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BIOMASS, BIOFUELS, BIOCHEMICALS
Circular Bioeconomy: Technologies for Waste
Remediation
 Series Editor: Ashok Pandey
Distinguished Scientist, Centre for Innovation and Translational Research,
CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
BIOMASS, BIOFUELS,
BIOCHEMICALS
Circular Bioeconomy:
Technologies for Waste
Remediation

Edited by

SUNITA VARJANI
Scientific Officer, Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

ASHOK PANDEY
Distinguished Scientist, Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology
Research, Lucknow, India

MOHAMMAD J. TAHERZADEH
Professor, Swedish Centre for Resource Recovery, University of Borås, Borås, Sweden

HUU HAO NGO

Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia

R.D. TYAGI
Chief Scientific officer, BOSK-Bioproducts, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
Elsevier
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 Contents

Contributors ix 3 Types of composting and their integrated process 27

Preface xiii 4 Role of composting for attenuation of persistent
organic and inorganic compounds 29
5 The critical aspects of composting process
I improvement toward a novel clean composting
strategy 30
Solid waste remediation and 6 Sustainability assessment and technology gap of
sustainability in a circular cleaner composting 31
bioeconomy 7 Impact of compost application in soil biological
properties and climate change 33
1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward 8 Economic feasibility analysis of composting 34
zero waste approaches 9 Cerspectives for circular bioeconomy 35
Xiuna Ren, Tao Liu, Yue Zhang, Xing Chen, Mukesh Kumar Awasthi,
10 Conclusions 35
and Zengqiang Zhang Acknowledgments 36
References 36
1 Introduction 3
2 Biowaste generation, collection, and 3. Integrated terrestrial weed management
characteristics 5
and generation of valuable products in a
3 Biowaste recycling and resource recovery 7
4 Public engagement for the implementation of circular bioeconomy
waste reduction and recycling policies 8 Krishna Chaitanya Maturi, Izharul Haq, and Ajay S. Kalamdhad
5 Possible technology and management option for
biowaste 9 1 Introduction 41
6 Treatment and uses of ash and biowaste residues 2 Plants morphology 42
after processing 16 3 Weeds 43
7 Bio-based recycling and circular economy 17 4 Adverse effects and toxicity assessment of terrestrial
8 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy 19 weeds on crops 46
9 Conclusions 19 5 Weed management practices 50
References 19 6 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 57
7 Conclusions 60
References 60
2. Composting as a sustainable technology
for integrated municipal solid waste
4. Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass
management
for the generation of value-added
Tao Liu, Hongyu Chen, Yuwen Zhou, Sanjeev Kumar Awasthi,
Shiyi Qin, Huimin Liu, Zengqiang Zhang, Ashok Pandey, products
Sunita Varjani, and Mukesh Kumar Awasthi J. Nallasivam, P. Francis Prashanth, and R. Vinu

1 Introduction 23 1 Introduction 65
2 Understanding the process toward sustainable 2 Role of operating parameters in hydrothermal
waste management approach 25 liquefaction processes 66

v
vi Contents

6 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy 145

3 Feedstocks for hydrothermal liquefaction 69
7 Conclusions 146
4 Coliquefaction 74
Acknowledgment 146
5 Types of reactors for hydrothermal liquefaction
References 146
processes 74
6 Hydrothermal liquefaction process integration
with existing refineries 80
7. Sustainable wastewater remediation
7 Characteristics of hydrothermal liquefaction technologies for agricultural uses
products 82 Anita Singh, Kaushik Gautam, and Madhoolika Agrawal
8 Applications of hydrothermal liquefaction
products 87 1 Introduction 153
9 Process economics 92 2 Wastewater generation 154
10 Challenges and opportunities 94 3 Wastewater treatment technologies for use in
11 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 96 agriculture 157
12 Conclusions 98 4 Policies and guidelines for wastewater treatment for
References 98 agricultural uses 167
5 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 168
5. Circular bioeconomy in agricultural food 6 Conclusions 172
Acknowledgments 172
supply chain and value addition References 172
Arvind Kumar, V. David Chella Baskar, Umanath Malaiarasan,
Tanuj Misra, Manmohan Dobriyal, and Anil Kumar
8. Sustainable aquaculture wastewater
1 Introduction 109 remediation through diatom and biomass
2 Present situation of agricultural production valorization
and consumption problems 110 Bharti Mishra and Archana Tiwari
3 Linear food production system (LFS) 110
4 Circular economy and food supply chain 116 1 Introduction 181
5 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 119 2 Composition of aquaculture wastewater 184
6 Conclusions 119 3 Cultivation of diatoms in aquaculture 184
References 120 4 Role of diatoms in aquaculture wastewater
remediation 187
5 Potential application of diatoms based aqua
II feed 188
6 Biocontrol efficacy of diatoms 191
Industrial wastewater remediation 7 Diatoms as a source of high-value products 194
and sustainability in a circular 8 Diatoms for biofuels 195
bioeconomy 9 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 196
10 Conclusions 198
6. Sustainable conversion of food waste Acknowledgment 198
into high-value products through References 198
microalgae-based biorefinery
Jia-Xing Guo, Long-Ling Ouyang, Zhi-Gang Zhou, Carol Sze Ki Lin, 9. Membrane bioreactor for the treatment
and Zheng Sun of emerging pharmaceutical compounds
1 Introduction 125
in a circular bioeconomy
2 Classification of food waste 126 Punit Kumar, Mrinal Kanti Mandal, Supriya Pal, Hirok Chaudhuri,
and Kashyap Kumar Dubey
3 Treatment methods 129
4 Microalgae-based bioconversion of food waste 132 1 Introduction 203
5 Techno-economic assessment 140 2 Membrane bioreactor (MBR) 205
 Contents vii
3 Membrane fouling mechanisms 206 2 Types of wastewaters, sources and their effect on the
4 Methods to control the membrane fouling 208 environment 272
5 Removal of emerging pharmaceutical compounds 3 Microbial technologies used in wastewater
using MBR 210 remediation with special reference to heavy
6 Factors affecting membrane bioreactors metals 276
(MBRs) 212 4 Commercially viable technologies for wastewater
7 Comparison of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) with remediation 279
conventional processes 215 5 New dimensions to wastewater treatment and allied
8 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy 215 processes 284
9 Conclusions 216 6 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy 286
Acknowledgments 217 7 Conclusions 288
References 217 Acknowledgment 288
References 288
10. Circular bioeconomy perspective of
agro-waste-based biochar 13. Integrated technologies for
Muhammad Kashif Shahid, Ayesha Kashif, Younggyun Choi, the treatment of and resource recovery
Sunita Varjani, Mohammad J. Taherzadeh, and Prangya Ranjan Rout
from sewage and wastewater using water
1 Introduction 223 hyacinth
2 Feedstock for biochar production 224 Manjusha Anipeddi, Sameena Begum, and Gangagni Rao Anupoju
3 Conversion technologies 227
4 Applications of biochar 228 1 Introduction 293
5 Environmental impact of biochar 233 2 Harvesting of water hyacinth 295
6 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 234 3 Utilization of water hyacinth biomass 305
7 Conclusions 235 4 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 310
Acknowledgments 235 5 Conclusions 311
References 236 Acknowledgments 312
References 312
11. Sustainable anaerobic technologies for
biogas and biohythane production 14. Techno-economic analysis and
Yu Qin, Hui Cheng, and Yu-You Li life-cycle assessment of vermi-technology
1 Introduction 245
for waste bioremediation
2 Fundamentals in anaerobic technologies 246 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Rupam Bandyopadhyay, and
Puspendu Bhunia
3 Operating factors 247
4 Anaerobic codigestion 249 1 Introduction 315
5 Anaerobic membrane bioreactor 253 2 Mechanism of vermi-technology 316
6 Biohythane production 259 3 Application of vermi-technology 321
7 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 263 4 Life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies on
8 Conclusions 264 vermi-technology 330
Acknowledgment 265 5 Environmental benefits of
References 265 vermi-technology 337
6 Economical perspectives and linkage to circular
12. Microbial biomass for sustainable bioeconomy 339
remediation of wastewater 7 Conclusions 343
Neelu Nawani, Aminur Rahman, and Abul Mandal Acknowledgment 344
References 344
1 Introduction 271
viii Contents

