after use. Under the therapeutic region,
silk has a huge demand for implantable and surgical devices [38]. For brief
thermal therapy to inhibit postsurgery diseases, microheaters fabricated
using silicon and silk are utilized. It has a decomposition span of 15 days.
Silk is also utilized in medicine storage and distribution because it is com-
pletely biodegradable and can be customized to disintegrate under specific
conditions [39].
The presence of water-soluble protein sericin is found as 25 to 30 wt.%
in silk, which will be removed during the production stage. The silicon-
based transistors made with silk fibroin films demonstrated excellent
electrical conductivity and biocompatibility. The silk substrate is used in
food as well as implantable devices. Silk has recently been employed as a
substrate for passive radiofrequency identification RFID circuits, which
can be used as sensors to assess the quality of items, such as eggs, fruits,
and vegetables [40].
Biodegradable silk is combined with an inorganic semiconductor for
high performance. Silk-based electronics are highly susceptible to water
and solvents, even though they have excellent degradation capability, good
performance and biocompatibility. Many Si-based electronics are con-
structed on biodegradable silk [41].
The bioresorbable properties of the silk were transferred in the forma-
tion of metal electrodes using polymethyl methacrylate as a temporary
substrate. It was indicated that the electronics could also interact with
living tissues with manipulated conditions in the utilization of biomedi-
cal. Researchers have utilized the characteristics of bio-based silk in the
manufacturing of bio memory resistors, organic light-emitting transistors,
metal-based insulators and capacitors. It exhibited which exhibited mobil-
ity around cm2/V.s with low voltage operation [42–44].
1.4 Polymers
Insulators and conjugated conducting polymers are the major divisions
of the application of polymers in organic electronics. Insulators work as
dielectrics or substrates in electrical devices, whereas conjugated polymers
serve as conductors or semiconductors. The processing compatibility of
the device is the basis for the selection of the polymer to act as a substrate.
Depending on their Fermi level, conjugated polymers can be in the form of
either semiconducting or conducting. Biodegradable polymers are made
up of both flora and fauna components. The polysaccharides sourced from
the plant (dextran, alginate, and cellulose) and animal (chitosan, colla-
gen, silk) are the main variety of naturally made components. Because of
their inbuilt enzymatic degradability, these naturally produced materials
are used in various temporary applications. On the other hand, synthetic
polymers are often physiologically inert, have more predictable physical
properties, and maybe chemically molded degradation profiles [45].
However, the following models restrict the types of biodegradable, pro-
tective materials that can be used as substrates:
compliance with device fabrication processing stages

thermal stability factors
solvent compatibility considerations
mechanical robustness considerations
1.4.1 Natural Polymers

As a dielectric, researchers used pure albumen presented in the egg white
of chicken as a protein-based polymer. The 2-nm RMS roughness of the
surface, with excellent dielectric properties, indicating that albumen is
adequate for OTFT applications, as assessed by atomic force microscopy
(AFM) [46]. Similarly, C60-based organic field-effect transistors (OFET)
were made with fresh egg white without any alteration. The residence of
hydrophobicity, smoothness, electrical breakdown correlated well with the
thermal treatment conditions [47]. Polymeric materials are used in stretch-
able and transient electronics. Polysaccharides, a type of polyimide derived
from protein-based polymers, are ideal biocompatible substrate materials.
Biodegradable plastics can be created from polymers derived from starches
and polylactic acid [48]. Ecoflex, for example, is a foil made from potato
and corn starch as well as polylactic acid. In 6 months, it degrades com-
pletely in compost with no residue [49, 50].
1.4.2 Synthetic Polymers

Polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS)
An inorganic-based transparent biocompatible polymer, polydimethylsi-
loxane (PDMS), has been broadly valued as an implant for plastic surgery
and fake limb. The studied key tendencies are hemocompatibility, biocom-
patibility, and inflammatory resistance [51]. PDMS has been uncovered
as a dais to create stretchable hardware, optoelectronics, and incorporated
frameworks that incorporate both natural and inorganic gadgets [52–54].
The stretchability of PDMS, joined with its biocompatibility, has prompted
electrical gadgets that can be embedded into living tissue to screen and
deal with inner organs like the bladder [55].
PDMS is a clear, elastomeric polymer with great biocompatibility. Due
to its ideal properties, PDMS is broadly utilized in adaptable and stretch-
able hardware, just as implantable organic applications. The flexibility and
biocompatibility of PDMS are being used to construct an implanted moni-
toring device for living tissue. The device was able to detect and record two
forms of bladder afferent activity. The devices were exceedingly durable,
having withstood 3 months of immersion in warm saline [56].
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)

