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13th Edition

Business Law
Today
COMPREHENSIVE Edition
Text & Cases

Roger LeRoy Miller


Institute for University Studies
Arlington, Texas

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Business Law Today, Comprehensive Edition, © 2022, 2020 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Text & Cases 13th Edition
WCN: 02-300
Roger LeRoy Miller
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Printed in the United States of America


Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2021

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Contents in Brief
Unit 1 The Legal Environment of Business 1 Unit 5 Business Organizations 699
1 Law and Legal Reasoning 1 30 Sole Proprietorships and Franchises 700
2 Constitutional Law 34 31 All Forms of Partnership 716
3 Ethics in Business 59 32 Limited Liability Companies and Special Business Forms 739
4 Courts and Alternative Dispute Resolution 88 33 Corporate Formation and Financing 756
5 Tort Law 123 34 Corporate Directors, Officers, and Shareholders 777
6 Product Liability 151 35 Corporate Mergers, Takeovers, and Termination 796
7 Intellectual Property Rights 171 36 Investor Protection, Insider Trading, and Corporate
8 Internet Law, Social Media, and Privacy 197 Governance 812
9 Criminal Law and Cyber Crime 220
Unit 6 Government Regulation 839
Unit 2 Contracts and E-Contracts 249 37 Administrative Law 840
10 Nature and Classification 250 38 Antitrust Law and Promoting Competition 860
11 Agreement 269 39 Consumer and Environmental Law 883
12 Consideration 293 40 Liability of Accountants and Other Professionals 911
13 Capacity and Legality 307
14 Voluntary Consent 326 Unit 7 Property and Its Protection 933
15 The Statute of Frauds—Writing Requirement 340
41 Personal Property and Bailments 934
16 Performance and Discharge 356
42 Real Property and Landlord-Tenant Law 956
17 Breach and Remedies 372
43 Insurance, Wills, and Trusts 980
18 Third Party Rights 393

APPENDICES
Unit 3 Commercial Transactions 409
A How to Brief Cases and Analyze Case Problems A–1
19 The Formation of Sales and Lease Contracts 410
B The Constitution of the United States A–3
20 Title and Risk of Loss 434 C The Uniform Commercial Code A–3
21 Performance and Breach of Sales and Lease Contracts 450 D Answers to the Issue Spotters A–4
22 Negotiable Instruments 481
E Sample Answers for Business Case Problems
23 International and Space Law 513 with Sample Answer A–11
24 Banking 535
25 Security Interests and Creditors’ Rights 558 Glossary G–1
26 Bankruptcy 588 Table of Cases TC–1
Index I–1
Unit 4 Agency and Employment Law 615
27 Agency Relationships in Business 616
28 Employment, Immigration, and Labor Law 644
29 Employment Discrimination 672

iii

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Contents

Unit 1 The Legal Environment of Business 1


Chapter 1 Privacy Rights 52
■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: Should Apple Help
Law and Legal Reasoning 2 Law Enforcement? 52