15. Integrated technologies for the 4 Applications of activated sludge biochar 392
remediation of paper industry waste in a 5 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 396
6 Conclusions 398
circular bioeconomy
Conflicts of interests 398
Izharul Haq, Anshu Singh, and Ajay S. Kalamdhad
Acknowledgments 399
References 399
1 Introduction 351
2 An overview of paper industry 352
3 Paper industry waste 352 18. Waste-derived volatile fatty acids
4 Remediation of waste generated from paper for sustainable ruminant feed
industry 353 supplementation
5 Development of valuable product from waste 356 Amir Mahboubi, Swarnima Agnihotri, Clarisse Uwineza,
6 Challenges 357 Umarin Jomnonkhaow, and Mohammad J. Taherzadeh
7 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 357
8 Conclusions 358 1 Introduction 407
Acknowledgment 359 2 Organic wastes, digestion, and volatile fatty acids
References 359 in a circular bioeconomy 409
3 Ruminal digestion and fermentation 411
16. Constructed wetland system for the 4 Volatile fatty acids as feed additives in ruminant
diet 413
treatment of wastewater in a circular
5 Waste-derived volatile fatty acids (VFA) 417
bioeconomy 6 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 423
Rajat Chandrakant Pundlik, Rajesh Roshan Dash, and 7 Conclusions 424
Puspendu Bhunia
References 424
1 Introduction 365
2 Constructed wetlands 367 19. Sustainable management of algal
3 Enhanced configuration for performance blooms in ponds and rivers
growth 370 Omar Ashraf ElFar, Nurul Syahirah Mat Aron, Kit Wayne Chew, and
4 Hybrid constructed wetland systems for a circular Pau Loke Show
bioeconomy approach 374
5 Environment benefits of constructed wetlands 379 1 Introduction 431
6 Challenges of constructed wetlands 380 2 Characteristics and types of algae 432
7 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy 380 3 Potential of converting algae into
8 Conclusions 382 bioresources 432
References 383 4 Hazards of algal bloom 433
5 Harvesting of algae from algal bloom sites 436
6 Extraction of bioproducts from algal blooms 437
17. Production and environmental
7 Strategies to harvest and utilize algal bloom
applications of activated sludge biochar biomass in industry 5.0 438
Abhishek Gupta, Anuradha Singh, Talat Ilyas, Pankaj Chowdhary, 8 Perspectives for circular bioeconomy 438
and Preeti Chaturvedi
9 Conclusions 440
References 440
1 Introduction 387
2 Processing of activated sludge 388
3 Valorization of biowaste 390 Index 445
 Contributors
Swarnima Agnihotri Swedish Centre for
Resource Recovery, University of Borås, Borås,
Sweden
Madhoolika Agrawal Center of Advanced
Study in Botany, Institute of Science, B.H.U.,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Manjusha Anipeddi Bioengineering and
Environmental Sciences (BEES) Division,
Department of Energy and Environmental
Engineering (DEEE), CSIR-Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India
Gangagni Rao Anupoju Bioengineering and
Environmental Sciences (BEES) Division,
Department of Energy and Environmental
Engineering (DEEE), CSIR-Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology, Hyderabad; Academy
of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),
Ghaziabad, India
Nurul Syahirah Mat Aron Department of
Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University
of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
Mukesh Kumar Awasthi College of Natural
Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F
University, Xianyang, China
Sanjeev Kumar Awasthi College of Natural
Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F
University, Xianyang, China
Rupam Bandyopadhyay School of
Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
V. David Chella Baskar Rani Lakshmi Bai
Central Agriculture University, Jhansi, India
Sameena Begum Bioengineering and
Environmental Sciences (BEES) Division,
Department of Energy and Environmental
Engineering (DEEE), CSIR-Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India
ix
Puspendu Bhunia School of Infrastructure,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India
Preeti Chaturvedi Aquatic Toxicology
Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-
Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
(CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Hirok Chaudhuri Department of Physics,
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur,
India
Hongyu Chen College of Natural Resources
and Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Xing Chen College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Hui Cheng School of Environmental and
Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University,
Shanghai, China
Kit Wayne Chew School of Energy and
Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University
Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia
Younggyun Choi Department of
Environmental & IT Engineering, Chungnam
National University, Daejeon, South Korea
Pankaj Chowdhary Aquatic Toxicology
Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology
Group, Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research-Indian Institute of Toxicology
Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Rajesh Roshan Dash School of Infrastructure,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India
Sanket Dey Chowdhury School of
Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
x Contributors
Manmohan Dobriyal Rani Lakshmi Bai Central
Agriculture University, Jhansi, India
Kashyap Kumar Dubey Bioprocess
Engineering Laboratory, School of
Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India
Omar Ashraf ElFar School of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science and Engineering, University of
Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
Kaushik Gautam Center of Advanced Study in
Botany, Institute of Science, B.H.U., Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Jia-Xing Guo Key Laboratory of Exploration
and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources,
Ministry of Education; International Research
Centre for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of
Science and Technology; National
Demonstration Centre for Experimental
Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean
University, Shanghai, China
Abhishek Gupta Aquatic Toxicology
Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-
Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
(CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Izharul Haq Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,
Guwahati, Assam, India
Talat Ilyas Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory,
Environmental Toxicology Group, Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian
Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR),
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Umarin Jomnonkhaow Department of
Biotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon
Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Ajay S. Kalamdhad Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
Ayesha Kashif Department of Senior Health
Care, Eulji University, Daejeon, South Korea
Anil Kumar Rani Lakshmi Bai Central
Agriculture University, Jhansi, India
Arvind Kumar Rani Lakshmi Bai Central
Agriculture University, Jhansi, India
Punit Kumar Department of Morphology and
Physiology, Karaganda Medical University,
Karaganda, Kazakhstan
Yu-You Li Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Graduate School
of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai,
Japan
Carol Sze Ki Lin School of Energy and
Environment, City University of Hong Kong,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Huimin Liu College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Tao Liu College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Amir Mahboubi Swedish Centre for Resource
Recovery, University of Borås, Borås, Sweden
Umanath Malaiarasan Madras Institute of
Development Studies, Chennai, India
Abul Mandal School of Biosciences, University
of Sk€
ovde, Sk€
ovde, Sweden
Mrinal Kanti Mandal Department of Chemical
Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Durgapur, India
Krishna Chaitanya Maturi Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
Bharti Mishra Diatom Research Laboratory,
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tanuj Misra Rani Lakshmi Bai Central
Agriculture University, Jhansi, India
J. Nallasivam Department of Chemical
Engineering and National Center for
Combustion Research and Development,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, India
Neelu Nawani Microbial Diversity Research
Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and
Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil
Vidyapeeth, Pune, India
Long-Ling Ouyang Key laboratory of East
China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation,
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, East
 Contributors
China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese
Academy of Fishery Sciences, Shanghai, China
Supriya Pal Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur,
India
Ashok Pandey Centre for Innovation and
Translational Research, CSIR-Indian Institute
of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
P. Francis Prashanth Department of Chemical
Engineering and National Center for
Combustion Research and Development,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, India
Rajat Chandrakant Pundlik School of
Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Shiyi Qin College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Yu Qin Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,
Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
Aminur Rahman School of Biosciences,
University of Sk€
ovde, Sk€
ovde, Sweden
Xiuna Ren College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Prangya Ranjan Rout Department of
Biotechnology, School of Energy and
Environment, Thapar Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India
Muhammad Kashif Shahid Research Institute
of Environment & Biosystem, Chungnam
National University, Daejeon, South Korea
Pau Loke Show Department of Chemical and
Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science
and Engineering, University of Nottingham
Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
Anita Singh Center of Advanced Study in
Botany, Institute of Science, B.H.U., Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Anshu Singh Defence Institute of Bio-energy
Research-DRDO, Haldwani, Uttrakhand, India
xi
Anuradha Singh Aquatic Toxicology
Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-
Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
(CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Zheng Sun Key Laboratory of Exploration and
Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources,
Ministry of Education; International Research
Centre for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of
Science and Technology; National
Demonstration Centre for Experimental
Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean
University, Shanghai, China
Mohammad J. Taherzadeh Swedish Centre for
Resource Recovery, University of Borås, Borås,
Sweden
Archana Tiwari Diatom Research Laboratory,
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Clarisse Uwineza Swedish Centre for Resource
Recovery, University of Borås, Borås, Sweden
Sunita Varjani Gujarat Pollution Control Board,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
R. Vinu Department of Chemical Engineering
and National Center for Combustion Research
and Development, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai, India
Yue Zhang College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Zengqiang Zhang College of Natural Resources
and Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Yuwen Zhou College of Natural Resources and
Environment, Northwest A&F University,
Xianyang, China
Zhi-Gang Zhou Key Laboratory of Exploration
and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources,
Ministry of Education; International Research
Centre for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of
Science and Technology; National
Demonstration Centre for Experimental
Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean
University, Shanghai, China
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface
The book titled Circular Bioeconomy: Tech-
nologies for Waste Remediation is a part of the
comprehensive series Biomass, Biofuels, Bio-
chemicals (Series Editor: Ashok Pandey). The
leapfrog increase in solid waste and wastewa-
ter by industrial activities and waste mater-
ials generated by human activity, due to the
potential harmful effects on the environment
and public health, led to increasing awareness
about the alarming need for the development
of novel technologies for the management of
both solid waste and wastewater. On the
one side there is a need to minimize waste
generation and on the other side there is a
need to reuse and recycle them. The technol-
ogies for managing/treating such wastes play
an important role in mitigating issues created
by waste generation. Apart from this, recov-
ery of energy and fuels from wastes by vari-
ous technologies leads to notable reduction
in the total quantity of waste generated,
which needs to be disposed of finally in a con-
trolled manner while meeting pollution con-
trol standards. Reduction in the quantum of
solid and liquid waste is a critical issue, par-
ticularly in light of finite availability of dis-
posal sites at many parts around the globe.
Although treatment plants for waste streams
and by-product recovery processes have been
introduced in many sectors, life cycle assess-
ment and techno-economic feasibility provide
detailed understanding for adapting technol-
ogy for sustainability, which forms an integral
part of the circular bioeconomy. Integration of
biological, thermal, and chemical processes in
resource recovery from solid waste and
wastewater into value-added products would
xiii
help implement the circular bioeconomy ap-
proach including social aspects.
Among various environmental problems,
effective solid waste and wastewater man-
agement/treatment are important sectors
that need more attention. The present system
dealing with management/treatment of both
sectors is still not up to the mark for meeting
societal needs of the growing world popula-
tion. This book touches upon various aspects
of solid waste and wastewater manage-
ment/treatment. It covers technological in-
terventions in waste management in a very
straightforward and scientific manner. The
book also covers trends and perspectives
for circular bioeconomy in the treatment of
waste streams (solid waste and wastewater)
and production of value-added products
from the wastes. The book provides informa-
tion about the production of value-added
products through different ways to increase
product selectivity with the integration of
technologies. The editors have made serious
attempts to ensure that this book is as rele-
vant to all aspects as possible, addressing
burning issues in the field of waste remedia-
tion and sustainability and the rationale
underpinning them.
This book covers in-depth information
about the strategies and approaches facilitat-
ing the integration of technologies for waste-
water and solid waste remediation. The book
highlights the models developed to valorize
wastes for the production of bio-based prod-
ucts. Wastewaters and solid waste are an
abundant secondary source for finite re-
sources; hence, nutrient removal from waste
xiv Preface
streams is important in a circular
bioeconomy. Remediation/valorization of
solid waste or wastewater would reduce en-
vironmental pollution. Integration of tech-
nologies, including life cycle analysis and
techno-economic analysis of such processes
to valorize the wastes for value-added prod-
ucts, is one of the aspects of the circular econ-
omy that need to be given a holistic and all-
inclusive approach, and this has been
addressed in the book.
Various chapters presented in the book
have focused on the sustainability approaches
as the center theme in order to facilitate indus-
tries and policymakers for adopting circular
economy goals. Since the principal idea is to
make a transition from linear economy to a
circular bioeconomy, it involves advanced
technological and designing breakthroughs
to reduce waste with a close-looped system.
This pioneers a cradle-to-cradle and waste-
to-resources approach. Integration of various
technologies has been considered as possibly
the best way to utilize the wastes. Chapter 1
deals with the sustainable biowaste recycling
toward zero waste approaches, which em-
phasizes that it is essential to satisfy the re-
quirements of zero waste to recycle
biowastes in a sustainable way. In order to
improve and make better use of these biotech-
nologies in actual production, more efforts
must be made. Chapter 2 describes com-
posting as a sustainable technology for inte-
grated municipal solid waste, which
reviews the recent developments in the com-
posting of organic manure as a sustainable
technology for integrated solid waste man-
agement. Chapter 3 examines the efficiency,
toxicity, and viable option for converting ter-
restrial weeds into value-added products
through a biological management com-
posting technique in a circular bioeconomy.
Chapter 4 discusses the possibilities of
deriving chemicals, fuel molecules, and bio-
products from a range of feedstocks via
HTL technology, with special emphasis on
(a) characteristics and applications of differ-
ent products from HTL, (b) possibilities of tai-
loring the selectivity to specific chemicals by
using catalysts, (c) challenges and opportuni-
ties in integrating the HTL products in the
existing refinery infrastructure, and
(d) industrial potential and economics of the
process. Chapter 5 presents a circular
bioeconomy in the agricultural food supply
chain and value addition. Chapter 6 focuses
on the sustainable conversion of waste into
high-value products through a microalgae-
based biorefinery. Chapter 7 presents differ-
ent sustainable technologies used to reduce
the risk rate of wastewater utilization. It is also
correlated with the perspective of a circular
bioeconomy, i.e., shift from “use and throw”
to a “use, treat, and reuse.” The objective of
the circular bioeconomy can only be fulfilled
by recovering the resources from wastewater
so that they can be reused for the betterment
of the environment and benefit of the society.
Chapter 8 highlights the diverse role of
microalgae in aquaculture wastewater quality
evaluation, remediation, and aquafeed poten-
tial as a sustainable solution. Chapter 9 dis-
cusses membrane bioreactors for the
treatment of emerging pharmaceutical com-
pounds in a circular bioeconomy.
Chapter 10 focuses on the synthesis and appli-
cation of agro-waste-based biochar with a
perspective of the circular bioeconomy.
Chapter 11 focuses on the application of an-
aerobic technologies for circular bioeconomy.
The realization of recycling society requires
acceleration to drive the biomass flowing
along the cycles, while the anaerobic ap-
proaches are generally slow. Chapter 12 com-
piles the latest technologies in which
microbial/bacterial biomass was used for
wastewater treatment and remediation, with
a special focus on the remediation of waste-
waters contaminated with heavy metals de-
scribing the basic technologies as well as
 Preface
smart technologies. Emphasis is given to
the circular bioeconomy and how it can be
implemented in wastewater treatment.
Chapter 13 describes the numerous ways of
valorizing water hyacinth, which may have
a huge potential to create a niche in the circu-
lar bioeconomy. Chapter 14 presents a techno-
economic analysis and life cycle assessment
of vermin technology for waste bioremedia-
tion. Chapter 15 provides updated details
on the production of paper and the generation
of wastewater and its characteristics and tox-
icity. Biological and physicochemical pro-
cesses have also been discussed for the
treatment of wastewater from the paper in-
dustry. Chapter 16 presents the possible ap-
plication of constructed wetlands focused
on design, optimization, sustainability, and
resource generation toward a circular bio-
economy. Chapter 17 provides comprehen-
sive information on innovative technologies
and strategies for greener waste management
and sustainable economic development.
Chapter 18 discusses waste-derived volatile
fatty acids as a sustainable source of animal
feed. Finally, Chapter 19 focuses on the rela-
tionship of algal bloom and eutrophication
with particular focus on the application and
implication of algal. Agricultural cultivation
xv
of algae is one of the promising solutions to
improve the production and efficiency of
bio-based products, reduction of green-
house gas emissions, and extraction of constit-
uents that are used as diagnostic and
medicine tools. The chapter also discusses
steps to identify and harvest algae from the al-
gal bloom sites.
We gratefully acknowledge all the authors
for their contributions to this book. We thank
the reviewers who provided valuable sug-
gestions to improve different chapters. We
greatly appreciate Dr. Kostas Marinakis, For-
mer Senior Book Acquisition Manager;
Ms. Katie Hammon, Senior Book Acquisition
Manager; Andrea Dulberger, Editorial Pro-
ject Manager; Kumar Anbazhagan, Produc-
tion Manager; and others at Elsevier for
their support toward publishing the book.
We are confident that the book would be of
great value for academicians and researchers
as well as for policy planners and industry
persons.
Sunita Varjani
Ashok Pandey
Mohammad J. Taherzadeh
Huu Hao Ngo
R.D. Tyagi
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 S E C T I O N I

Solid waste remediation and

sustainability in a circular
bioeconomy
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R

1
Sustainable biowaste recycling toward
zero waste approaches
Xiuna Ren, Tao Liu, Yue Zhang, Xing Chen,
Mukesh Kumar Awasthi, and Zengqiang Zhang
College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China

1 Introduction

According to the World Resources Institution (WRI), the worldwide population is

expected to reach 10 billion people by 2050, with the prosperity and development of social
economy [1]. Huge energy demand will inevitably aggravate the depletion and scarcity of
nonrenewable resources while also bringing about serious ecological and socioeconomic
challenges such as huge waste generation, environmental pollution, and climate change
[2]. Hence, sustainable development is the best way to manage biowaste. Biorefineries are es-
pecially necessary in the circular bioeconomy. The transition from a single linear develop-
ment model to a sustainable economy which gas gradually triggered people attention [3].
Biowaste is considered to be waste from the agricultural production process as well as
waste from the development of composite materials. Biorefinery, a main technology of sus-
tainable development, could not only improve utilization efficiency of biomass resources, but
also prevent environmental pollution through effective management. Besides, the products
generated in the biorefinery process like biofertilizer, biochemistry, bioenergy, and others
were beneficial for economic development [4]. As an indispensable renewable resource for
energy and consumer products, biowaste has an inestimable potential value in the biological
development field to biorefineries due to its large quantity and diverse composition. Nizami
[5] reported that the world generates 1.3 billion tons a year of biowaste, and could reach 2.2
billion tons a year by 2025. The World Energy Council (WEC) reported that biofuels extracted
from biomass will replace about 40% of the petroleum used in transportation in 2050 [3]. To
achieve sustainability of biowaste management, there are a series of biotechnologies in
recycling biowaste, including thermal treatment as well as aerobic and anaerobic treatment.

Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals 3 Copyright # 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88511-9.00003-3
4 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

These technologies succeeded in the bioconversion of waste into fuel, heat sources, electrical
energy, and bioproducts (i.e., biochemical, biofuel, bioenergy) [6]. According to the environ-
mentally friendly target, the bioeconomy utilized organic resources to generate products that
had inestimable economic and social value. The development of the bioeconomy has huge
opportunities, potential, and broad prospects. The European Commission proposed a
bioeconomy strategy in 2012, updated in 2018, that recommended reinforcing bio-related in-
dustries and promoting a bioeconomic layout. It was important to exploit the potential of
biowaste and protect the ecosystem to achieve an environmentally friendly recycling
bioeconomy and worldwide challenges (i.e. climate change) [7]. From an energy point of
view, biorefineries are considered to be an effective method of biowaste management, pro-
viding cost-effective and prospective approaches for enhancing energy sustainability and
achieving sustainable waste treatment to realize a circular bioeconomy [8]. Using the method
shown in Fig. 1, the development from traditional thermoelectric fuels to bioagriculture and
bioenergy utilization to achieve sustainable of biowaste. Due to the variety of natural raw ma-
terials, the differences in applicable practices, geography and biomass availability, insuffi-
cient infrastructure, low investment and marketization. There are a variety of technology
and finance obstacles as well as society challenges [9]. The sustainable development of
bioeconomy is close to the contribution of biotechnology to the effective using of biowaste,
optimizing the incentive mechanism, strengthen innovation and promote industrialization.
Taking into account the huge development potential of the biowaste sustainable model,
based on the abundant biowaste resources and strong market demand, in this chapter, we
give a comprehensive explanation of its current situation as well as public participation in

Transportation

Generation sustainable management Treatment

Application

FIG. 1 Sustainable waste management.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 2 Biowaste generation, collection, and characteristics 5
implementing waste reduction and recycling policies and measures for the reasonable man-
agement and utilization of biowaste. Meanwhile, the technology, management option, state of
recycling and circular economy was succeed implementation in the concept of biowaste
sustainability.

2 Biowaste generation, collection, and characteristics

Biowaste is a type of waste material that has the ability to degrade organic matter (OM)
under an anaerobic or aerobic process. Biomass comes from living things, including biosolids
(sewage sludge), animals, and wood and green waste [10,11]. The concentration of OM and
nutrients required by plants in biowaste is increased, making it a good soil fertilizer. Com-
mercial resources from forests, agricultural products, animal carcasses, manure, sewage
sludge, and food wastes have been widely used. Household resources contain kitchen and
garden waste, paper and cardboard, and natural textiles that also form part of biowaste.
Rapid population growth, vigorous urbanization, and improvement of living standards have
increased energy demand and waste production. Biowaste will cause pollution in all aspects,
including producing odors easily, polluting water and soil, and increasing GHG, all of which
are major challenges facing the environment. It is necessary to explore sustainable approaches
to improve the ecology [12]. Biowaste comes from variable sources with different human
activities, including agricultural and industrial activities with heterogeneous and variable
characteristics. Proteins, sugars, and minerals contained in biowaste are valuable resources
for the generation of bioproducts through comprehensive bioprocesses. However, due to
differences in economic conditions and industrial structures, waste components in different
regions are different, and disposal methods are not the same.
Agricultural activities produce large amounts of lignocellulose, containing tea seeds, crop
waste (straw, stems, and shells), peels, and other seeds, mainly composed of cellulose (35%–
50%), hemicellulose (25%–30%), and lignin (25%–30%) [5]. Organic solid waste produced in
agriculture contains high lignocellulose, which can develop and produce valuable biological
products. They are widely used in industrial biorefineries and transformed into fuel, biochar,
organic fertilizer, and composite materials. With the rapid development of industrialization,
biowaste has attracted widespread attention, involving various sources such as plants, poul-
try processing, slaughterhouses, and the wood, sugar, and paper industries. For example, a
variety of products (ethanol, methane, oil, enzymes, and nanocellulose) are extracted from
orange peels through microbial engineering technology [13]. The food and paper industry
are the most important waste-sustaining sector. It is widely reported that food waste is highly
degradable and has potential for energy biotransformation. Among them, vegetables and
fruits are suitable for the composition of organic acids and vital enzymes. Animal meat, which
is abundant with protein and hair, is combined with anaerobic digestion to generate prote-
ases. Fat and protein flow out during fish processing, and they are suitable for producing es-
terase that is beneficial to chemical production [13]. With the rapid increase of population and
urbanization, urban biowaste has turned into an inevitable barrier to social development.
Household waste and catering waste are common biowastes whose main components are or-
ganic and can be used for a biorefinery [12]. In particularly, food waste comes from food

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

6 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

processing, producing, distribution, and consumption in residential kitchens, commercial

restaurants, and market shops. The composition of household waste is complex, containing
paper, bread, noodles, rice, and vegetables. They all contain organic ingredients such as fat,
cellulose, and protein. Because biowaste is extremely perishable, it can unpleasant odors,
GHGs, and other pollution. Its treatment faces severe challenges. Table 1 shows the different
types of biowaste strategic technologies.

TABLE 1 Different types of biowaste strategic technologies.

Type of
biorefinery Biowaste Strategic technology Remarks on circular economy References
Waste Sawdust, rice Reactor composting, Considering the improved treatment [14]
husk, pig static composting, efficiency and the environmental
manure windrow benefits, reactor composting may have
composting more potential in the development of
sustainable composting technology
Waste Livestock Electric field-assisted This opens a new way to recover waste [15]
manure aerobic composting heat during aerobic composting and
accelerate compost maturity
Waste Chicken Biochar and flue gas The effect of biochar combined with [16]
manure, desulfurization, gypsum on compost quality was closely
Caragana gypsum associated with microbial activities and
microphylla cocomposting functions, and played a pivotal role in
straw determining the agronomic
performance of compost
Waste Food waste, Reactor composting This study could provide the [17]
dry leaves appropriate conditions for small-scale
composting with food waste and dry
leaves
Lignocellulose Agriculture Enzymatic Proteomics-based saccharification and [18]
waste saccharification fermentation compound technology has
huge potential for global commercial
benefits

Lignocellulose Agriculture Anaerobic digestion It has huge potential to transform it into [19]
waste a sustainable platform with value-
added products/chemicals/biofuels.
The byproducts of PHA, bioplastics,
and organic acids meet social needs and
development
Waste Food waste Integrated Lactic acid and biogas demonstrate the [20]
biorefinery opportunity to transform from a linear
bioeconomy to a circular bioeconomy,
supporting regeneration and repair
systems by preventing waste and
economic profitability

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 3 Biowaste recycling and resource recovery 7

3 Biowaste recycling and resource recovery

There are many kinds of biological waste. The three types with the highest yield are the
most common: agricultural residue, food waste, and sewage sludge. Waste products can
be converted into valuable resources by incineration, anaerobic fermentation, or composting,
generating large amounts of heat, electricity, or fertilizer.

3.1 Livestock and poultry manure

Produced in the process of livestock and poultry breeding pollution is the main source of
agricultural nonpoint source pollution, occurring in the process of livestock and poultry
breeding livestock and poultry dung besides contain rich organic nitrogen phosphorus
and potassium, also contains metal elements, pathogenic microorganisms, all kinds of colloid
and has not been fully digest plant residues, have a bad odor, will directly or indirectly lead to
soil and atmospheric pollution and eutrophication of water bodies, after reasonable use can
be a resource [2,3].

3.2 Renewal
With the operation of the biogas project, renewal and biogas slurry disposal becomes dif-
ficult, renewal biogas slurry contains nutrients needed for plant growth, the survival of the
pathogenic microorganism quantity is little, and rich in advantage of organic matter in soil
improvement and small molecule humus is easy to be absorbed by plants, thus composting
is renewal biogas slurry, is one of the main ways of using not only can produce organic fer-
tilizer, still can reduce land resources, reduce environmental pollution, increase the economic
benefit [2].

3.3 Agricultural waste

Agricultural wastes are organic substances derived from agricultural production, includ-
ing plant and animal waste. Agricultural wastes are mainly lignocellulosic materials
consisting of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. By far the most common uses are compos-
ting and incineration [21]. Biodegradable polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and various
polylactic acid biocomposites, can be made from agricultural waste. Agricultural residues
with low moisture content (corn stalks) can be used as fuel [22]. Livestock manure contains
a large amount of useful microbial resources, is an underutilized source of nitrogen fertilizer,
and can improve soil quality and increase crop output [23].

3.4 Kitchen waste

About one-third of the edible food produced globally is wasted each year. Food waste
includes household and restaurant residues, processed waste, and crop residues [24]. Such
wastes contain carbohydrates (starch, hemicellulose, and cellulose), lignin, fats, proteins,
and large amounts of water. Kitchen waste is incinerated or buried with other combustible

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

8 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

waste [25]. Anaerobic digestion, aerobic composting, and chemical hydrolysis can all turn
food waste into biofertilizer. Only 40%–60% of the materials used in processing animal
products are used in food production. The rest of the skin and fat is recycled, mostly in
the form of meat and bone meal for animal feed production due to its low protein content.
These materials can also be used as an element for the generation of thermoplastic and
thermosetting goods as well as coagulants and flocculants utilized in wastewater manage-
ment [22]. Bones are excellent phosphate fertilizer, even wool, and can be treated as
fertilizer.

3.5 Sewage sludge

With the biological wastewater process, a lot of residues will be produced in the form of
sludge (biological solids). Phosphorus in sewage sludge can be recycled [26]. Sewage sludge
removes toxic compounds, pathogens, and unpleasant odors, and after stabilization, this can
be used in agriculture. Anaerobic digestion is the most commonly used method for sewage
sludge treatment, followed by improved biological phosphorus removal or phosphate re-
moval by sedimentation of struvite. The algal biomass in the wastewater algal system could
be utilized to recycle up to 44% of the nitrogen and 91% of the phosphorus concentration in
the struvite generation, with high economic value [27].

4 Public engagement for the implementation of waste reduction and

recycling policies

Solid waste is produced due to people’s daily activities and habits. Therefore, public
engagement should be a necessary condition for waste disposal [27]. The “3R” method—reduce,
reuse, and recycling—is the optimized method to manage waste. Public engagement is required
to implement 3R policies into practice. The level and extent of public participation in waste
treatment activities have gradually expanded. Long-term and effective participation in waste
treatment activities can cultivate public awareness, which is conducive to public support and
the sustainability of project activities.
In general, many areas and levels can be utilized “3R” polices by the public engagement.
These include waste-decrease activities, resource isolation from waste, engagement in
community reuse activities, the purchase of “green” products, advice on waste treatment pro-
grams and infrastructure, and participation in the assessment of waste disposal activities [28]
such as waste collection and prevention of littering. This arrangement is achieved through the
contract employment of collectors of recyclable waste for individuals and communities. Pub-
lic awareness of the use of the novelty waste treatment projects. These are mainly the
important aspects of public engagement in waste management processes.
Implementation of a comprehensive solid waste treatment plans: First of all, we must un-
derstand how to play a role in this generation and the needs of many interests involved in
order to formulate effective planning and sustainable waste management regulations [29],
collection, reuse, transport and disposal of solid waste and in the provision of services.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 5 Possible technology and management option for biowaste 9
Site and technical selection for waste treatment: Selecting the appropriate technology and
placing the facilities (recycling stations, landfills, waste from power plants, etc.) in the right
place involve complex processes and are usually performed by experts and technicians.
Effective supervision and assessment: Public engagement could also contribute signifi-
cantly to the effective and impartial monitoring of waste management services in both the
public and private sectors.
Education and awareness: Waste disposal to a great extent involves the actions of individ-
uals. Becoming performance and attitudes are therefore the first step go to effective public
participation. This awareness is important for people to understand the connection between
their performance and the environment, so that people can effectively participate in environ-
mentally friendly management.
Correct assessment and recognition are critical to maintain the spirit of public effort.
A variety of service facilities and infrastructure: With appropriate, convenient, and afford-
able alternatives and infrastructure support, the public can coordinate and participate in
waste reduction and separation activities.
Strictly implement policies and plans: A system of strict and enforced rules and penalties
for violations is one method to confirm higher engagement.
Institutional arrangements for public participation in government departments: A lot of
local institutions have special departments to promote community engagement in waste
treatment activities [30].
Under the solid waste treatment process, public engagement is essential. Legislation in
some ways has facilitated public participation. The community could give those participating
in waste management activities rewards and recognition. To sum up, waste reduction and
recycling are inevitably associated with people’s behavior and sound policy, so increasing
public participation is the best way to maximize waste management.