The ability of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to quantify the electrical activity
generated by the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles has been demonstrated.
On top of its temporary substrate, PVA is also used to construct an inte-
grated electronic system on thin PDMS foil. Like a short-lived exchange
tattoo, this incorporated framework can be moved onto the human epi-
dermis and appended similarly to the skin with reasonable grip through
van der Waals collaborations. After the framework has been introduced on
the skin, the water-solvent PVA substrate might be washed away, and the
leftover aid can be handily pulled away with tweezers [57].
PVA is another biocompatible manufactured polymer that has been
utilized as a biodegradable and biocompatible gadgets substrate. It was
exhibited that the coordinated devices outside a lean PDMS foil on top of
a water-dissolvable PVA substrate to screen electrical driving forces deliv-
ered by the heart, cerebrum, and skeletal muscles. The coordinated circuit
has capacitors, light-radiating diodes, multifunctional sensors, oscillators,
photo-detectors, radio-recurrence inductors, semiconductors, and remote
force transmitter curls. When the coordinated circuit framework is intro-
duced on the skin, the water-solvent PVA substrate might be washed away,
and the appliance can be effectively eliminated away [58].
Polylactic acid (PLA)

Polylactic corrosive (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer that has a place with
the thermoplastic polyester family and has lactic corrosive as its essen-
tial sacred unit. PLA is produced by either direct polymerization or ring-
opening polymerization of the lactide monomer from lactic corrosive. The
US Food and Drug Administration has supported it for explicit human
clinical purposes.
It acts as a replacement for packing materials, automobile and elec-
tronic industries. Low glass transition temperature (55–60°C) and tight
handling temperature window are noticed as limitations, which might
make the material unacceptable for use as a substrate since it might
become adaptable and hence fail to offer sufficient mechanical help
whenever embedded in the body. Mixing with different polymers
and added substances, which could expand the mechanical charac-
teristics, could overcome these limits. Polylactic acid has been identi-
fied as a biomaterial substrate for OTFT that is resorbable [59].
PDPP-DP
A completely decomposable semiconductor polymer and disintegrable
flexible circuits were validated using diketo pyrrolo pyrrole (DPP) and
p-phenylenediamine, the semiconducting polymer PDPP-DP, which
showcase its mobility in a higher manner. It could be disintegrated within
a month duration with the help of iron electrodes, cellulose substrate and
Al2O3 dielectric [60].
Melanin
Melanin is a polymer that occurs naturally and has been discovered to have
electrical properties. Its conductivity is highly influenced by temperature,
physical form, and hydration status. It could create dual ionic properties
when it absorbs water [61]. This biodegradable semiconducting material,
which is utilized in tissue engineering, takes a minimum of 8-week span
for complete degradation [62].
PEDOT
The derivative of the well-known conjugated polymer polythiophenes is
poly 3, 4-ethylene dioxythiophene (PEDOT). PEDOT is an electronically
durable polymer under the physiological case. Its applications are found in
transistors, ionic pumps, actuators, and polymer electrodes. It brings heart
and skeletal muscles electrically active after electrochemical polymeriza-
tion [63].
PPy
PPy was among the first conducting polymers to be explored because of
its vast range of uses in bioelectronics and sensors. The most popular way
to make PPy is to oxidize pyrrole using ferric chloride or electrochemical
polymerization. It is commonly applied in the immobilization of biolog-
ical molecules. The examinations uncovered that nerve cells planted on
PPy film had a higher pace of endurance and augmentation than control
groups [64].
The man-made eco-friendly polymers have been employed in the for-
mation of the dielectric layer, OFET device. It takes 70 days for complete
degradation [65, 66]. Highly conjugated polymers, which include poly-
thiophene, polypyrrole (PPy), polyaniline (PANI), polythiophene, and
PEDOT, have been formed and effectively consolidated into different opto-
electronic gadgets [67].
1.5 Cellulose
Cellulose is the most well known and most economical biodegradable
polymer obtained from regular sources. Cellulose filaments are mostly
acquired from the wood mash, which is found in plants as microfibrils,
and are taken out from the source (wood chip, stem, or other plant parts)
through pulping strategies. It is made by pressing damp cellulose fibers
together and drying them into flexible sheets. The major characteristics
that make the cellulose apply in the fabrication of electronics are abun-
dant, eco-friendly, less weight, durable at high temperatures, and effortless
processing. It is relatively advanced than noncarbohydrate lignin. These
factors made it a capable substrate material in electronic applications viz.,
solar cells, FETs and OLEDs [68–72].
The crystalline region of cellulose is played as a source for the extraction
of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), which possess the solitary properties as
liquid crystallinity, good mechanical strength, and aspect ratio. The prop-
erties help in the making of the long-range form of semiconducting poly-
mer. Immobilization of functional groups onto it helps in boosting the
dielectric properties, thin-film transistors (TFTs). Another work utilized
a cellulose-based particle gel as a door dielectric layer to make electrolyte-
gated OTFTs. The flimsy electrolyte film was ionically conductive, had
solid electronic protection and adaptability, and had remarkable dielec-
tric qualities and high capacitance. Moreover, because of the presence of
prompted charge transporters at the dielectric-semiconductor interface,
the cellulose-based layer showed great dielectric execution in a memory