Business Activities and the Legal Environment 3


Sources of American Law 4
Chapter 3
The Common Law 8 Ethics in Business 59
■■ Managerial Strategy: The Power of Precedent 10
■■ Landmark in the Law: Equitable Maxims 15 Ethics and the Role of Business 60
■■ Business Web Log: Bogus Bank and Credit Card
Classifications of Law 15
Accounts at Wells Fargo Bank 61
Appendix to Chapter 1 21 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Should
Finding and Analyzing the Law 21 Employees Have a “Right of Disconnecting”? 63
Finding Statutory and Administrative Law 21 Case 3.1: Al-Dabagh v. Case Western Reserve University 65
Finding Case Law 22 Ethical Principles and Philosophies 66
Exhibit 1A–1 The National Reporter System—Regional/Federal 23 ■■ Managerial Strategy: The Stakeholder Capitalism Movement 71
Reading and Understanding Case Law 24 Sources of Ethical Issues in Business Decisions 71
Exhibit 1A–2 How to Read Citations 25 Case 3.2: Watson Laboratories, Inc. v. State of Mississippi 72
Exhibit 1A–3 A Sample Court Case 28 Making Ethical Business Decisions 75
■■ Business Law Analysis: Case Briefing and IRAC Legal Reasoning 32 ■■ Business Law Analysis: Applying the IDDR Framework 79
Business Ethics on a Global Level 80
Chapter 2 Appendix to Chapter 3 87
Costco Code of Ethics 87
Constitutional Law 34
The Constitutional Powers of Government 35 Chapter 4
Case 2.1: Classy Cycles, Inc. v. Panama City Beach 36
■■ Landmark in the Law: Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 38
Courts and Alternative
Classic Case 2.2: Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 39 Dispute Resolution 88
Business and the Bill of Rights 41 The Judiciary’s Role in American Government 89
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Social ■■ Landmark in the Law: Marbury v. Madison (1803) 89
Media and the Constitution 43
Basic Judicial Requirements 90
Spotlight on Beer Labels: Case 2.3: Bad Frog Brewery,
Spotlight on Gucci: Case 4.1: Gucci America, Inc. v. Wang Huoqing 95
Inc. v. New York State Liquor Authority 46
■■ Business Law Analysis: Determining When Public The State and Federal Court Systems 97
Religious Displays Violate the Establishment Clause 48 Case 4.2: Oxford Tower Apartments, LP v. Frenchie’s Hair Boutique 98
Due Process and Equal Protection 50 Following a State Court Case 101

iv

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Contents v

■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Chapter 7


Using Social Media for Service of Process 103
Case 4.3: Klipsch Group, Inc. v. ePRO E-Commerce Limited 107 Intellectual Property Rights 171
Courts Online 111 Trademarks 172
Alternative Dispute Resolution 112 ■■ Managerial Strategy: Trademarks and Service Marks 172
■■ Business Web Log: Samsung and Forced Arbitration 115 Classic Case 7.1: Coca-Cola Co. v. Koke Co. of America 173
■■ Business Web Log: Amazon Faces Fake Products 178
Chapter 5 Patents 180
■■ Business Law Analysis: The Impact of Patent Time Limits 181
Tort Law 123 Copyrights 183
The Basis of Tort Law 123 Case 7.2: LEGO A/S v. ZURU Inc. 185
Intentional Torts against Persons 125 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment:
Beyoncé, Sampling, and a $20 Million Lawsuit 188
■■ Business Law Analysis: Analyzing Intentional Infliction
of Emotional Distress Claims 127 Case 7.3: Oracle USA, Inc. v. Rimini Street, Inc. 189
Case 5.1: Sky v. Van Der Westhuizen 129 Trade Secrets 190
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Revenge International Protections 191
Porn and Invasion of Privacy 132
Intentional Torts against Property 136
Chapter 8
Negligence 138
Case 5.2: Bogenberger v. Pi Kappa Alpha Corporation, Inc. 139 Internet Law, Social Media,
■■ Landmark in the Law: Palsgraf v. Long Island and Privacy 197
Railroad Co. (1928) 143
Spotlight on the Seattle Mariners: Case 5.3: Taylor v. Baseball Internet Law 198
Club of Seattle, L.P. 144 Spotlight on Internet Porn: Case 8.1: Hasbro,
Strict Liability 145 Inc. v. Internet Entertainment Group, Ltd. 202
Copyrights in Digital Information 203
■■ Landmark in the Law: The Digital Millennium Copyright Act 203
Chapter 6 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Riot
Games, Inc., Protects Its Online Video Game Copyrights 204
Product Liability 151 Case 8.2: BMG Rights Management (US), LLC v. Cox
Product Liability Claims 151 Communications, Inc. 206
■■ Business Web Log: Johnson & Johnson Faces Continuing Social Media 207
Lawsuits Over Its Talcum Powder 152 Online Defamation 210
■■ Landmark in the Law: MacPherson v. Buick
■■ Business Law Analysis: Immunity of ISPs
Motor Co. (1916) 153 under the Communications Decency Act 211
Case 6.1: Primal Vantage Co. v. O’Bryan 154 Privacy 212
Strict Product Liability 155 Case 8.3: Campbell v. Facebook, Inc. 212
■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: The Internet of Things 157
■■ Business Law Analysis: How State Legislation
Can Limit Recovery for Design Defects 158 Chapter 9
Case 6.2: Stange v. Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
■■ Managerial Strategy: When Is a Warning Legally
160
Criminal Law and Cyber Crime 220
Bulletproof? 161 Civil Law and Criminal Law 220
Defenses to Product Liability 163 Criminal Liability 223
Spotlight on Injuries from Vaccinations: Case 6.3: ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Should
Bruesewitz v. Wyeth, LLC 164 Bitcoin Be Illegal? 223