5 Possible technology and management option for biowaste

5.1 Thermal treatment and processing

5.1.1 Incineration
Definition of incineration
Incineration was the oxidative combustion react which included the combination of wastes
and oxygen in the high temperature under aerobic conditions. After that, the heat energy is
released and transformed into high temperature gas and solid residue [31]. Moreover, the
biomass was reduced greatly. The solid residue could be utilized in landfill and building
raw materials while the gas can be used as a heat resource [32]. The hazardous chemicals
and pathogens in the waste were degraded and ruined under the high temperature [33].
Bad odors and organic waste gas are also decomposed by high temperature.

The process of incineration

It is generally believed that the combustion of solid waste could be separated into three
stages: drying, combustion, and burnout.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

10 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

(1) Drying stage

The drying stage is a process in which heat can be used to vaporize and discharge water in
solid waste, which is of large significance for incineration. In addition, the drying of organic
waste is needed to absorb more heat [31]. If the moisture value is too high, the drying time will
be long, which could be attributed to the lower temperature of the incinerator. After that, it is
hard for combustion.
(2) Combustion stage
In the combustion stage, organic compounds with higher molecular weight are easier to
burn than solid substances, and they can be decomposed into some combustible gases [32].
(3) Burnout stage
After the waste is reacted in the main incineration stage, the content of the substances
attending in the reaction was decreased [33]. Due to the formation of the ash layer and the
increase in the proportion of the inert gas, it is harder for the remaining oxidant to penetrate
the ash layer into the deep part of the material to react with the combustible component.
Therefore, in order to burn off unburned combustible components in the material, a sufficient
burnout time must be ensured to extend the entire incineration process [32].

Influencing factor
In generally, it has four parameters required to manage so as to keep entirely combustion
[34,35]. And the parameters are as followed.
(1) Temperature
The temperature of incineration waste refers to the temperature at which the harmful com-
pounds at the waste are oxidized at high temperatures and decomposed to destruction. It is
much hotter than the ignition temperature of the waste. The incineration temperature consid-
ered herein refers to the largest temperature that can be reached by combustible solids. The
larger the value, the better the incineration effect.
The beneficial of incineration was degraded and ruined the organic poisons, and decreased
the smoke production. Moreover, extra high temperature increased the consumption of fuel
and the emission of nitrogen oxides in the waste, causing secondary pollution. With various
organic wastes, the optimum temperatures are different. For example, for the combustion of
chlorine-containing substances, the optimum temperature is 800–850°C. For the combustion
of cyanide-containing substances, the optimum temperature is 800–950°C.
(2) Time
There are two meanings about residence time, including the time of solid waste staying in
incinerator and flammable solid. The waste time is calculated waste from the start to the end
of incineration. The other time was cost 1–3 s, including the incineration flue gas from the
combustible solid waste to the discharge incinerator.
(3) Turbulence
Turbulence is a parameter of the degree of the largest combustible solid waste with air. The
greater the turbulence, the better the mixing degree of combustible solid waste and air, and

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 5 Possible technology and management option for biowaste 11
the organic combustibles can fully obtain the oxygen required for combustion in time, and the
combustion reaction is more sufficient.

(4) Turbulence
The combustible ingredient and stoichiometric equation was based on the air content to
inflamer a mass solid fuel responds to the air, called theoretical air quantity. It is always
the supplement more air than the calculated air volume so that the waste burns completely.
The extra air coefficient was considered as the rate of actual air to theoretical air. The impact of
extral air rate on waste incineration was important. It is necessary to burn organic waste
completely, which needs a proper air supply. Meanwhile, with the increasing air rate, the
oxygen will be provided enough and enhance furnace of turbulence, which is better for
the process. An extral air ratio of nitrogen may be less than the temperature of the furnace
inside, causing side effects for incineration that will increase the delivery.

5.1.2 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis definition
The decomposed of solid waste employed heating which was called by the pyrolysis under
the condition of no oxygen or anoxic, and then decomposed the liquid biooil, gas and carbon
[36]. The rate of the three products relies on the pyrolysis process and reaction conditions.
Commonly, a lower temperature indicates a slow process (<500°C), and the generation prod-
uct is a lot of carbon black; a higher temperature indicates a high speed process (700–1100°C),
and the generation product is primary flammable gas; and a middle temperature is fast
pyrolysis (500–700°C), and the generation product is liquid biooil [37,38].

Influencing factor
(1) Temperature
The temperature plays a critical role in the generation distribution of organic wastes
pyrolysis and the constitution of burning gase. Generally speaking, in order to maximize car-
bon generation, the condition of low-temperature and the long-term maintain under the py-
rolysis slowly process, in this case the mass and energy yield will reach 30% and 50%. During
conventional pyrolysis, the temperature was lower than 600°C and with a middle reaction
ratio, the generation of noncondensable gas, carbon, and biooil was substantially equal.
The temperature of flash pyrolysis was 500–650°C, which was mainly to enhance the gener-
ation of biooil and reach 80%. Meanwhile, at the same pyrolysis conditions, when the tem-
perature was higher than 700°C, which was mainly to product the gaseous and reach 80%.
(2) Time
A small solids hold-up was necessary to transform the materials completely at a consid-
eration size and reaction temperature. The volatile substances produced during the pyrolysis
process quickly leave the reactor to reduce the tar cracking time so that maximum biooil pro-
duction is obtained. Hence, the gaseous stage retention time was a critical factor to get the
largest biooil generation [39].
The characteristics of biomass materials: Biomass properties such as size, shape, and dis-
tribution are important to effect the behavior and distribution of the product. For instance, the

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

12 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

particle size can influence the control condition: when the size is lower than 1 mm, a reaction
kinetic ratio can control the process, but when the size is bigger than 1 mm, particles play key
roles in heat conversion [40].
(3) Pressure
The yield distribution of pyrolysis generation was affected by the secondary cracking and
the gas stage maintain time under the magnitude pressure.
(4) Heating rate
The low heating ratio was in favor of the generation of char but disadvantages to generate
the tar. Hence, flash pyrolysis is used to increase the heating rate to increase the production of
biooil.

5.1.3 Gasification
Gasification definition
Biomass gasification is the use of oxygen in the air or oxygenated material as a gasifying
additive. Carbon and air react (burn) to generate CO2 and CO, and water is formed. Under
high-temperature conditions, gases such as water vapor can react via the red carbon layer in
the reduction zone to produce CO, H2, and CH4 substances. The soil fuel, dry distillation,
oxidation, and reduction steps constitute the gasification.

The principle of gasification

The biomass falling in the gasifier reacts with the gasifying agent rising in the opposite
direction. The rising hot air flow will fully mix with the wet material poured in from the
top, so that the moisture in the material can be evaporated. When the dried material descends,
it is heated by the hot air flow and pyrolyzed. Volatile substances are released, and the
remaining part will continue to descend to form carbon. CO2 and H2O are reduced to CO
and H2, and called water vapor to react, and the remaining carbon will react with the air
entering from the bottom. The heat in the entire gasifier is provided by the heat released
by combustion [41,42].

5.2 Aerobic and anaerobic technology for biowaste recycling and resource
recovery
5.2.1 Aerobic technology
Aerobic composting can fully degrade organic matter and turn it into a safe and stable or-
ganic fertilizer. This is an effective method for treating organic waste. Fermented and
decomposed organic fertilizers have a high degree of humification. Using them in farmland
can improve the soil, increase soil nutrients, and retain moisture [43]. The process of
composting is presented in Fig. 2. The influencing factors of composting are crucial because
they can determine the success of composting. To obtain good compost, these conditions must
be controlled reasonably. If not, the quality of compost will be reduced and it may also pollute
the environment. The key factors affecting composting are temperature, water content,
oxygen supply, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and particle size [44].

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 5 Possible technology and management option for biowaste 13

FIG. 2 The mechanism of composting.

(1) Temperature
Temperature is important because the right temperature in the reactor allows microorgan-
isms to thrive and effectively process organic matter. It is generally believed that there will be
three stages in the composting process, namely the warming period, the high temperature
period, and the maturity period. At the beginning of composting, microorganisms multiply,
and the temperature starts to rise at this time; this is called the warming period. As the mi-
croorganisms continue to multiply, their number reaches a peak and the temperature rises,
eventually reaching about 50–55°C and even up to 70°C. At this stage, it can effectively kill
pathogenic bacteria, parasite eggs, etc. Last, the compost enters the maturity period, and the
temperature of the compost gradually drops and finally becomes equal to the ambient
temperature.
(2) Moisture content
The correct moisture content could promote the reproduction of microorganisms and af-
fect compost quality. It is generally believed that when the moisture is 50–70%, the aerobic
composting effect is the best. However, due to different composting methods and composting
raw materials, the optimal moisture content is also slightly different [45]. Bernal et al. [44]
illustrated that the optimal moisture content of cow manure compost is 65% while pig manure
compost is 66%.
(3) Oxygen supply
Oxygen plays a very important role in the aerobic composting process. Therefore, it is par-
ticularly important to ensure a suitable oxygen supply. Different composts have different ox-
ygen supply requirements. Lau et al. [46] believed that the optimal oxygen supply for cow
dung composting was 0.04–0.08 L/min; Chowdhury et al. [47] believed that an 0.21 L/min
oxygen supply was suitable for cow dung composting. Some scholars have also proposed that
the oxygen supply be between 12 and 20% [44,48].
(4) C/N ratio
Carbon and nitrogen sources are important for microorganisms to grow and reproduce. In
composting, the C/N ratio is used to describe the level of carbon and nitrogen sources, and

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14 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

neither high nor low C/N ratios are conducive to the growth of microorganisms. Generally,
about 25–35 is a suitable initial C/N ratio for aerobic composting.
(5) pH
pH is also particularly important for the growth and development of microorganisms.
Therefore, the proper pH is particularly important for the quality of composting. Generally,
the most suitable pH for composting is between 7.5 and 8.5. However, some studies have
shown that the composting effect is better when the pH value is 6.7–9.0.
(6) Particle size
The size of the composting material has a great influence on the composting process. Too
small a particle size is not conducive to oxygen circulation, and too large a particle size is not
conducive to water retention. The proper particle size can make oxygen and water enough to
promote microbial reproduction [44].

5.2.2 Anaerobic digestion

As a green and environmentally friendly technology, anaerobic digestion has been greatly
developed in China in the past 20 years. Actually, the technology of anaerobic microorgan-
isms was decomposed and recycled organic wastes to generate the cleaning gas. It meets peo-
ple’s needs and also treats kitchen waste with high value [49]. The early anaerobic digestion
technology was primary utilized to treat sludge and high-concentration wastewater, but it
was less used in the treatment of organic matter [50].

The principle of anaerobic digestion

As illustrated in Fig. 3, there are four phases of anaerobic microorganism decomposition of
macromolecular organic compounds [51]. In the anaerobic reaction, the macromolecular or-
ganic compounds (i.e., proteins and carbohydrates) in the kitchen waste are hydrolyzed by
microorganisms into small molecular organic matter such as polysaccharides. Most re-
searchers believe that the hydrolysis of particulate organic matter is a rate-limiting process.
Because this process requires enzymes (i.e., hydrolase and coenzyme) to attach to the surface
of the particles first, long-chain substances are broken down into short chains [52]. Therefore,
the degradation rate of polymer chains mainly depends on the hydrolysis rate of the entire
anaerobic fermentation process. The short-chain substances produced by this process are de-
graded into small molecular substances (i.e., glucose and amino acids) by acid-producing
bacteria through the acidification stage, and there are also byproducts and other metabolites
(i.e., NH3 and H2S). The third phase is the acetic acid reaction stage, that is, acetic acid uses
glucose and amino acids to produce volatile fatty acids, H2, and CO2. Ultimately, the methane
produced by methanogens will also be emitted [53]. The product of the previous stage is syn-
thesized into methane. In a series of fermentation processes, most of the energy is stored in
methane, and only a little part is used for the reproduction of microorganisms.