device [73–79].
The passive degradability of the cellulose substrates is found to be in
the range of month span with the aid of commonly developing fungi.
Considering this property, it is recommended to use consumer electron-
ics, which may result in lessened environmental impression [80, 81]. The
thickness of the cellulose-based substrates ranges in micrometers, which
blocks the need to assemble ultrathin devices and enhances the flexibility
and rate of degradation. Recently scientists have produced the trimethyl-
silyl-functionalized cellulose substrates with a lower thickness of 800 nm,
one-third of the actual one [82].
The presence of biodegradability, adaptability, opportunities for inte-
gration, sufficiently slim acquired it the creation of wearable and invasive
implement that may have to adhere to dynamic surfaces like the heart
and brain. For these applications, elastomers with polymer base and ester
cross-linkages are used. Ex: Poly (glycerol sebacate) (PGS), Poly (diol
citrates). These polymers are prepared using biodegradable materials like
citrus fruits [32].
Cellulose paper can dissolve fully in a matter of weeks, but many poly-
mers take hundreds of years to decay when exposed to natural elements.
The microorganism varieties, namely yeast, fungi, bacteria in the soil,
could help substantially in the decomposition process, ex: Postia placenta
(brown rot fungus) and Phanerochaete chrysosporium (white-rot fungus).
In addition to the application of wearable electronics as a substrate, it is
also used in tissue engineering, microfluidics, wound healing, and drug
delivery [83].
1.6 Paper
Paper is the most ancient and least expensive biodegradable sheet made
from plant or wood-derived cellulose. It is made by dewatering a weak
suspension of cellulose mash (sourced from wood and grass) and after-
ward getting it through a screen before squeezing and drying it into a
sheet. With contemporary roll-to-roll manufacturing technology, paper
output now reaches 100 km/h. It is extensively applied in recorded as a
hard copy, printing, bundling, cleaning, and an assortment of modern and
development tasks. Compared with the existing substrates involved in the
electronics industry, the price of the paper is low. Being a biodegradable
material with sophisticated production technology and low price made the
paper substrate a better choice for the electronics sector. The fabrication of
a thin film transistor (TFT) on a paper strip design was created by Brody
in 1960. The drawback found there was an absence of flexibility. It was later
overcome by the development of conjugated polymers, functional inks. In
recent years, there was much growth in the single transistor, integrated
circuits, and so on [84, 85].
The electronic circuits on paper are used to synthesize resistors, batter-
ies, consumer electronics, packaging, polymer solar cells, and LEDs. The
Whitesides team exhibited electronic circuits on paper, like customarily
printed circuit sheets (PCBs), yet are fundamentally less expensive and
foldable to build three-dimensional designs. Expendable frameworks for
the military and country security will profit from these paper-based elec-
tronic circuits. Its utilization as an alter apparent “electronic envelope” to
get the security of bundles [86].
Paper has, as of late, been displayed to function as a substrate for both
arrangements prepared polymer sun oriented cells and color sharpened
sunlight based cells. Paper-based OSCs were made utilizing a lean semi-
transparent unmodified paper substrate. The variety of cells could be
collapsed in stages without forfeiting execution. It could also withstand
submersion in water without deterioration because of the plastic lamina-
tion [87–89].