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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vi Contents

Case 9.1: United States v. Crabtree 224 Defenses to Criminal Liability 234
■■ Managerial Strategy: The Criminalization of Constitutional Safeguards 236
American Business 226
Cyber Crime 239
Types of Crimes 228 ■■ Landmark in the Law: Miranda v. Arizona (1966) 240
Spotlight on White-Collar Crime: Case 9.2: People v. Sisuphan 230 ■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: Counter-Strike: Global Offensive 242

Unit 2 Contracts and E-Contracts 249


Chapter 10 ■■ Landmark in the Law: Hamer v. Sidway (1891) 294
Case 12.1: Cincinnati Reds, L.L.C. v. Testa 295
Nature and Classification 250 Agreements That Lack Consideration 297
An Overview of Contract Law 250 Case 12.2: Baugh v. Columbia Heart Clinic, P.A. 298
Elements of a Contract 252 Settlement of Claims 300
Case 10.1: Credible Behavioral Health, Inc. v. Johnson 253 Spotlight on Nike: Case 12.3: Already, LLC v. Nike, Inc. 301
Types of Contracts 254 Promissory Estoppel 302
Case 10.2: Boswell v. Panera Bread Co. 256
Quasi Contracts 259 Chapter 13
■■ Business Law Analysis: Deciding If a Court
Would Impose a Quasi Contract 260 Capacity and Legality 307
Interpretation of Contracts 261
Contractual Capacity 307
Spotlight on Columbia Pictures: Case 10.3: Wagner v.
Spotlight on KFC: Case 13.1: PAK Foods Houston, LLC v. Garcia 308
Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. 262
Legality 311
■■ Business Law Analysis: Determining If a Contract with an
Chapter 11 Unlicensed Party Is Enforceable 313

Agreement 269 Case 13.2: Kennedy v. Shave Barber Co.


■■ Managerial Strategy: Creating Liability Waivers
315

Offer 269 That Are Not Unconscionable 318


Classic Case 11.1: Lucy v. Zehmer 270 Case 13.3: Holmes v. Multimedia KSDK, Inc. 318
Spotlight on Amazon.com: Case 11.2: Basis Technology The Effect of Illegality 319
Corp. v. Amazon.com, Inc. 273
■■ Business Law Analysis: Offers of a Reward 275
Chapter 14
Acceptance 277
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Voluntary Consent 326
Can Your E-Mails Create a Valid Contract? 278
E-Contracts 280 Mistakes 326
Case 11.3: Bailey v. Kentucky Lottery Corp. 283 Fraudulent Misrepresentation 329
The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act 286 Case 14.1: McCullough v. Allstate Property and Casualty
Insurance Co. 330
Case 14.2: Cronkelton v. Guaranteed Construction Services, LLC 333
Chapter 12 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: The Problem
of “Contract Cheating” 334
Consideration 293 Case 14.3: Adeli v. Silverstar Automotive, Inc. 335
Elements of Consideration 293 Undue Influence and Duress 336

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents vii

Chapter 15 Chapter 17
The Statute of Frauds— Breach and Remedies 372
Writing Requirement 340 Damages 373
The Writing Requirement 340 ■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: Arby’s Restaurant Group, Inc. 374