Influencing factor
The anaerobic fermentation process is a series of complex biochemical processes, and there
are many factors that will affect them. There are also interrelationships between these factors.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 5 Possible technology and management option for biowaste 15

FIG. 3 Subsequent steps in the anaerobic digestion process.

(1) Temperature
The temperature plays a critical role in affecting microbial activities. Anaerobic fermenta-
tion can run within a certain temperature range, and the use of rice straw for gas production
will increase with the increase of fermentation temperature [54].
(2) pH
The wave tendency of the pH value has a significant impact of normality on the anaerobic
fermentation system. And the change of the value directly influenced no the growth and met-
abolic activities of the mites in the process. The suitable range of formazan-producing bacteria
is that when the value is lower or higher, the activity of the fungus is inhibited. In general, the
value in the system should be maintained outside this range, which may prolong the gas pro-
duction time and lead to reduced gas production or even stop gas production [55].
(3) C/N
The value of the fermented feedstock refers to the ratio of the total carbon content in the
organic matter to the total nitrogen content. The anaerobic fermentation of microorganisms
for normal life metabolic activities requires proper nutrients, and the optimal value for anaer-
obic fermentation is between. Among agricultural wastes, straw is rich in carbon sources, and
livestock and poultry manure can provide sufficient nitrogen sources. Therefore, in
compounding, it can be matched with the value according to the value, and the digestion
gas generation can be enhanced.

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16 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

6 Treatment and uses of ash and biowaste residues after processing

6.1 Compost
Composting is one of the most environmentally friendly ways to recycle biological waste.
During composting, organic matter content decreases and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium) concentration increases continuously. Qualified composting products can
be directly applied to the field to improve soil fertility and crop yield. There are many factors
that influence the composting process, such as nutrient balance, pH, the porosity and water
content of the composting mixture, ventilation, water content, and temperature. Therefore,
controlling these parameters has become a key factor in optimizing the composting process,
as they affect microbial growth and organic degradation [56]. The effectiveness of composting
materials as a source of nutrients for agriculture depends on the quality of the compost. The
quality standard of composting material depends on its nutrient composition, the stability of
organic matter, and the presence of heavy metals and toxic compounds.

6.2 Anaerobic digestion (AD)

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is considered one of the most effective biological waste disposal
methods. Anaerobic digestion produces nutrient-rich digestible while reducing the natural
effects of waste transfer and this can be used as a fertilizer or organic improver. Using bio-
logical waste can not only provide vitality but also lead to the recovery of other nutrients
[57]. The two forms of anaerobic digestion and composting can be promoted together because
the solid parts of the digestive juices can be vigorously treated to recover renewable energy
and nutrients from general waste [58]. These beneficial nutrients found in waste are
misplaced resources that can be recycled through appropriate biochemical techniques and
used as nutrient-rich fertilizers in rural areas to maintain soil fertility and to rebuild at a
low cost. In this way, the potential recycling of nutrients can be enhanced while reducing
the pollution load. The end product of composting may be the result of microbial action
and can contain mineral nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Most waste
materials can be treated by anaerobic digestion, through a series of microbial action, pro-
duced biogas and digestion solution, suitable for fertilization. Polish scientists conceived a
production line that treats digestion and ash from biomass conversion, which is the raw ma-
terial for fertilizer production.

6.3 Ash
Incineration is the most commonly used procedure for disposing of biological waste [59].
After burning, some materials can be recycled, such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium.
It also produces a lot of waste, which is disposed of in landfills. Because of the basic nature of
ash, biomass ash is a potential fertilizer for crops. Therefore ash can be used rationally, espe-
cially in acidic soils. In addition, field research has shown that ash and biowaste can provide
usable nutrients to the soil, improve soil pH, and increase agricultural yields [60].
Ash is one of the byproducts of waste incineration, and is generally buried directly. As a
strong alkali, wood ash is a neutralizer of acidic soil and an effective fertilizer [61]. Many

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 7 Bio-based recycling and circular economy 17
elements for plant growth can be found in wood ash, including nitrogen and phosphorus, but
nitrogen reaches the gas phase during biomass combustion. Therefore, nitrogen must be
replenished before ash can be used for agriculture. The mixture of hydrolyzed products from
animal residues and cremains makes up the plant’s complete set of nutrients. The valuable
components to return to the environment is the green waste management method, can close
micronutrients and a large number of elements of the cycle [62]. A study of 35 different plant
biomasses revealed the ashes of a variety of sources of chemical composition, which can an-
alyze the toxic compounds (Pb, As). In the ashes, to determine the high content of constant
elements, and micronutrients and amounts of toxic armamentarium, this indicates that may
directly ashes for fertilizing purposes.

6.4 Biochar
Biochar is the carbon produced by biomass pyrolysis. It has been used to improve soil qual-
ity for many years. Biochar from marine and freshwater algae has a higher nutrient content
than biochar from lignocellulose [63]. The application of biochar to soil has many benefits,
such as improving soil quality, removing soil pollutants (large adsorption surfaces), and re-
leasing nutrients. The copyrolysis of phosphate and biomass fertilizer can form complex
biochar, which can increase its function by retarding the free of phosphorus compounds.

7 Bio-based recycling and circular economy

With increasing agriculturalization and industrialization, a large amount of waste and pol-
lutants enters natural ecological surroundings. This exceeds the degradation and disassembly
capacity of nature, and has a big influence on the friendly coexistence between man and the
environment. Meanwhile, agriculturalization and industrialization will also cause the utiliza-
tion of resources to extra its recovery ability, thereby breaking the ecological balance between
man and nature. Hence, people increasingly hope that there is a method to have a compre-
hensive studying source utilization and environmental influential of various activities they
engage, and to be able to evaluate the product in its entire life cycle, that is, from the attained
of materials and the impact on the environment from production to disposal after use of the
product in order to look for chances to take countermeasures to reduce the impact of humans
on the environment. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an approach to achieve the above-
mentioned purposes. It is an instrument used to evaluate the environmental parameters cor-
related to a product or service and its environmental impact throughout its life cycle [64].
Consideration to the compilation and assessment of inputs, outputs and their potential en-
vironmental impacts in the life cycle of a product system. The system of LCA is firstly iden-
tified and quantified the energy and material utilization and environmental release in the
entire life cycle stage, then assessed the impact of these consumption and release on the en-
vironment, finally identify and evaluate opportunities to decline these impacts. An LCA is
focused on the environmental impact of the research system in the fields of ecological health,
human health, and resource consumption [65].

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

18 1. Sustainable biowaste recycling toward zero waste approaches

As far as agriculture is concerned, the current circular economy is mainly reflected in the
following aspects.
(1) Land reduction method. Livestock and poultry manure play key roles in improving the
land in China and increasing crop yields. The land can also purify manure while obtaining
fertilizer, reducing manure treatment costs. Where there is farmland around the farm, the
reasonable use of manure and sewage should be realized as much as possible to
effectively balance the ecological environment and improve economic benefits. Due to
different seasons, fresh manure should be composted before application.
(2) Decomposed composting method. The use of composting technology can reduce the
amount of manure, dehydrate it, be harmless in a short time, and achieve good treatment
results. The manure is stacked and fermented, and the bacteria are killed by the
temperature generated by themselves. High-temperature composting is to mix manure
with added substances to control the temperature, moisture, air, and other conditions
required for microbial activities as well as to achieve the decomposition of organic matter
in manure and bedding under the action of microorganisms, so that the pile can be
effectively decomposed.
(3) Biological treatment method. The biological strain used for the production of organic
fertilizer should ferment solid matter, and decompose, dry, and deodorize organic matter
through fermentation. At present, the strains of solid organic matter fermentation mainly
include basidiomycetes, yeast fungi, filamentous fungi, and actinomycetes. The biological
treatment method can eliminate harmful substances such as germs, insect eggs, etc., and
has a good effect on improving the environment.
(4) Natural drying. Daylight drying is a simple manure treatment method. Fresh poultry
manure is mixed with an appropriate amount of rice bran and then spread flat on a cement
floor or plastic sheet. It is then turned over frequently to make the manure dry naturally.
Afterward, it is made into a powder and blended with other feeds.
(5) High-temperature drying. As the moisture content in poultry manure is high, livestock
farms where economic conditions permit can use high-temperature rapid dryers for
drying operations, so that the moisture in manure is less than 13%. This operation dries
quickly and achieves good moisture absorption.
(6) Silage. Manure with sufficient moisture and soluble carbohydrates can be silaged with
forage, straw, and roughage. With silage, the mixing ratio of manure, forage, straw, and
roughage is 1:1. The digestibility of crude fiber can be balanced by alkaline substances
such as potassium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide. The silage method can promote
the absorption of livestock and poultry, prevent the loss of protein, and realize the
conversion of protein. It can also eliminate the growth of bacteria.
(7) Biodegradation is the use of low-level animals such as fly maggots and earthworms to
decompose livestock and poultry manure, and to make cow manure and feed residues
mixed reaction, and achieve the result of ripening, so that the earthworms can complete
the egg laying, hatching and growth. At this stage, the decomposed mixture should be
spread evenly on the ground, and earthworms should be introduced to reproduce. The
cow dung and feed residues used by earthworms will produce ultrahigh nutrients. They
are important fertilizing materials for plant cultivation. They are also feed for animals
such as chickens, ducks, and fish, and are conducive to promoting the development of the
poultry industry and fisheries.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 References 19

8 Perspectives for a circular bioeconomy

Up to now, the bioeconomy has played an immeasurable role in the production of high
value-added biological products and the realization of sustainable economic development.
The recycling of organic waste, the acquisition of products, and the collection of energy
widely use biorefining methods to ensure the types and characteristics of organic waste.
However, there are many challenges in developing a biorefinery in developing countries,
including limited budgets, maintenance of infrastructure, and presorting of organic waste.
Fortunately, developing a biorefinery is now high on the agenda of the government. There-
fore, it is necessary to upgrade the existing technology to organically integrate the traditional
biorefining model with the new commercial interaction, meet the needs of the market under
the guidance of the policy, and escort the sustainable development of the economy.

9 Conclusions

With the rapid development of the economy, quantities of biowaste are generated without
proper treatment, which could not only lead to serious environmental pollution but also
waste resources. Recently, many methods have been applied to recycle biowaste such as ther-
mal treatment and biological management. However, some disadvantages and challenges ex-
ist in traditional treatments, especially the byproducts that are responsible for secondary
environmental pollution. Therefore, more efforts should be made to treat byproducts and
thus promote biowaste recycling in a sustainable way.

