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BradHenry2012 MultimediaLearingOverview
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Brad A. Henry
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Multimedia Learning
Social and instructional scientific methods that employ constructs of multi-media learning
processes, documentation and content. The multimedia content within the LCMS represents a
variety of electronic sources of words, images, audio, video and other electronic formats. The
electronic content is structured, sequenced and encapsulated into a learning object. A primary
intention of using a learning object, e.g. content that creates a learning objective, is to present the
The available recent empirical research suggests that multimedia learning can enhance student
provided scientific design principles are used (Clark & Mayer, 2008; Mayer, 2009).
Cognitive Load Theory is based on early work of Baddeley’s model of working memory
and was first introduced by Sweller and associates (Sweller, 1999; van Merrienboer, & Paas,
1998; vanMerrienboer & Sweller, 2005). Baddeley’s model of working memory (Baddeley &
Hitch, 1986; Baddeley, 1986, 2001, 2007) maintains that working memory is comprised of three
main components. The executive control system is a limited capacity control system that
manages information entering short term memory and selects strategies to process information.
The executive control system controls two sub-systems; the articulatory loop and visuo-spatial
sketch pad. The articulatory loop holds short-term verbal auditory information. The visuo-
spatial sketchpad holds short-term information for processing visual and spatial purposes.
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Multimedia Learning
Figure 1
The working memory model has access to limited attention resources. The limitation
on each resource prevents adversely affecting the other subsystems. Another belief is that the
executive control system regulates the the two sub-systems. The better the executive control
system is at processing information the more effective the sub-systems will function (Baddeley,
1986, 2001, 2007). However, other researchers argue that the working memory is not a separate
component of the cognitive memory, but rather works with long-term memory (Miyake, 2001;
Miyake & Shah, 1999). The alternate view asserts that working memory is the ability to
maintain information in an active state while concurrently processing new information (Conway,
Jarrold, Kane, Miyake, & Towse, 2007). It is believed that information is domain-specific. The
ability to automatize information is dependent upon the knowledge a person has stored and can
recall. In addition, Schacter (2001), asserts that emotional factors play a key role in processing
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Multimedia Learning
information. Negative emotions may present issues in accessing information while a positive
mood will increase access to working memory (Oaksford, Morris, Grainger, & Williams, 1996)
Researchers, whose primary focus apply uses of technology, have used Baddeley’s model
of working memory to develop the Cognitive Load Theory (Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuoviven, &
Sweller, 2001; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005; van Merrienboer
& Paas, 1998). Cognitive load theory asserts that some learning environments require more
cognitive processes than others and that meaningful learning is dependent upon active cognitive
processes in working memory. It assumes that we are limited by the number of cognitive
resources that can be accessed in working memory at any given time (van Merrienboer &
Sweller, 2005). When cognitive processes become excessive, learners go into essential overload,
Intrinsic, extraneous and germane variables may directly affect a persons’ cognitive
load. Intrinsic cognitive load is triggered by inherent properties of information to-be learned.
The cognitive load requires making connections between information and constructing new
knowledge structured in working memory, i.e. schemas. The cognitive load is determined by
the experience level in a learners’ given domain. Due to the complexity of the information it
cannot be changed without extensive schema acquisition. Intrinsic cognitive load is the level
from how instructional information is presented and to-be learned information may be changed
when specific learning instructions and aids are supplied with the information. Germane
cognitive load controls processing, construction and automation of schema acquisition and
should be promoted while controlling extraneous load. Intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads
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Multimedia Learning
are additive, if they exceed available working memory learning will cease (Sweller, 2010).
Cognitive load theory states that there are three constraints that impact learning; the
characteristic of the learner, the complexity of the information to be learned, and the
● instruction for isolated tasks are designed to utilize smaller cognitive loads,
Mayer and Moreno (2003) assert that learners’ have three types of cognitive demands
when using multimedia learning. The first demand, essential processing states that a learner
must understand the main concepts and have the ability to relate information from memory.