Case 15.1: Sloop v. Kiker 341 Case 17.1: HDAV Outdoor, LLC v. Red Square Holdings, LLC 376
■■ Landmark in the Law: Hadley v. Baxendale (1854) 377
Exceptions to the Statute of Frauds 345
Spotlight on Liquidated Damages: Case 17.2: Kent State
Sufficiency of the Writing 347
University v. Ford 379
Case 15.2: Moore v. Bearkat Energy Partners, LLC 348
Equitable Remedies 380
The Parol Evidence Rule 348 ■■ Business Law Analysis: Enforceability of Liquidated
Case 15.3: Habel v. Estate of Capelli 349 Damages Provisions 381
Case 17.3: Cipriano Square Plaza Corp. v. Munawar 381
Chapter 16 Recovery Based on Quasi Contract 385
Contract Provisions Limiting Remedies 386
Performance and Discharge 356
Conditions of Performance 356
Discharge by Performance 358
Chapter 18
■■ Business Law Analysis: Determining When a Breach Third Party Rights 393
Is Material 360
Case 16.1: Chalk Supply LLC v. Ribbe Real Assignments 393
Estate LLC 361 Case 18.1: JP Morgan Chase Bank N.A. v. McNeill 395
Discharge by Agreement 362 Delegations 398
Case 16.2: DWB, LLC v. D&T Pure Trust 364 Case 18.2: Mirandette v. Nelnet, Inc. 400
Discharge by Operation of Law 365 Third Party Beneficiaries 401
Case 16.3: Hampton Road Bankshares, Inc. v. Harvard 366 Case 18.3: Bozzio v. EMI Group, Ltd. 401

Unit 3 Commercial Transactions 409


Chapter 19 ■■ Business Law Analysis: Additional Terms between Merchants 422
Classic Case 19.3: Jones v. Star Credit Corp. 427
The Formation of Sales and Lease Contracts for the International Sale of Goods 427
Contracts 410
■■ Landmark in the Law: The Uniform Commercial Code 411 Chapter 20
The Scope of Articles 2 and 2A 411
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment:
Title and Risk of Loss 434
Taxing Web Purchases 413 Identification 435
The Formation of Sales and Lease Contracts 415 Case 20.1: BMW Group, LLC v. Castle Oil Corp. 436
Case 19.1: Toll Processing Services, LLC v. Kastalon, Inc. 416 Passage of Title 437
Case 19.2: Cadillac Rubber & Plastics, Inc. v. Tubular Metal ■■ Managerial Strategy: Commercial Use of Drones 438
Systems, LLC 420 Spotlight on Andy Warhol: Case 20.2: Lindholm v. Brant 440

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viii Contents

Risk of Loss 442 Case 23.2: Changzhou Trina Solar Energy Co.,
Case 20.3: Total Quality Logistics, LLC v. Balance Transportation, LLC 443 Ltd. v. International Trade Commission 523
Insurable Interest 446 U.S. Laws in a Global Context 525
Spotlight on International Torts: Case 23.3:
Daimler AG v. Bauman 526
Chapter 21 Space Law 528
Performance and Breach of ■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: Safe Satellites 529

Sales and Lease Contracts 450


Chapter 24
Obligations of the Seller or Lessor 451
Case 21.1: All the Way Towing, LLC v. Bucks County Banking 535
International, Inc. 453
Checks and the Bank-Customer Relationship 536
Obligations of the Buyer or Lessee 456
The Bank’s Duty to Honor Checks 538
Remedies of the Seller or Lessor 459 Case 24.1: Legg v. West Bank 539
Remedies of the Buyer or Lessee 461 Case 24.2: Horton v. JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. 542
Spotlight on Baseball Cards: Case 21.2: Fitl v. Strek 466
The Bank’s Duty to Accept Deposits 545
Warranties 467 ■■ Landmark in the Law: Check Clearing for the 21st Century
Classic Case 21.3: Webster v. Blue Ship Tea Room, Inc. 471 Act (Check 21) 546
■■ Business Law Analysis: Implied Warranties 473 Electronic Fund Transfers 548
Case 24.3: Binns v. Truist Bank 550
Chapter 22 Banking in the Digital Age 551
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Open Banking 552
Negotiable Instruments 481
Formation of Negotiable Instruments 482 Chapter 25
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Pay with Your
Smartphone 484 Security Interests and Creditors’
Case 22.1: OneWest Bank, FSB v. Nunez 488 Rights 558
■■ Business Law Analysis: Deciding If an Instrument
Is Negotiable 490 Creating and Perfecting a Security Interest 558
Case 22.2: Collins Asset Group, LLC v. Alialy 491 Spotlight on Wedding Rings: Case 25.1: Royal Jewelers,
Inc. v. Light 560
Transfer of Instruments 493
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment”
Holder in Due Course (HDC) 495 Secured Transactions Online 562
Case 22.3: Jarrell v. Conerly 498 ■■ Business Law Analysis: Perfecting a Security Interest 564
Signature and Warranty Liability 500 Scope of a Security Interest 567
Defenses, Limitations, and Discharge 505 Priorities, Rights, and Duties 569
Case 25.2: Lewis v. Chris Carbine, Inc. 570
Chapter 23 Default 573
Case 25.3: SunTrust Bank v. Monroe 575
International and Space Law 513 Other Laws Assisting Creditors 577
International Law 513
Case 23.1: Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran 517 Chapter 26
■■ Business Law Analysis: Sovereign Immunity Claims 519
Doing Business Internationally 519
Bankruptcy 588
Regulation of Specific Business Activities 522 The Bankruptcy Code 588