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uptake, heavy metal content and residual fertility in a rice–mustard cropping sequence under acid lateritic soils,
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ash as a forest fertilizer in drained peatland forests, Biomass Bioenergy 35 (2011) 3335–3341.
[62] G. Zaja˛c, J. Szyszlak-Bargłowicz, W. Gołębiowski, M. Szczepanik, G. Zaja˛c, J. Szyszlak Bargłowicz, W.
Gołębiowski, M. Szczepanik, Chemical characteristics of biomass ashes, Energies 11 (2018) 2885.
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[64] C.M. Marcelle, M.T. Caroline, The changing nature of life cycle assessment, Biomass Bioenergy 82 (2015) 13–26.
[65] K.J. Harish, A. Adisa, S. Philipp, R. Michael, Options for broadening and deepening the LCA approaches, J.
Clean. Prod. 18 (2010) 120–127.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 C H A P T E R

2
Composting as a sustainable
technology for integrated municipal
solid waste management
Tao Liua, Hongyu Chena, Yuwen Zhoua, Sanjeev Kumar
Awasthia, Shiyi Qina, Huimin Liua, Zengqiang Zhanga, Ashok
Pandeyb, Sunita Varjanic, and Mukesh Kumar Awasthia
a
College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang,
China bCentre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of
Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India cGujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat, India

1 Introduction

The organic components of municipal solid waste (MSW) have attracted more and more
attention. In developing countries, food waste, that is, degradable materials usually accounts
for more than 50% of urban/residential waste [1]. Separation from source, or centralized me-
chanical separation, to select organic waste from the waste requires a more environmentally
friendly method for the next treatment (i.e., composting). Composting is an approach of
biodegrading organic matter in aerobic conditions to produce a stable and harmless organic
fertilizer [2]. The transfer of organic materials from MSW landfills to compost treatment has
many advantages to the environment such as reduction in greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission
[3] as well as it can prevent leakage of leachate from landfills. Recycling resources and
composting are considered promising waste management options with less negative effects
on the environment. Moreover, we also have a long way to go to recycling MSW.
The organic matter (OM) contained in solid waste raw materials ranged from the yard and
food waste (FW) to housed homogenized waste. This process is driven by different microbial
populations, and these microbial populations have great changes in time and space, usually

Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals 23 Copyright # 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88511-9.00002-1
24 2. Composting as a sustainable technology

involving the development of thermophilic temperature caused by the heat generated by mi-
crobial activities [4]. Commercial-scale thermophilic aerobic waste composting uses different
system complexity and has two main types: rotating aeration system or powered aeration sys-
tem. In the forced aeration composting system, the composting process is mainly divided into
three stages. The first stage is called the “sanitary treatment” stage. In this stage, a strong
aeration mechanism is used to encourage microorganisms to quickly decompose the easily
biodegradable substrate in the raw material [5]. The rapid release of energy during microor-
ganism respiration generates energy, which increases the temperature of composting piles
container to 70°C. The thermophilic stage is required by most composting standards to ensure
the harmlessness of seeds vitality and manure [6]. In many countries, the legal requirements
for composting waste containing FW and products are carried out in a closed container sys-
tem. In addition, some countries (such as the United Kingdom) require two sanitization tem-
peratures to be met during the two-stage batch process to ensure the complete killing of
pathogens [7]. Table 1 reveals the product of the MSW compost. The closed system can be
static or agitated, and the air circulation can be optimized according to the different stages
of composting. Promoting the sustainable recycling of OM is important to set standards
for the final product of composting. These standards include the National Compost Quality
Assurance System and the European Compost Quality Assurance (i.e., the “Standardization
and Quality Assurance” directive developed by the European Compost Network) [17]. The

TABLE 1 Nutrient content of municipal solid waste compost.

Compost EC TC NO32 NH4+ Total C:N P
type pH (mS/cm) (%) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) N (g/kg) ration (g/kg) References
MSW 7.2 3.8 34.9 206 54 20.12 17.45 [8]
compost
MSW 7.38 2.64 33.56 156 19.81 16.94 9.31 [9]
compost
MSW 8.23 4.08 25.27 19.54 12.96 6.33 [10]
compost
MSW 7.07 24.5 18.91 12.95 [11]
compost
MSW 8.5 23.04 198.9 346.1 16.91 13.75 [12]
compost

MSW 7.3 16.8 10.9 15.42 [13]

compost

MSW 4.71 31.8 15.9 20 5.00 [14]

compost
MSW 8.1 390 700 18.31 [15]
compost
MSW 6.14 2.78 44.93 1800 21.4 20.99 5.5 [16]
compost
MSW, municipal solid waste.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 2 Understanding the process toward sustainable waste management approach 25

Municipal solid waste composting-Hotspots

Raw Materials Composting process Product

Low quality product;
Greenhouse gases;
Heavy metals pollution;
Odours.
Municipal solid Lengthen composting time. Organic amendment
waste

Operational conditions
C/N ration
Porosity Product quality
Aeration Impurities
Composition Temperature Maturity
Moisture Stability
Nutrient
Organic matter High quality product;
Low heavy metals mobility;
Low pollution or zero;
Bacterial Shorten composting time.
Biochar
inoculums

FIG. 1 Hot research map of composting.

composting process leads to many environmental problems, such as the generation of foul
smells or toxic gases that consequently affect the health of surrounding residents [7]. This
kind of compost plant is especially suitable for open space operation. In addition, compost
produced from garbage as a raw material may increase the concentration of heavy metals
in the soil and the food. Composting is a recycling organic waste treatment method with var-
ious advantages like reduces GHGs emission and its application improves soil nutrients level.
A hot research map of composting is given in Fig. 1. However, if not handled properly,
composting may cause the aforementioned environmental problems.
This book chapter reviews the practice of MSW composting, introducing its advantages
and disadvantages through different types of composting, the environmental impact of un-
reasonable composting, their control strategies, and compost quality control measures. This
kind of information is essential for the rational implementation of composting, and the eco-
nomic sustainability of composting for waste recycling, and expounds on future challenges
and prospects.

2 Understanding the process toward sustainable waste management

approach

Utilizing the LCA (life cycle assessment) on a particular waste treatment process, a mega-
city or an area for the first time will lead to a coincident and documented description of the
solid waste process in the region, which are often major devotion in themselves [18]. Espe-
cially, LCA will offer insight into the problems inside of the system, such as where are the

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

26 2. Composting as a sustainable technology

environmental loads, where are the environmental savings, and what are the major waste
and residue flows? If the waste treatment process is a single method, such as focusing on
collection and landfilling, these problems may be easy to save, but most contemporary
waste treatment methods involve a few waste types and sources, a series of collection
methods and different management and disposal [19]. The system must be indicated in a
comprehensive way and the flow in the right way. Establishing a quality balance, quanti-
fying energy budgets, and explaining emissions clearly reveal where statistics are scarce,
where there are indeterminacies in the process, and how should be the target for further
data collection [18]. The quantity list of this MSW management system is the basic technol-
ogy level for solid waste management. Even without any environmental affect evaluation, it
has a high value in itself.
An important understanding is that the LCA waste management system is quite basic.
All waste management constitutes an activity caused by the direct discharge of environ-
mental loads, and a system for operating raw materials and energy through environmental
impact [20]. Environmental conservation comes from recycled materials and energy as sub-
stitutes for other raw materials, otherwise, it will disturb the environmental factors. LCAs
carried on existing waste management practices often illustrate that savings are greater than
the load, indicating recycling resources and energy from waste produce net environmental
benefits, but the recycling process will create a burden for re-utilization of materials and
energy [21]. This is not to say preventing waste generation is not important, but the envi-
ronmental value of preventing waste lies in avoiding the energy and raw material consump-
tion of what will eventually become waste [20]. Understanding the existing flow and
environmental discharge of waste management systems should be the principles and
methods for any company or public utility to manage waste in a region, and the officer re-
sponsible for MSW treatment or national governments should monitor and guide waste
treatment policy.
The model of LCA can reveal how using of novelty methods and procedures will enhance
the existing MSW sustainable management and environmental performance. LCA enables to
decide for evaluating environmental benefits of potential changes, including separately col-
lected waste fraction and increasing or reducing recyclable waste components, and/or
biotreatment of food and garden waste [22]. Simulating possible changes in the waste man-
agement system, including estimating how the critical processes and technologies of the new
measures will be implemented.
The proposed changes or upcoming regulations affecting the existence of the waste treat-
ment process and that could be utilized by waste management companies and government’s
agencies at regional and national levels. It is vital to evaluate the advantages and influence of
the existing expensive instruments and services. During the preparation of political and pub-
lic processes, the value of quantitative data cannot be underrated, and ultimately this involves
the improvement of decisions and implementation of recommendations. A novel of waste
gathering and separation is necessary for recycling the waste treatment issues. Under the con-
cept of future urban waste treatment framework, among all products life recycle connect with
the waste reused systems [23]. An ideal city without wastes reduces the systems of waste and
improves the utilization of nutrients. Three strategies are the guarantee of implementing a
zero-waste city: controlling the waste generation, suitable waste gathering, and dividing
the value waste from collection wastes.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

 3 Types of composting and their integrated process 27

3 Types of composting and their integrated process

The main fermentation and postfermentation of compost together form the composting
link, which is also the core link of the composting link. Generally, the composting fermenta-
tion methods could be distinguished to windrow composting, aerated static composting, and
reactor system type according to the fermentation and oxygen supply methods of composting
raw materials in the fermentation process of the composting process. Three types of
composting are shown in Fig. 2.

3.1 Windrow composting

Windrow composting means that the materials are spread out in rows, stacked in the open
air or under a scaffold in a trapezoidal stack, and the stack is turned over regularly to realize
the oxygen supply to complete a fermentation [24]. The size and shape of the steel strip vary
with the factors of the unloader and unloading equipment, and can be divided into trapezoid,
irregular quadrilateral, and triangle. In general, these piles are 2 m high and 5 m wide [25].
This stack is generally trapezoidal, with a bottom width of 1.5–2 m and a height of 1–1.2 m.
The length can be adjusted to local conditions. The windrow composting process is the most
common, and the modified composting method is simple to operate, low in cost, the filler is
easy to screen and reuse, and the product has good stability. Windrow composting disadvan-
tages are that the composting time is longer, the area is large, the investment in machinery and
manpower is large, the degree of automation is low, it is susceptible to the influence of the
climate, and may increase cost input. Natural ventilation and forced ventilation are required
during the window composting, as the porosity of the raw materials is important for the cir-
culation of oxygen [24]. The turning process is achieved and controlled by the composting
system, temperature, and aeration during the large-scale composting. The additional heat lost
by the compost substrate can be controlled within an appropriate range by turning the com-
post pile. Generally speaking, compost piles are usually used in the initial of composting. In
this time, microorganisms consume a lot of OM and generate a lot of heat. The composting
cycle is 3–9 weeks, depending on the composting material and composting frequency.

FIG. 2 Examples of three types of composting.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

28 2. Composting as a sustainable technology

3.2 Aerated static composting

Aerated static composting has a ventilation layer, which contains wood chips, wheat
straw or other materials with good air permeability as expansion agents to maintain proper
porosity of the material. The characteristic of aerated static composting is that the materials
are manually transferred into the fermentation tank in rows, and the ventilation pipe is me-
chanically ventilated and aerated. It can also be used for regular mechanical turning to
achieve oxygen supply and complete fermentation. There are two control methods for
the aeration frequency. One is aeration according to time, and aeration is carried out by
the amount of oxygen required per hour, to meet the aerobic conditions of composting.
The other is controlled by temperature, when the temperature of the stack reaches a certain
temperature, aeration is performed. This composting method has low investment cost, high
degree of automation, better control of temperature and aeration conditions, effective san-
itation and less odors, relatively short composting time, small amount of fillers, and small
area [26]. However, this process requires additional construction of fermentation tanks,
which will increase a certain investment cost, and there must be enough space for equip-
ment operation and meeting suitable composting conditions. Aerated static compost usu-
ally has an outer covering composed of mature compost or wood chips to absorb odors and
reduce heat and moisture loss.

3.3 Reactor composting

Since the 1980s, reactor composting systems have attracted more and more attention from
various cities for its benefits such as accelerating microbial metabolism, accelerating fermen-
tation rate, and mechanized generation. Reactor composting puts the compost material into
the reaction chamber for aerobic fermentation [27,28]. Since the system is highly mechanized,
the composting equipment occupies a small area, and the process will not be affected by en-
vironmental factors. The waste gas is collected and processed to prevent secondary pollution,
solve the odor problem, and also collect heat. However, this process has high initial invest-
ment costs, high operating and maintenance costs, high dependence on machinery and equip-
ment, and the stability of the compost product may not be good.
Tower fermentation equipment is a multistage vertical fermentation tower. This kind of fer-
mentation tower is generally called Thomas fermentation tower, which is generally divided
into 4–8 layers. The raw materials in the tower are stirred by the pear-shaped stirring blade
on the rotating arm and move from the upper layer to the lower layer. Input fresh air enters
into the tower from the inner wall of each floor to meet aerobic conditions. The tower type
is kept in a closed state, from the top to the bottom as the high-temperature zone, medium tem-
perature zone, and low-temperature zone. The fermentation uses generally 3–7 days. Silo-type
compost fermentation bins are generally called static fermentation bins. The silo shape is gen-
erally cylindrical, with a stacking height of 4–5 m. The compost raw material enters the silo from
the top of the silo through the distributor, moving downwards in sequence, and it is discharged
by the screw machine at the bottom of the silo. This device is ventilated from the bottom and
flows upward, and the general fermentation time is 10–12days.