Radio recurrence recognition (RFID) labels [90] electroluminescent
gadgets, electro (thermo) chromic shows [91, 92], touchpads [93], and sen-
sors [94] are, for the most part, instances of electronic gadgets that utiliza-
tion the paper substrate. The common limitations observed in the usage of
paper substrates in electronic devices are porosity, vapor passability, and
high coarseness [95].
These issues are ordinarily tackled by covering or overlaying poly-
ethylene, polypropylene, wax, or aluminium hindrance layers. The costs
required here gave a plan to cover with watery scatterings of colors and
folios followed by calendaring to minimize surface harshness and poros-
ity. Calcium carbonate, kaolin, starch, PVA, latex are the familiar coatings
used for similar purposes [49]. To prevent water harm, vapor penetration,
silicon and acrylic originated insulators are used [86, 96].
A different group of researchers has identified the superior characteris-
tics of the application of paper on the development of electronic devices,
viz., (i) improved performance than the flat plastic substrate (ii) weight
reduction in super-capacitor, approximately in the range of 20% (iii) large
surface area, high porosity became a gained parameter for energy storage
devices [97].
1.7 Others
Resin
A resin is a plant or animal-derived bio-based material. Sap or viscous
exudates, for example, can be found in plant resins. Even without phe-
nolic secondary complexes, pitches are hydrophobic unstable and non-
volatile terpenoid intensifies beneath or above the plant surface. Because
of their therapeutic applications, industrial manufacturing of stains and
veneers, and use in incense and fragrance and these chemicals have piqued
researchers’ interest. Plant-based materials, such as amber and copal, for
example, are known to have a high insulating capability. Resins originating
from animals are also available [98].
Shellac
Shellac, for instance, is an insect-sourced resin produced by the Tachardia
lacca bug. It is made from the saliva of female lac bugs obtained from var-
ious tree species in India, Thailand, and China. Polyhydroxy acids, notably
jalaric acid, shellolic acid, and aleuritic acid, make up shellac [99]. It was
commonly used as a barrier to keep moisture from evaporating from citrus
fruits. It is also used in medicinal tablets for coasting and looking through
the region above unaffected areas of the gastrointestinal lot [98].
Generally, shellac has been utilized as a decorative paint for walls and fur-
niture and as a dye for silk and cotton fabric. It has also been used as a glazing
agent on medicines and a wax film on fruits to improve their retain further
[100]. This has been studied as a substrate material for electrical devices in
recent years. The existence of electric insulator and barrier properties was
applied to demonstrate the organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) successfully
[101]. Silk and shellac both give great surface smoothness when placed as
thin sheets. Shellac may easily be formed into 200- to 500-m-thick sub-
strate foils, which are used to make organic field-effect transistors and com-
plementary-type circuits, as well as indigo, a natural semiconductor [102,
l03]. Natural resin shellac has been processed before as the dielectric layer
in OTFTs. It was dissolved in the alcoholic flakes to form various thicknesses
and heated up to 100°C to bring the surface smoothness [104, 105].
Gelatin
The acceptance of gelatin as an absolute eco-friendly and biocompati-
ble substrate for making an organic field-effect transistor (OFET) was
attained in 2010 [106]. Gelatin has a roughness of about 30 nm in the
root-mean-square (RMS) path. It is further lowered down for the fabri-