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Contents ix

■■ Business Web Log: Online Competition, Bankruptcy, Case 26.1: In re Anderson 600
and the “Retail Apocalypse” 589 Case 26.2: In re Dykes 603
■■ Landmark in the Law: The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention
and Consumer Protection Act 590 Chapter 11—Reorganization 605

Chapter 7—Liquidation 591 Bankruptcy Relief under Chapter 13 and Chapter 12 607
■■ Business Law Analysis: Violations of the Automatic Stay 595 Case 26.3: In re Chamberlain 609

Unit 4 Agency and Employment Law 615


Chapter 27 Health, Safety, Income Security, and Privacy 650
Case 28.2: Packers Sanitation Services, Inc. v. Occupational Safety
Agency Relationships in Business 616 and Health Review Commission 652
■■ Business Law Analysis: Workers’ Compensation Claims 653
Agency Law 617
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Social
Formation of an Agency 620 Media in the Workplace Come of Age 657
Duties of Agents and Principals 622 Immigration Law 658
Spotlight on Taser International: Case 27.1: Taser International, Labor Law 660
Inc. v. Ward 624
■■ Managerial Strategy: Union Organizing Using a Company’s
Agent’s Authority 626 E-Mail System 664
Case 27.2: Dearborn West Village Condominium Case 28.3: Contemporary Cars, Inc. v. National Labor Relations Board 665
Association v. Makki 628
Liability in Agency Relationships 630
■■ Business Law Analysis: Liability of Disclosed Principals 631 Chapter 29
■■ Landmark in the Law: The Doctrine of Respondeat
Superior 634
Employment Discrimination 672
Case 27.3: Simon v. Farm Bureau Insurance Co. 635 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 673
Termination of an Agency 636 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Hiring
Discrimination Based on Social Media Posts 677
Case 29.1: Young v. United Parcel Service, Inc. 678
Chapter 28 ■■ Business Law Analysis: Retaliation Claims 682
Employment, Immigration, Case 29.2: Franchina v. City of Providence 683

and Labor Law 644 Discrimination Based on Age,


Disability, or Military Status 685
Employment at Will 645 Case 29.3: Kassa v. Synovus Financial Corp. 689
Wages, Hours, and Leave 646 Defenses to Employment Discrimination 691
Case 28.1: Encino Motorcars, LLC v. Navarro 648 Affirmative Action 693

Unit 5 Business Organizations 699


Chapter 30 Sole Proprietorships 701
Case 30.1: Port Orchard Airport, Inc. v. Wagner 701
Sole Proprietorships and ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment:
Franchises 700 “Doing Business As” a Sole Proprietor 703