I. Solid waste remediation and sustainability in a circular bioeconomy

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
interesting instances, and we shall deal with them presently. But
before we proceed to discuss them let us turn back for a moment to
Robert Fulton. After he had at length established the steamboat as a
thoroughly sound concern in America we find him not unnaturally
sighing for other countries to conquer. Accordingly he set his mind
on introducing the steamboat not merely on the chief rivers of North
America, but even on the Ganges and the Neva. The year in which
Bell’s Comet had come into service Fulton had actually entered into
a contract with one Thomas Lane to introduce steamboats into India,
and on April 12th of that year he wrote to a Russian gentleman, who
was then staying in London, with reference to obtaining an exclusive
contract for twenty years, for establishing a steamboat service
between St. Petersburg and Cronstadt within three years after
obtaining the grant. It is evident from Fulton’s correspondence that
Imperial permission for this was obtained. Fulton, however, died in
the year 1815, and at the time of his death the steamboat The
Emperor of Russia was in course of construction previous to being
transferred to Russian waters. This enterprise was postponed and
subsequently taken up by other contractors. But the same year
(1815) we find Charles Baird engaged in doing what Fulton would
have carried out had he lived. The upper illustration, then, which
faces page 84 represents a drawing of the steamboat Elizabeth.
Originally a barge, she was rebuilt and engined by Baird in 1815 at
St. Petersburg for service on the Neva. The steering arrangement is
not dissimilar to that of some of the Thames sailing barges of to-day,
with the use of the tackle leading from the rudder through the ship’s
quarter to the helm. The reader will doubtless be not a little amused
to notice the brick chimney which stands up in the boat as if rising
from a factory. The engine is hidden away underneath the deck, but
it was of the side-lever type, of which we have already spoken, with
a single cylinder and air-pump. The boiler will be seen placed aft.
The weight of the paddle-wheels was partly supported by the
rectangular frame-work which will be seen stretched across the hull.
The paddle-wheels had each four floats, which were kept level by
means of bevel gear. The other illustration facing page 84 shows
another steamer, which Baird built two years later for passenger
traffic between St. Petersburg and Cronstadt. It will be noticed that,
as in all these early steamboats, the paddle-wheels were placed far
forward towards the bows. In this ship both paddle-wheels were
fitted with six floats, which were driven at fifty revolutions per minute
by means of a side-lever engine that had a large fly-wheel. The
arrangement of this ship’s engines was similar rather to those of the
Comet than of the Clermont. Looking at the lower drawing in this
illustration we can easily see how she was propelled. Amidships is
the boiler, from which steam is conveyed to the cylinder, through
which appears the piston-rod, which in turn connects with the side-
lever, that is placed as low as it can be in the boat. The connecting
rod comes up from the forward end of the side-lever to the crank,
which is attached to the shaft, and the latter, revolving, of course
turns the paddle-wheels.
And here it may not be out of place to say something concerning
the survival of the beam engine. I have already referred on an earlier
page to its introduction and traced its development from
Newcomen’s atmospheric engine. When, in the early days of the
steam engine, its use had been limited to pumping out water from
mines, one connecting rod was employed in pumping and the other
was driven up by the steam in the cylinder. Then, when the engine
was made, not for pumping, but for giving rotatory motion, the
connecting rod which had been in use for pumping was used to give
a rotatory motion, by means of either the sun-and-planet movement
(as in Watt’s patent) or by means of a crank (as in the patent which
his workman stole from him). In America Watt’s beam engines were
imitated very closely, and to-day, as every visitor to New York is
aware, the curious sight is seen of enormous ferry-boats, towering
high above the water, with the beam and connecting rods showing
up through the top of the ship. Now this idea is all very well where
the steamer is concerned only with navigation on rivers and peaceful
waters, but for ocean steaming, where the deck needs to be covered
in from the attacks of the mighty seas, it is out of the question.
Therefore, since it was advisable to retain the beam in some form,
and it could not be allowed to protrude through the deck, the obvious
expedient was adopted of placing it below, but as far down in the
ship as possible. As a general statement we shall not get far wrong if
we state that thus placed, at the bottom, with the rods working
upwards instead of downwards, it was really a case of turning the
engine upside down. Thus arranged it became known as the side-
lever engine, and now, if the reader will look again at the bottom
illustration facing page 84, he will see our meaning. By turning the
illustration round, so that the beam or side-lever is at the top, this
resemblance to the old-fashioned beam engine becomes still more
apparent. Later on we shall be able to show a more complicated
form of the side-lever engine, but for the present this may suffice for
the interest of the non-technical reader. For many years the side-
lever was the recognised form of marine engine, and its advantages
included that of being remarkably steady in its working because its
parts were so nicely balanced. Moreover, it was easy to drive from
the beam the various auxiliary parts, such as the air-pump. It was
also very strong, though both heavy and costly, as it became in the
course of time more complicated.
Although it is true that in Fulton’s Clermont the beam was placed
below the piston-rod, yet that was entirely owing to English influence,
as represented in Boulton and Watt, who had manufactured this
engine, or at any rate a good many of its parts. It is now that the
dividing line comes between the two types, English and American.
“From this primitive form,” says Admiral Preble, in his volume already
quoted, “the two nations diverged in opposite directions—the
Americans navigating rivers, with speed the principal object, kept the
cylinder upon deck and lengthened the stroke of the piston: the
English, on the other hand, having the deep navigation of stormy
seas as their more important object, shortened the cylinder in order
that the piston-rod might work entirely under deck, while Fulton’s
working (walking) beam was retained.” From the engine, in fact,
which Boulton and Watt had constructed at Soho for Fulton, by far
the majority of the engines for the earliest steamboats took their
pattern. And if to the Americans belongs the credit of having so
thoroughly and so quickly developed the steamboat navigation of
large rivers, it is the British, as we shall see shortly, who have been
the pioneers of ocean navigation in steamships.
The upper illustration facing page 90, which has been taken from
a contemporary engraving, is worthy of notice as being the first
steamer actually built in Germany. She represents rather a
retrogression than an advance in the story of the steamship, for she
was following still on those lines which had been in mind when
Miller’s double-hulled ship and the Charlotte Dundas were launched.
This vessel, the Prinzessin Charlotte, was built by John Rubie at
Pichelsdorf in 1816, for service on the Elbe, Havel and Spree. As will
be seen from the illustration, her paddle-wheel was placed
amidships and covered in. She was driven by an engine possessing
14 horse-power and made by J. B. Humphreys. Her long, lanky
smoke-stack is supported by numerous stays, while her double-
rudders, though still preserving the helms as used in contemporary
sailing ships, are moved by means of a steering wheel. Clumsy and
beamy, she is inferior in design to the Comet, and would no doubt
have needed all the help of her twin-rudders to get her round some
of the narrow reaches of the river. In the adoption and employment
of the steering wheel neither the Prinzessin Charlotte nor the
Clermont was the pioneer of this more modern method, its evolution
having come about on this wise: as the tillers became heavier when
the size of ships increased and the pull on them became greater,
some sort of lanyard was first attached to them so as to get a
purchase and divide the strain; otherwise the steersman would not
have been able to control the ship. We see this as far back as the
times of the Egyptian sailing ships. In medieval times and even in the
seventeenth century the big, full-rigged ships were still steered by a
helm in the stern, the pilot shouting down his orders to the
steersmen placed under the poop. Then, in order to counteract the
wild capers which some of these vessels had a tendency to perform
in a breeze, it was an obvious expedient to fit up an arrangement of
blocks and tackles to the tiller. From this came the transition to the
employment of these in connection with a winch, such as had been
used for hoisting up the anchor. This winch was driven by means of
“hand-spikes,” a method that was not conducive to rapid alteration of
the ship’s course. But in the eighteenth century, when ships were
better designed, and many improvements were being introduced, the
handspikes were discarded and the spoked wheel was connected
with the barrel of the winch, placed not ’thwart-ship, but fore-and-aft,
so that not merely could the direction of the ship’s head be altered
more quickly, but a steadier helm could be kept, because it was less
difficult to meet the swervings of the vessel from her proper course.
As everyone knows, this steering-wheel has been improved by many
minor alterations, and ropes have given way to chains and steel
wire: but though steam-steering gear is now so prominent a feature
of the modern steamship, the wheel itself is not yet superseded.

THE “PRINZESSIN CHARLOTTE” (1816).

From a Contemporary Print.
 THE “SAVANNAH” (1819).

Already, then, the steamboat had shown herself capable of doing

her work on inland waters, and even for short voyages across
Channel, as well as for coasting within sight of land. Independent of
calms, currents and tides, she was a being of a different kind as
compared with the sailing ship and was carving out for herself an
entirely novel career of usefulness. But the pessimists believed that
here her sphere ended; the long ocean voyages could never be
undertaken except in the sail-carrying ships. However, in the year
1819, the first attempt was made to conquer the North Atlantic by
means of a ship fitted with a steam engine. In the lower illustration
facing page 90 will be seen the Savannah, a full-rigged ship of 350
tons burthen which was built in New York in 1818 as a sailing vessel
pure and simple. That, it will be remembered, was eleven years after
the launching of the Clermont, and during these eventful years there
had been plenty of opportunity for those who wished to obtain proof
of what steam could do for a ship. Whilst the Savannah was still on
the stocks, one Moses Rogers, who had followed the efforts of both
Stevens and Fulton, and had even commanded some of the early
steamboats, suggested to Messrs. Scarborough and Isaacs, of
Savannah, that they should purchase this ship; which eventually they
did. Therefore, after being fitted with her engine, a steam trial trip
was made in March, 1819, round New York Harbour, and a few days
later she left for Savannah under sail. During this voyage of 207
hours she was practically nothing but a sailing ship, for her engine
was only running for four and a half hours. On the 22nd of May she
set forth from Charleston and steamed outside. It will be noticed on
referring to the illustration that there were no paddle-boxes to cover
her wheels, and a remarkable feature of the Savannah was her
ability suddenly to transform her character as a steamship to a
sailing vessel, and vice versa. Within twenty minutes she could take
off her paddle-wheels, and away she could go without any hindrance
to her speed.
So it was, then, after she had brought up outside Charleston.
Unshipping her wheels she got under weigh early in the morning of
May 24th, and arrived off the coast of Ireland at noon of June 17th,
and three days later was off the bar at Liverpool. But this voyage
proved little or nothing of the capabilities of the ocean steamship; for
of the twenty-one days during which she was at sea the Savannah
only used steam for eighty hours, and by the time she had arrived off
Cork she had used up all her fuel. However, having now taken on
board what she needed, she was able to steam up the Mersey with
the aid of her engines alone. From Liverpool she went to the Baltic,
using her engine for about a third of the passage. Thence she
returned to America, having unshipped her paddle-wheels off
Cronstadt, but, after crossing the Atlantic and arriving off the
Savannah river, she adjusted her wheels once more and steamed
home. Shortly afterwards her engines were taken out of her, and she
ended her days as a sailing packet. Although her voyages did
nothing to help forward the ocean steamer, yet she caused some
amazement to the revenue cruiser Kite, which espied her off the
coast of Ireland. Seeing volumes of smoke pouring out from this
“three-sticker,” the Kite’s commander took her for a ship on fire and
chased her for a whole day. The illustration gives a fairly accurate
idea of the ship, though the bow has not been quite correctly given,
and should show the old-fashioned and much modified beak which
survived as a relic of medieval times. It will be noticed that the
distance which separates the main and fore-mast was sufficiently
great to allow of plenty of room for the engine and boiler.
In the meantime the steamship was slowly but surely coming into
prominence and recognition, and the year 1821 was far from
unimportant as showing the practical results which had been
obtained. As proof of the faith which was now placed in steam, the
first steamship company that was ever formed had already been
inaugurated the year before, and in 1821 began running its trading
steamers. This was the now well-known General Steam Navigation
Company, Ltd., whose first steamer, the City of Edinburgh, was built
on the Thames by Messrs. Wigram and Green, whose names will
ever be associated with the fine clippers which in later years they
were destined to turn out from their Blackwall yard. The steamship
City of Edinburgh was launched in March, 1821, for the Edinburgh
trade, and created so much attention that the future William IV. and
Queen Adelaide paid her a visit, and expressed surprise at the
magnificence of the passenger accommodation. The machinery
(which was only of 100 horsepower) was described by the
contemporary press as “extremely powerful.” In June of that year
was also launched the James Watt, of which an illustration is given
from an old water-colour. This vessel was built by Messrs. Wood and
Co., of Port Glasgow, and was referred to by the newspapers of that
time as “the largest vessel ever seen in Great Britain propelled by
steam.” The James Watt, it will be seen, was rigged as a three-
masted schooner, with the typical bow and square stern of the
period. She was of 420 tons, and measured 141 feet 9 inches in
length, 25½ feet wide, and 16½ feet deep. She had a paddle-wheel,
18 feet in diameter, on either side of the hull. These were driven by
engines of the same horsepower as those of the City of Edinburgh,
which had been made by Boulton and Watt. It was in this year also
that the Lightning, a vessel of about 200 tons and 80 horse-power,
gained further confidence for the newer type of vessel, for she was
the first steamship ever used to carry mails.
 Before the third decade of the nineteenth century was closed, a
little vessel named the Falcon, of 176 tons, had made a voyage to
India—of course, via the Cape—and the Enterprise, a somewhat
larger craft of 470 tons, had also done the passage from England to
Calcutta; but like the Savannah’s performance, these voyages were
made partly under steam and partly under sail, so that these vessels
may be regarded rather as auxiliary-engined than as steamships
proper. At the same time, the Enterprise was singularly loyal to her
name, for out of the 113 days which were taken on the voyage, she
steamed for 103.