cation of organic electronics. It is also blended with polymers to bring the
degradable biomedical devices. The mechanical properties were improved
in dielectric layers of OFETs when the gelatin is combined with poly (vinyl
alcohol) (PVA). The biodegradability and the absence of toxicity brought
the suitability in the application of bioresorbable electronics [107].
Aloe vera
The species Aloe barbadensis grows in the desert. Miller, familiar as Aloe
vera, is a delicious plant that fills well in blistering, dry environments. The
leaves contain glucomannans, amino acids, lipids, sterols, and vitamins, as
well as a water-based gel [108]. The gel is economical, simple to use, and
can be used in biocompatible and biodegradable electronics. Thus, Khor
and Cheong [109], who examined the dielectric qualities of normal Aloe
vera gel, suggested that Aloe vera be utilized to advance electronics. An
OTFT with an increased compatibility dielectric layer constructed of Aloe
paste got from new leaves and SiO2 nanoparticles. The electrical qualities
of the device were inspected following production and afterward again
following multiday, uncovering a decrease in electrical properties because
SILK
PAPER
POLYMER
CELLULOSE BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS

IN ELECTRONICS RESIN
GELATIN
SHELLAC
ALOE VERA
Figure 1.3 Biodegradable materials used in electronic materials.

of dielectric hydration and oxidation of the semiconductor and cathodes

[110]. The different biodegradable materials that could be used in the fab-
rication of electronic components are given in Figure 1.3, and their appli-
cations on electronic equipment fabrication are consolidated in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Application of biodegradable material on fabrication of electronic

devices.
Silk Transparent bio-memory [30–44]
resistor
Metal insulator
Metal capacitors
Light-emitting transistors
Electrodes
Therapeutic devices
Surgical devices
Si-based microheaters
Silicon-based transistors
Radio-frequency
identification (RFID)
Polymer Chicken egg white OTFT, OTET [45–83]
Polydimethyl siloxane Stretchable electronics,
(PDMS) optoelectronics, implants
for plastic surgery and in
prostheses
PDMS Stretchable electronics,
implantable biological
applications
PVA Detection of electrical
impulses
Polylactic acid (PLA) Specified human clinical
applications
PDPP-DP. diketo Enchane the mobility
pyrrolo pyrrole
(DPP) and
p-phenylenediamine
(Continued)
Table 1.1 Application of Biodegradable material on fabrication of electronic

devices. (Continued)
Melanin Electrical behavior
Polythiophenes Transistors, ionic pumps,
PEDOT actuators and polymer
electrodes
PPy Bio ele c t ronics and
s ens ors
Resin Insulators [98]
Therapeutic device
Shellac Substrate [98–105]
Electric insulator
Organic thin-film transistor
Gelatin Organic field effect transistor [106, 107]
Biomedical device
Egg albumin Organic thin-film transistor [46]
Aloe vera Organic thin-film transistor [108–
Semi-conductor 110]
Electrode
1.8 Biodegradable Electronic Components

In the electronics market, many new developments in materials have given
way to biodegradable electronics. Polyamide films, water-soluble materials,
biodegradable silk, and tungsten are some materials replacing the existing
rigid substrates. Polyamide flexible films have good optical characteris-
tics, mechanical strength with temperature resistance most expected for
next-generation wearable wireless sensors, thin touch screens for foldable
electronics, green and flexible electronics. Polyamide films are promising
materials for thin—transparent electronic devices that vanish at the end
of life. These films can eliminate the epoxy or acrylic adhesive layers from
the current printed circuit boards and replace thin circuit boards with the
same performance [111, 112].
Next is water-soluble materials, which are used as integrated circuits,
medical, and environmental sensors. Water-soluble electronic devices will
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Gobi steppe, migrations from the, 242.
Golden plover of the tundra, 78.
Gulls, breeding-places of, 53, 60.
Hare and Hounds, game of, in Nubia, 377.

Hare of Western Siberia, 150.
Hassanie, a Soudanese tribe, 204;
their appearance and singular customs, 204;
their huts, 205;
life of a Hassanie matron, 206.
Hazel-grouse, hunting of the, 142.
Heat in the desert, 170, 574.
Hippopotamus, the, 225, 230.
Hochtiere, an order including man and the monkey, 317.
Hornbill, the, 219, 576.
Horse, among the Kirghiz, 458, 484;
horse-racing, 485.
Hulman and Bunder, monkeys worshipped, 238.
Humboldt, Alexander von, xx.
Hungary, bird-fauna of, 540.
Hyæna-dog of African steppes, 195.
Instinct versus Love, 259.

Isegrim, name for the wolf, 152, 154, 564.
Jerboa of the Asiatic steppes, 108, 570.

Journey, in the Desert, 318;
in Siberia, 390.
Kaisak, Kasak, or Cossack. See Kirghiz.

Kalüm, price of a Kirghiz bride, 499.
Kazan, town of, 393.
Kirghiz, the, 397;
a sample of their poetry, 398.
See Nomad Herdsmen, and Family and Social Life.
Kittiwake, brooding-places of the, 60.
Korti, the Nubians defeated at, 370.
Koumiss, 469, 498.
Kulan, ancestor of the domestic horse, 115, 404, 571;
migrations of the, 245.
Lark of the Asiatic steppes, 105, 115.

Lemming of the tundra, 74;
migrations of, 254, 568, 580.
Lizards in Africa, 185.
Locusts, 230.
Lofodens and their bird-life, 48.
Love and Courtship among Birds, 259;
intelligence and emotional life in animals, 260;
all birds seek to pair, 261;
various methods of bird-wooing, 262;
their songs are love-songs, 263;
their love-flights, 265;
love-dances, 266;
coyness of the female birds, 271, 581;
combats among the rival males, 272;
devotion of birds to their chosen mates, 275;
occasional unfaithfulness, 277;
polygamous birds, 279, 581;
bird widows and widowers, 280, 581.
Love versus Instinct, 259.
Love-dances of birds, 266.
Love-flights of kites, harriers, &c., 265.
Love-song of birds, 263.
Lynx in Siberia, 155.
Mammals, migrations of, 234.