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x Contents

Franchises 704 Chapter 33


The Franchise Contract 706
■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: Brinker Corporate Formation
International, Inc. 708 and Financing 756
Franchise Termination 709
Nature and Classification 756
Case 30.2: S&P Brake Supply, Inc. v. Daimler Trucks North
America, LLC 709 Case 33.1: Wulf v. Bravo Brio Restaurant Group, Inc. 758
Spotlight on Holiday Inns: Case 30.3: Holiday Inn Franchising, Case 33.2: Pantano v. Newark Museum 760
Inc. v. Hotel Associates, Inc. 711 Case 33.3: Greenfield v. Mandalay Shores Community
Association 763
Formation and Powers 764
Chapter 31
Piercing the Corporate Veil 768
All Forms of Partnership 716 ■■ Cybersecurity and the Law: The CLOUD Act 768
Corporate Financing 770
Basic Partnership Concepts 717
■■ Business Law Analysis: Piercing the Corporate Veil 770
Case 31.1: Harun v. Rashid 718
Formation and Operation 720
Classic Case 31.2: Meinhard v. Salmon 723 Chapter 34
Dissociation and Termination 726 Corporate Directors,
Case 31.3: Guenther v. Ryerson 729
Officers, and Shareholders 777
Limited Liability Partnerships 730
Limited Partnerships 731 Directors and Officers 777
Duties and Liabilities of Directors and Officers 780
Case 34.1: Oliveira v. Sugarman 781
Chapter 32
Classic Case 34.2: Guth v. Loft, Inc. 783
Limited Liability Companies Shareholders 785
and Special Business Forms 739 Rights of Shareholders 788
Case 34.3: Robinson v. Langenbach 791
The Limited Liability Company 739
■■ Landmark in the Law: Limited Liability Company
(LLC) Statutes 740 Chapter 35
Case 32.1: Nesset, Inc. v. Jones 743
LLC Operation and Management 744
Corporate Mergers,
■■ Managerial Strategy: Can a Person Who Is Not a Takeovers, and Termination 796
Member of a Protected Class Sue for
Discrimination? 745
Merger, Consolidation, and Share Exchange 796
Case 32.2: Schaefer v. Orth 746 Purchase of Assets 800
Case 35.1: McElrath v. Kalanick 800
Dissociation and Dissolution
of an LLC 747 Case 35.2: Heavenly Hana, LLC v. Hotel Union &
Case 32.3: Reese v. Newman 748 Hotel Industry of Hawaii Pension Plan 802
■■ Business Law Analysis: When Will a Court Order the Takeovers 803
Dissolution of an LLC? 749 Corporate Termination 805
Special Business Forms 750 Major Business Forms Compared 806

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents xi

Chapter 36 ■■ Landmark in the Law: Changes to Regulation


A: “Reg A+” 818
Investor Protection, Insider Trading, Securities Exchange Act of 1934 821
and Corporate Governance 812 Classic Case 36.2: Securities and Exchange
Commission v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Co. 822
Securities Act of 1933 813 Case 36.3: Singer v. Reali 827
Case 36.1: Securities and Exchange Commission v. Scoville 813 State Securities Laws 829
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Investment Corporate Governance 830
Crowdfunding—Regulations and Restrictions 817

Unit 6 Government Regulation 839


Chapter 37 Case 38.3: TransWeb, LLC v. 3M Innovative Properties Co. 876
U.S. Antitrust Laws in the Global Context 877
Administrative Law 840
Practical Significance 840 Chapter 39
Agency Creation and Powers 843
Case 37.1: Simmons v. Smith 845
Consumer and Environmental Law 883
The Administrative Process 846 Advertising, Marketing, Sales, and Labeling 884
Case 37.2: Edwin Taylor Corp. v. U.S. Department Case 39.1: POM Wonderful, LLC v. Federal Trade Commission 885
of Labor 851 Case 39.2: Haywood v. Massage Envy Franchising, LLC 888
Judicial Deference to Agency Decisions 852 Protection of Health and Safety 891
Case 37.3: Olivares v. Transportation Security Credit Protection 894
Administration 853
Case 39.3: Manuel v. Merchants and Professional Bureau, Inc. 898
Public Accountability 854
Protecting the Environment 898
Air and Water Pollution 900
Chapter 38 Toxic Chemicals and Hazardous Waste 904
Antitrust Law
and Promoting Competition 860 Chapter 40
The Sherman Antitrust Act 861 Liability of Accountants
■■ Landmark in the Law: The Sherman and Other Professionals 911
Antitrust Act 861
Case 38.1: United States v. Vega-Martínez 863 Potential Liability to Clients 912
Section 1 of the Sherman Act 863 Case 40.1: Suarez v. Fernandez 916

Section 2 of the Sherman Act 867 Potential Liability to Third Parties 917
The Clayton Act 870 Liability of Accountants under Federal Laws 919
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Big Case 40.2: Laccetti v. Securities and Exchange Commission 921
Tech’s Monopoly Problem 870 Potential Criminal Liability 925
Case 38.2: Candelore v. Tinder, Inc. 872 Confidentiality and Privilege 926
Enforcement and Exemptions 875 Case 40.3: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Schultz 926