The second demand, incidental information may enhance understanding, such as taking notes,
however, is not essential. The third demand, representational holding suggests that some
example is recalling a reference from the beginning of presentation and applying the knowledge
to the current content being presented. They assert that meaningful learning occurs when
the learner is maximizing use of essential processing. Using incidental information and
representational holding, when not necessary, may cause unnecessary distractions and cause
cognitive overload.
Multi-media learning
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Multimedia Learning
The role of technology for educational purposes should apply instructional methods
that harness the advantages of a particular technology used for learning (Mayer, 2009). The
construction of content and learning environments must look beyond perceptions of applying
a standard formula for all content and begin applying methods and technologies that work to
and discussion is showing few signs that technology ‘alone’ cannot produce better learning
outcomes (Clark, 1994, 2001, 2003; Salomon, 1984). Educators constructing content for virtual
learning environments should have working knowledge of the principles of Cognitive Load
Theory. They need to be equipped with working knowledge to know how and when to apply
differing instructional design to a diverse set of technologies that use multimedia methodologies
for instruction.
electronic learning environments. These basic e-learning principles construct what Mayer calls
of instruction and methods that impact learning (Clark & Mayer, 2008; Mayer, 2009). Mayer
asserts that in order to construct a science of e-learning researchers must address three areas;
evidence, theory and application. Evidence should be able to replicate findings from existing
research studies. Theory extends from a research-base model that studies how people learn in
Mayer (2009) supports his multi-media principles using a theory he refers to as the
cognitive theory of multimedia learning. He states the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
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Multimedia Learning
is the creation of scientific research that is based on grounded theory and being evidenced-based.
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is theory that explores learning from words and
pictures. Mayer defines learning as a change in the learner’s knowledge caused by an experience
in a learning environment. He reports the learning is not observable but may be inferred through
testing. The five types of knowledge that may be learned include; facts, concepts, procedures,
strategies, and beliefs (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006).
both words and pictures, with the intention of promoting learning. Mayer and his associates
assert that the two channels are not equal and that research indicates that information should be
delivered in a manner consistent with the way the mind works. By using cognitive theory and
understanding how both channels work, designers can develop content allowing a learner able to
Classic research shows that people learn better from printed text and supporting images
than text alone (Mayer, 2009; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin, Anglin & Carney, 1987). Plass
and Jones (2005) assert similar findings for auditory coupled with supporting images when
learning foreign languages (Mayer, 2009). According to Mayer’s multimedia principle, adding
illustrations, animation, or narration with text helps learners to better understand content being
presented rather than using illustrations or words alone. Mayer asserts cognitive processing is
primed when the images and words correlate and are meaningful. Learning occurs when learners
build systematic connections between word and visually based representations (Mayer, 2009).
Fletcher and Tobias (2005) place emphasis on visuals when using the multimedia principles of
learning. They state that learning and understanding are enhanced when appropriate images
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Multimedia Learning
that enhance the content are added. It is believed that the benefit of the image is dependent
upon the quality and pedagogic value of the graphic (Schnotz & Bannert, 2003; Mayer, 2009).