Man-like apes, 308.
Maral stag, hunting of the, 144;
value of his antlers for preparing a Chinese quack specific, 144,
573.
Marmoset, lowest of the monkey order, 291.
Marriage ceremonies among the Kirghiz, 498.
Marsh-harrier, a bird of prey, 102.
Melik el Nimmr, the “panther king”, 371.
Metallic starling, the, 214, 215.
Migrations of Mammals, 234;
causes of periodic migrations, 234;
wanderings of the brown rat, souslik, and mice, 235;
expeditions to obtain better food, 238;
fundamental cause of all true migration, 239;
scarcity of water a cause of migrations, 242;
migration of sea animals, 248;
mad flight of zebras and other animals in South Africa, 256.
Mines of Siberia, convicts in, 534.
Mohammed Aali subjugates the Nubians, 370.
Monkeys. See Apes and Monkeys.
Monkeys, long-tailed, 222, 581.
Mosquito, a terrible pest in the tundra, 81, 568.
Mud-fish of Africa, 183, 575.
Naturalist-travellers, list of works by, xxix.

Nests of birds, 217;
of the bee-eaters, 217;
of the golden weaver-birds, 218;
of the cow weaver-birds, 219;
of finches, 219;
of the hornbills, 219;
of the umber-bird, 220;
of the dwarf peregrine falcon and guinea-dove, 221;
of the African swift, 221;
of the crocodile-bird, 229.
New-World or broad-nosed monkeys, 293.
Nomad Herdsmen and Herds of the Steppes, 451;
domain and tribes of the Kirghiz, 452;
their racial affinities, 452;
physical features, 453;
dress, 453;
dwellings, 454;
wealth reckoned by their herds, 458;
importance of the horse, 458;
their sheep and goats, 464;
cattle, 465;
camels, 466;
dog, 467;
food of the people, 468;
their constant roamings, 470;
the winter camping-ground, 473;
manner of travelling, 474;
milking the animals, 477;
a charming picture of pastoral life, 480.
Northern Lights, the, 38, 86, 443.
Norway, harvest of the sea, 38.
Nubia and the Nile Rapids, 356;
the region of the rapids, 357;
its prehistoric ruins, 359;
vegetation and fauna, 363;
fertility of middle Nubia, 366;
the Nubian and Egyptian contrasted, 368;
Nubia subjugated by the Egyptians, 370;
sketch of the Nubian people, 373;
navigation of the rapids, 379;
a night on one of the rocks, 382;
the voyage down-stream, 383, 388;
a warning unheeded, 388.
Nyke, visit to the, 53;
its immense number of birds, 55.
Oases of the desert, 341.

Obdorsk, annual fair at, 440.
Ohrt, the Ostiak god, 421, 443, 448.
Old-World monkeys, 296.
Omsk, town of, 396.
Ornithologist (an) on the Danube, 540;
a tempting invitation, 541;
scenery on the Danube, 541;
a famous heronry, 544;
bird-life in the marshes, 546;
sea-eagle hunting, 548;
fighting and pairing of the birds, 549;
care for their young, 552;
protection of animal life in Hungary, 554;
a grand river picture, 556;
a wonderful district, 557;
vulture-shooting, 561;
a sail through a forest-wilderness, 563.
Ostiaks, the Heathen, 416;
condition of the people, 416;
probable number of the tribe, 417, 584;
contrasted with Ostiaks of the Greek Church, 418;
their physical features, 421;
language and dress, 422;
dwellings, 423;
employments, 425;
their reindeer and dogs, 426;
constant migrations, 431;
a “bloody meal”, 434;
at night in a tshum, 436;
at a fishing-station, 437;
hunting for game, 439;
the fair of Obdorsk, 440;
evils of brandy-drinking, 440;
marriage customs, 441;
domestic life, 445;
performances and prophecies of a shaman, 445;
religion of the people, 448;
their burial customs, 450.
Ostrich, legend regarding the, 190;
habits and omnivorous appetite of, 191, 576;
breeding of, 192.
Ox of the Kirghiz, 465.
Oyster-catcher, the, 49.
Pairing-cry of birds, 273.