THE “JAMES WATT” (1821).

From a Water-Colour Drawing in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 SIDE-LEVER ENGINES OF THE “RUBY” (1836).
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Let us now pause for a moment to witness some of the changes

which were going on in regard to the machinery for steamships. In
the engines which were installed in the Russian ship shown opposite
page 84 we saw how the beam had become the side-lever, and why
it had been placed in this position in the steamboat. This had
become the customary type for steamships which were still propelled
by paddle-wheels, and the perfected development had been due to
Boulton and Watt, dating from about 1820. Until about 1860 this type
was used most generally, until ocean-going steamers discarded the
paddle-wheel for the screw. It is, therefore, essential that before
proceeding farther we should get well-acquainted with it, and we
shall find that following the lead which had been given them,
especially by the famous Robert Napier, marine engineers began to
build these types, as well for deep-sea ships as for river-going craft.
The illustration here facing, which has been taken from a model in
the South Kensington Museum, represents the regular side-lever
type, the full-sized engines having been made by a Poplar firm in
1836 for the Ruby, which plied between London and Gravesend, a
vessel of 170 tons, and the fastest Thames steamer of that time. On
referring to our illustration, the side-lever will be immediately
recognised in the fore-ground at the bottom. To the left of this are the
two cylinders, side by side. The side-lever is seen to be pivoted at its
centre, whilst at the reader’s left hand the end of this is joined by a
connecting rod. Thus, as the piston-rod is moved upwards or
downwards, so the left-hand half of the side-lever will move. At the
opposite, right-hand, side of the latter the connecting rod will be
observed to be attached to the side-lever, whilst the other end of the
connecting rod drives the crank; the latter, in turn, driving the shaft
on either end of which will be placed a paddle-wheel. In this engine
before us there are two cranks, of which one is seen prominently at
the very top of the picture. Each connecting rod is attached to two
side-levers, one on either side of the cylinder, by means of a cross-
head. Similarly at the piston-rod there is also a cross-head, with a
connecting rod on either side, of which one only is visible. Later on a
modified form of this type of engine was introduced in order to
economise space, for one of the great drawbacks of the side-lever
engine was that it took up an enormous amount of room, which could
ill be spared from that to be devoted to the carrying of cargo or the
accommodation of the passengers. In this modification the cylinders,
instead of being placed side by side, or athwartships, were fore and
aft, the one behind the other.
In 1831, there was built in Quebec, to run between there and
Halifax, a steamer called the Royal William (not to be confused with
a vessel of the same name to which we shall refer presently). The
engines were made by Boulton and Watt, and dispatched across the
Atlantic to Montreal, where they were installed. In 1833, after taking
on board over three hundred tons of coal at Pictou, Nova Scotia, she
started on her journey to the South of England, and arrived off
Cowes, Isle of Wight, after seventeen days, having covered a
distance of 2,500 miles. There is some doubt as to whether she
steamed the whole way, or whether she used her sails for part of the
time. At any rate, she measured 176 feet long, 43 feet 10 inches
wide (including her paddle-boxes), and after calling at Portsmouth,
proceeded to Gravesend, and was afterwards sold to the Spanish
Government.

THE “SIRIUS” (1838).

From a Contemporary Drawing in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 THE “ROYAL WILLIAM” (1838).
By permission of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Co.

We now come to the year 1838, in which a handful of steamers

made history, and showed how uncalled-for had been the ridicule
which the pessimists had cast at the steamship. With this year we
reach the turning-point of the steamship, and from that date we may
trace all those wonderful achievements which are still being added to
year by year. Hitherto no vessel had crossed the Atlantic under
steam power solely. Because of the large amount of fuel
consumption which was a necessary failing of the early steamships,
in proportion to the amount of steam developed, it was denied that it
would ever be financially possible for steamers to run across oceans
as the sailing packets were doing, even if they were capable of
carrying sufficient fuel together with their passengers and cargo. But
deeds were more eloquent than the expounding of theories, and the
first surprise was quickly followed by another, far from inferior. The
first of these epoch-making steamers was the Sirius. She was rigged
as a brig, like many of the contemporary sailing ships which then
carried mails, passengers, and cargo between the Old World and the
New, whose unsavoury characters had earned for them the
nickname of “coffin-brigs.” This Sirius was a comparatively small ship
of 703 tons, and quite small enough to cross the Atlantic in the
weather which is to be found thereon. She measured only 178 feet
along the keel, was 25½ feet wide, her hold was 18¼ feet deep, and
her engines developed 320 horsepower. Built for the service
between London and Cork, she was specially chartered for this
transatlantic trip by the British Queen Steam Navigation Company,
whose own vessel, the British Queen (shown opposite page 102),
was not yet ready, owing to the fact that one of her contractors had
gone bankrupt. With ninety-four passengers on board, the Sirius
steamed away from London and called at Queenstown, where she
coaled. After clearing from the Irish port, she encountered head
winds, and it was only with difficulty that her commander, Lieut. R.
Roberts, R.N., was able to quell a mutiny among the crew, who had
made up their minds that to try and get across the North Atlantic in
such a craft was pure folly. Having been seventeen days out, the
Sirius arrived off New York on April 22nd, and before the end of her
journey had not merely consumed all her coal, at a daily average of
24 tons, but had even to burn some of her spars, so that she had got
across just by the skin of her teeth. But it was her engines which had
got her there and not her sails; the former were of the side-lever type
to which we have just referred.
The next day came in the Great Western, a much larger craft,
that had come out of Bristol three days after the Sirius had started;
and in her we see the prototype of those enormous liners which go
backwards and forwards across the Atlantic to-day with a regularity
that is remarkable. Unlike the little Sirius, the Great Western had
been specially designed for the Atlantic by that engineering genius,
Brunel, who, like his ships and his other works of wonder, was one of
the most remarkable products of the last century. She was built with
the intention of becoming practically an extension of the Great
Western Railway across the Atlantic, and in order to be able to
withstand the terrible battering of the seas, which she would have to
encounter, she was specially strengthened. Here was a vessel of
1,321 tons (gross), with a length of 236 feet over all, with about half
her space taken up with her boilers and engines. Now the strain of
so much dead-weight in so long a ship whose beam was only 35 feet
4 inches, or about one-seventh of her length, had to be thought out
and guarded against with the greatest care. And let us not forget that
at this time vessels were still built of wood, and that, except in a few
instances, iron had not yet been introduced. She was given strong
oak ribs, placed close together, while iron was also used to some
extent in fastening them. The advantage of making an ocean-going
vessel long is that she is less likely to pitch in a sea, and will not dip
twice in the same hollow; and if she is proportionately narrow in
comparison with her length, she will also roll less than a more beamy
craft. But the difficulty, so long as wood was employed, was to get
sufficient longitudinal strength to endure the strains of so long a
span. We shall be able to get some idea of this when we consider
the behaviour of a vessel in a sea. Waves consist, so to speak, of
mountains and valleys. If the waves are short and the vessel is long,
then she may stretch right over some of them; but if the contrary is
the condition, then, while her ’midship portion is supported by the
water, her fore and aft ends are inclined to droop, so that in a very
extreme case she would break in two. At any rate, the tendency is
for the centre of the ship to bend upwards and the unsupported ends
to droop. This is technically called “hogging.” In the reverse
circumstance, when the ends are supported on the tops of two
mountains of waves, whilst the centre of the ship spans,
unsupported, the intervening valley, the tendency is to “sag.” Now
this has to be allowed for in the construction of the ship, and, as
already pointed out in my “Sailing Ships and Their Story,” this was
understood as far back as the times of the Egyptians, who
counteracted such strains as these by means of a longitudinal cable
stretched tightly from one end of the ship to the other. But with the
coming of steamships there was another problem to be taken into
consideration. Engines, boilers, fresh water for the boilers, coal and
so on are serious weights to be placed in one part of the ship. (In the
case of the Great Western, the first three alone weighed 480 tons,
although the gross tonnage of the whole ship was only 1,321.)
Throughout the length of the ship, then, she is subjected not
merely to irregular strains by the peaks and valleys of the waves, but
by the distribution of weights. Her structure has to undergo the
severest possible stresses, and these are different when the ship is
loaded and when she is “light.” If you divide a ship into sections
transversely, as is actually done by the designer, you will find that
some parts are less buoyant than others, no matter whether your
ship is made of wood, iron, or steel. Those sections, for instance,
which contain a steamer’s machinery will have much inferior
buoyancy, and, indeed, were you to sever them from the ship and
seal them up so as to be perfectly water-tight, they would in many
cases sink. Therefore, this irregularity of buoyancy has to be met by
making the more-buoyant sections help to support the less-buoyant.
In actual shipbuilding practice it is customary to regard the greatest
stress to a ship as occurring when she is poised on the crest of a
wave, and it is usual to suppose, in order to safeguard her manner of
construction, that she is poised upon the crest of a wave whose
length from trough to trough is equal to the length of the ship, and
the height of the wave from trough to crest to be one-twentieth of its
length when 300 feet long and below, and one twenty-fifth when
exceeding that length.
We have digressed a little from our immediate subject in order to
put into the mind of the general reader some conception of the
difficulties which Brunel had to encounter when he set to work to
produce such a vessel as the Great Western. That she was built on
sound lines is proved by the service which she rendered to her
owners before she was finally broken up in 1847. On her first return
voyage from New York she took fifteen days, and the Sirius
seventeen. The Great Western had no such trouble with her “coal-
endurance” on her maiden voyage as the Sirius had suffered, for she
had reached New York with one quarter of her coals still
unconsumed, and the obvious conclusion which came to any
reasoning mind was that it certainly paid to build a vessel big enough
to carry plenty of fuel. But the Great Western “paid” in more senses
than this; and at the end of her first year, her directors were able to
announce a dividend of 9 per cent. Thirty-five guineas was the fare
in those days, and the largest number of passengers carried on any
one of her journeys was 152.
 THE “GREAT WESTERN” (1838).
By permission of Messrs. Henry Castle & Sons.
 PADDLE-WHEEL OF THE “GREAT
WESTERN.”
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Like her contemporaries, the Great Western was fitted with side-
lever engines, built by Maudslay. Steam was generated from four
boilers, and conducted into two cylinders, her daily consumption of
coal being about 33 tons. A model of one of her paddle-wheels,
which were 28 feet 9 inches in diameter, is here illustrated. This type
is known as the “cycloidal” wheel, in which each float, instead of
being made of one solid piece of material, is composed of several
horizontal widths arranged after the manner of steps in a cycloidal
curve, as will be seen by looking at the right-hand of the wheel. It will
be noticed that through the space left between each “step” the water
could penetrate when the wheel was in the sea, but when revolving
out of it, the resistance to the air was diminished because the latter
was allowed to get through. As the paddle came in contact with the
sea, the concussion was lessened, and thus there was not so much
strain on the engines. The Great Western employed the type
introduced by Joshua Field in 1833, but this form was brought in
again by Elijah Galloway two years later.
So far we have seen steamers running from London and from
Bristol to New York. Now we shall see the first steam-vessel crossing
from Liverpool to New York. Facing page 96 is the other Royal
William, which was built in 1838 for the Irish passenger trade
between Liverpool and Kingstown, and owned by the City of Dublin
Steam Packet Company, by whose courtesy this picture is now
reproduced. The Royal William was 3 feet shorter than the Sirius, but
2 feet wider, and with a hold just 6 inches shallower. In July of that
same memorable year, the Royal William made her maiden trip from
Liverpool to New York, having been built and engined at the former
port. In was no doubt a great temptation to emulate what the Sirius
had been the first to perform, especially as the two ships were so
similar in many respects. Outward bound, the Royal William did the
trip in about the same time as the Sirius, though her return journey
occupied about a day and a half less than that of the other vessel.
But these vessels were not big enough, nor seaworthy enough, for
the toil of the Atlantic, and both were soon taken off from this route.
The illustration reproduced is from an engraving after a sketch made
of the Royal William, as seen in the Atlantic on July 14th, 1838, when
in latitude 47.30 N., longitude 30.0 W., on her first voyage to New
York, and the landsman in looking at the waves which the artist has
depicted may find some assistance in reading our previous remarks
on “hogging” and “sagging” in this connection.
 THE “BRITISH QUEEN” (1839).
By permission of James Napier, Esq.

THE “BRITANNIA,” THE FIRST ATLANTIC LINER

(1840).
From a Model. By permission of the Cunard Steamship Co.

Finally, we come to the British Queen, which was yet another

vessel to steam across the broad Atlantic, and to show once more
that it was neither good fortune nor the powers of any single vessel
that had conquered the ocean, but the building of the right kind of