More recently Ruth Clark presented findings that state implicit methods that include relevant
graphics and personalization should be used to stimulate psychological activity in the absence of
assumptions derived from learning sciences; dual channels, limited capacity, and active
processing. The dual channel assumption is based on Paivio’s (1986; Clark & Paivio, 1991) dual
coding theory and Baddeley’s (1992) model of working memory. The dual channel assumption
states that learners have two channels for processing information, pictorial and auditory
channels. Information presented is first processed through the auditory or visual channels
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Multimedia Learning
Figure 2
The limited capacity cognitive load theory assumption states that learners are limited in
the amount of information that can be processed at one time (Baddeley, 1999; Chandler &
Sweller, 1991). The theory states that learners are limited to 3 to 5 bits, or chunks, of
information at any given time. When learners exceed their cognitive capacity capabilities for
processing information decisions are made where connections can be made using existing
knowledge. Baddeley (1992) states a learner will use their central executive strategies that are
constructs developed using metacognitive strategies. When too much information is presented a
learner may move into cognitive overload thus limiting or preventing information processing
(Mayer, 2001; Clarke, 2005). This theory is based on Sweller’s (Chandler & Sweller, 1991;
The active learning assumption is that learners are not passive and that they are actively
engaged. This assumption states that meaningful learning is dependent upon active cognitive
processes during learning. An active learning situation a learner is selecting new relevant
information for additional processing while simultaneously organizing and integrating new
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Multimedia Learning
There are two types of active learning, cognitive and behavioral. The cognitive
active learning assumption states that learners are continually cognitively processing mental
information, making connections and creating mental models. Deep learning is dependent
upon a learner selecting relevant information, mentally organizing information into coherent
structures, and the ability to integrate new information with existing knowledge. Behavioral
active learning assumption states that human cognition is a result of some interactive
combination between memory and behavior (Mayer, 2009; Anderson & Gluck 2001). It is
believed that behavioral activity is not always essential for deep learning. Behavior attributed
to deep learning is dependent upon activities that combine specific interactive tasks with deeper
structures, or active manipulation of data. Constructing learning for either type of active learning
is dependent upon the generative processing methods used in the learning environment (Monero
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Multimedia Learning
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Multimedia Learning
The cognitive theory of multi-media learning is based upon the theory of human
cognition in what Mayer calls the triarch theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2010). The
triarchic theory of cognitive load identified three kinds of processes required during learning;
extraneous cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. The overall goal
is to reduce extraneous cognitive processing, manage essential cognitive processing and foster
Table 1
essential material
essential material
Foster generative processing Foster germane cognitive load Cognitive processing aimed
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Multimedia Learning
The content developed for multimedia lessons should minimize the amount of extraneous
processing of information that does not support the learning requirements of the learner. For
example, common causes may include unnecessary content, extraneous information and poorly
laid out materials. A learner engaged in large amounts of extraneous processing may not have
overload. When a learner has exhausted available cognitive resources due to extraneous
Material that is too complex, unfamiliar or too fast paced may overwhelm a
learner’s ability to process information that triggers generative learning. Learners with poor
metacognitive capabilities may lack the knowledge or skills of how to process the information in
such scenarios. Essential overload is correlated with poor performance, retention of the learning
task and minimizes a learner’s ability to comprehend the content. However, as learner becomes
familiar with how to construct knowledge and familiar with the content they develop techniques
process the information, i.e. essential processing (Mayer & Monero, 2003, Mayer 2005).
As the learner develops techniques for processing essential information they will begin
to make connections with the content and apply prior knowledge by chunking bits of data into
meaningful units. As the user processes the information they begin to construct the units into
leverage essential processing. When essential processing is minimized the learner has access
a learner’s germane cognitive load increases. The increase germane load triggers relevant
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Multimedia Learning
cognitive activities that processed by the schema acquisition and automation thus contributing to
Mayer (2009) has developed the triarachic framework into the three processes for
learning. Within each of the three processes, reducing extraneous processing, managing
essential processing and fostering generative processing he has developed twelve basic design
principles. The principles are based on evidence comparing the effects of transfer test
performance.
● Coherence – when extraneous word, sound, and pictures are minimized. The
coherence principle states that adding extraneous words or pictures that are
● Redundancy – when graphics and narration are presented together rather than
presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen,
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Multimedia Learning
allows a user to process more information by slowing down the pace of the
content presented,
supports quicker learning when the student knows the names and
● Modality – provides input for two channels, auditory and visual. Graphics
● Voice principle – people learn better when the narration in multimedia lesson
● Voice – when the words are spoken by a friendly human voice rather
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Multimedia Learning
Learning Outcomes
Mayer asserts a goals of multi-media learning include assessing three learning outcomes,
no learning, rote learning, and meaningful learning. Rote learning is indicated by good
retention but poor transfer. Common assessment types for understanding are transfer test where
a learner must apply meaning, problem solve or construct an essay. Meaningful learning occurs
when a learner is able to effectively display deep understanding of the material through transfer
and retention skills simultaneously in an organized manner of the content that was presented. An
important aspect of meaningful learning is the ability to apply problem-solving transfer skills to
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Multimedia Learning
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