Pallas’s sand-grouse or steppe-grouse, 115, 404.
Palm-tree of the desert, 342.
Pangolin of North Africa, 194.
Phalarope in the tundra, 80, 568.
Philæ, island of, 361, 584.
Pichta fir of Siberia, 128, 394.
Pine-marten, 158;
hunting of the, 161.
Polygamy of some birds, 279.
Primeval Forests of Central Africa, 201;
their magnificence in spring-time, 203;
sailing up the Blue Nile, 204;
a remarkable tribe, 204;
the forest reached, 207;
difficulty of penetrating it, 208;
the baobab-tree and duleb-palm, 209;
bird-fauna of the forest, 213;
varieties of nests, 217;
mammals of the forest, 222;
animal life on the river-banks and islands, 225;
rain-lakes and water-pools of the forest, 229;
visits of the locust, 230;
night in the primeval forest, 231.
Ptarmigan of the tundra, 77
Quagga, flight of the, 256; 569.
Ramwood of the Asiatic steppes, 112.

Rat, invasion of the, 235; 578.
Razor-bill or auk, 57, 61.
Reindeer, 76, 150, 240, 578;
ravages of disease among, 412, 426, 584.
Roe-deer, hunting of the, 146.
Rouble and kopek, 573.
Sable, rarity of the, 157;

hunting the, 161.
Sahara, the, 326.
Salt-steppes, 90, 98.
Salt’s antelope, 223.
Samoyedes, 417, 440.
Sand-grouse of the desert, 334, 570.
Scandinavia, ancient legend concerning, 33;
general aspect of the land, 34;
its fjords, 35;
islands and skerries, 37;
fisheries, 38;
bird-bergs, 40, 51.
Schlangenberg or Snakemount, 107, 129, 157, 408.
Schohazen or Catholic Servians, 555.
Sea-birds, habits of, 39;
value of their eggs and flesh as food, 48.
Sea-eagle hunting in Hungary, 548.
Seal, migrations of the, 250, 580.
Secretary-bird, 184, 187.
Serfdom, abolition of, 512.
Shaman or Ostiak priest, 445, 585.
Sheep of the Kirghiz, 464.
Shendy, massacre at, 371;
Nubians defeated at, 373.
Shrikes, different notes of male and female, 216.
Siberia, false ideas concerning, 120;
its vast forests, 121;
forest-fires, 123;
limited variety of trees, 127;
difficulty of traversing the primeval forests, 130;
their desolateness, 131;
uncertainty of finding game, 132;
Siberian methods of hunting, 135;
the trade in furs and birds’ skins, 135, 573;
game animals of the forests, 136;
hunting of game birds, 140, and of big and smaller game, 144.
Siberia, Journey in, 390;
travelling in winter, 391;
from Europe into Asia, 394;
Western Siberia reached, 395;
Russian hospitality, 395;
a great hunting expedition, 397;
entertained by a Chinese mandarin, 399;
a horrible massacre, 401;
at the Irtish river, 404;
in the Altai Mountains, 404;
camp-life with a Russian general, 405;
summer scene in the Altai, 406;
a voyage on the great river Obi, 408;
an unfortunate exploring expedition, 411;
ravages of disease, 412, 414;
the return home, 415.
Simoom, the, 171, 348.
Skua in the tundra, 79.
Sky-goat, 103, 570.
Souslik, the, 108, 237, 407.
Spiders and scorpions in a night-camp, 178.
Splenic fever, ravages of, 412, 584.
Springbok, flight of the, 257; 580.
Spring-gun of the Ostiaks and Samoyedes, 139.
Squirrels, migrations of, 253.
Steppe, origin and usage of the term, 87, 174.
Steppe-fires, 397.
Steppes, characteristics of the Asiatic, 87;
their scenery, 89;
vegetation, 91, 568;
beauty of the flowers in spring, 95;
animal life in the steppes, 97, 109, 115;
insects and reptiles, 107;
the giant wild sheep, 110;
the kulan or wild horse, 115;
a kulan hunt and capture of a foal, 119.
Steppes of Inner Africa, 168;
sketch of their seasons, 169;
miseries of the winter, 170;
spring heralded by terrible storm and rain, 171;
definition of the African steppe, 174;
inhospitable character of the region, 175;
its vegetation, 176;
difficulties of travelling, 177;
a night’s experience in camp, 177;
fauna of the country, 182;
the bird-fauna, 187;
mammals, 193;
stampede and destruction of animal life caused by the steppe-
fire, 198.
Stone-seas in the Nile, 367.
Storks, stories regarding, 276, 277, 278, 281.
Swallow, courting of the, 266.
Swärtholm brooding-place, 60, 62.
Syene, or Sun, on the Nile, 359, 584.
Taiga region in Siberia, 129, 572.

Tarpan of the Dnieper steppes, 115, 571.
Tchukutchak stormed by the Dungani tribe, 401.
Termite or white ant in Africa, 181, 574.
Tiger, hunting of the, 157.
Titmouse, the penduline, 563, 586.
Tiumen, town of, 395.
Tragopan, wooing of the, 267.
Tshum or hut of the Ostiaks, 410, 423.
Tundra of the Polar region, described, 63, 566;
its lakes, 67;
vegetation, 68;
prehistoric animals embedded in its ice-crust, 72, 567;
fauna of the tundra, 72;
characteristic birds, 77;
the mosquito, 81;
autumn and winter in the tundra, 85;
an unhappy expedition to one, 411.
Umber-bird, the, 220, 576.

Ustkamenegorsk, school in, 494.
Vodki in Siberia, 524.

Voles, migrations of the, 253.
Vulture, the crested black, 559.
Wady Halfa, on the Nile, 357, 362, 387, 390.

Wallace, Alfred Russel, xxiv.
Whale, systematic migrations of the, 248.
Wild sheep hunting on the Arkat Mountains, 488.
Willows (sallows) of the tundra, 69.
Wolf, 93, 151, 152, 486, 488, 564.
Wood-ibis, song of the, 216.
Yamaul, messenger of the gods, 446, 447.

Yurt or Kirghiz house, 454, 570.
Zaizan, town of, 403, 494.

Zebra, flight of the, 256.
Zoology, history of, xv.
PRINTED BY BLACKIE AND SON, LIMITED, GLASGOW.
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Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
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Biodegradable Materials and Their

Layered 2D Materials And Their Allied Application

Self-Healing Smart Materials and Allied Applications

Biofuel Cells: Materials and Challenges Inamuddin

Optical properties of materials and their applications

Actuators and Their Applications: Fundamentals,

Polymers Coatings: Technology and Applications 1st

Applied Water Science Volume 1: Fundamentals and

Advanced Biosensors for Health Care Applications

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Printed in the USA

2.4.1 Polylactic Acid–Based Thermoelectric Materials 36

4 Biodegradable and Bioactive Films or Coatings

5.4 Applications of Superabsorbent Biohydrogels (SBHs)

7 Biodegradable Protective Films 211

9.7 Biodegradable Materials in Alveolar Ridge Preservation 250

11.4 Incorporation of Bioactive Molecules During Scaffold

13.4.2 Biodegradable Polymers 368

14.5.2 Cementum and Alveolar Bone Regeneration 402

16.5 Biodegradable Ceramics 463

18.4.7 Paper Mill Waste as Substrate for PHAs Synthesis 496

19.3 Application of Plastic-Degrading Microbes 533

20.3.3 Bioplastics 575

22 Impact of Biodegradable Packaging Materials

23.4 Synthesis of Biodegradable Pots 661

26 Bioplastic Materials from Oils 715

27.3.1 Categories of Composite Coagulants 741

29 Importance and Applications of Biodegradable Materials

29.7 Application of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Materials

Biodegradable materials have today become more compulsory due to an

Chapter 1 explains the necessity of the development of biodegradable

their properties to replace the conventional components. The improve-

A review on the development of biodegradable materials and speculations

Chapter 17 discusses aspects related to the biodegradability of biosur-

implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery vehicles are discussed in

Keywords: Electronics, E-waste, electronic devices, biodegradable material

*Corresponding author: meet.vishali@gmail.com

PERSONAL ELECTRONIC AUDIO DEVICES

LAPTOP VIDEO DEVICES

SOURCES OF E-WASTE TELEVISION

Figure 1.1 Sources of E-waste generation.

1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics

implants, such as stunts, sutures, etc.; biomedical capsules assisting heal-

1.2.1 Advantages of Biodegradable Materials

Biodegradable materials have extended their wings to various areas in

Figure 1.2 Application of biodegradable material in the field of electronics.

The degradation rate could be regulated from days to minutes and

 compliance with device fabrication processing stages

1.4.1 Natural Polymers

1.4.2 Synthetic Polymers

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)

Polylactic acid (PLA)

the cellulose-based layer showed great dielectric execution in a memory

root-mean-square (RMS) path. It is further lowered down for the fabri-

CELLULOSE BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS

compliance with device fabrication processing stages