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xii Contents

Unit 7 Property and Its Protection 933


Chapter 41 Chapter 43
Personal Property and Bailments 934 Insurance, Wills, and Trusts 980
Personal Property versus Real Property 934 Insurance 980
Acquiring Ownership of Personal Property 936 Case 43.1: Breeden v. Buchanan 983
■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: The Wills 988
Exploding World of Digital Property 936 Case 43.2: In the Matter of the Estate of Thorn 992
■■ Business Law Analysis: Effective Gift of a Brokerage Account 938
In the Matter of the Estate of Thorn 992
Classic Case 41.1: In re Estate of Piper 939 ■■ Adapting the Law to the Online Environment: Online
Mislaid, Lost, and Abandoned Property 941 Asset Estate Planning 995
Case 41.2: Zephier v. Agate 943 Trusts 997
Bailments 943 Case 43.3: Dowdy v. Dowdy 999
Case 41.3: Zissu v. IH2 Property Illinois, L.P. 948

Appendices
Chapter 42
A How to Brief Cases and Analyze Case Problems A–1
Real Property and
B The Constitution of the United States A–3
Landlord-Tenant Law 956
The Nature of Real Property 956 C The Uniform Commercial Code A–3
Ownership Interests and Leases 958 D Answers to the Issue Spotters A–4
Case 42.1: In the Matter of the Estate of Nelson 959
Transfer of Ownership 964 E Sample Answers for Business Case Problems
Spotlight on Sales of Haunted Houses: Case 42.2: with Sample Answer A–11
Stambovsky v. Ackley 965
■■ Business Law Analysis: When Possession of Property Is
Not “Adverse” 969 Glossary G–1
Case 42.3: A2 Creative Group, LLC v. Anderson 969 Table of Cases TC–1
Landlord-Tenant Relationships 972 Index I–1

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface

T
he present world landscape poses numerous challenges for students planning careers
in the business world. It also offers limitless opportunities. To take advantage of those
opportunities, prospective entrepreneurs—whether they aspire to work on Wall Street
or Main Street—need to have a solid understanding of business law and the legal environ-
ment of corporate America. The most up-to-date text on the market, Business Law Today:
Comprehensive Edition, Thirteenth Edition, provides the perfect platform to achieve this goal.
Instructors have come to rely on the coverage, accuracy, and applicability of Business
Law Today. This best-selling text engages your students, solidifies their understanding of
legal concepts, and provides the best teaching tools available. Working on this edition, my
objective was to make its pages more interesting, to the point, and visually compelling than
ever before. I put particular focus on pedagogical devices within the text that focus on legal,
ethical, and corporate issues, while never losing sight of the course’s core curriculum.
The Thirteenth Edition incorporates the latest legal developments, from United States
Supreme Court decisions to state-level legislation. It also includes nearly forty new and
updated features and more than thirty new cases from 2019 and 2020, over one hundred
new Examples and Case Examples, along with an extensive array of exhibits, Focus Questions,
margin definitions, and case problems.

New and Updated Features


The Thirteenth Edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edition is filled with stimu-
lating new and updated features designed to cover current high-interest legal topics. Nearly
every chapter in the text contains one or more of the following special features.
1. Entirely new Cybersecurity and the Law features shed light on the risks that
go with the many rewards offered by technology in the global marketplace. In
selected chapters, these features recount how some of the most important brands in
corporate America are protecting themselves and their customers from the threats
lurking in cyber space. Some of the topics include:
• Should Apple Help Law Enforcement? (Chapter 2)
• Counter Strike: Global Offensive (Chapter 9)
• The CLOUD Act (Chapter 33)
2. Entirely New Hypotheticals in selected chapter introductions provide a real-world
link that generates student interest and highlights specific legal concepts that will be
discussed in the chapter. These hypotheticals—often based on real cases or business
situations—help to introduce and illustrate legal issues facing managers, companies,
and even industries.
3. Business Web Log features underscore the importance of the text material to real-
world businesses. Each of these features discusses a major U.S. company that is
engaged in a dispute involving a topic covered in the chapter. Some topics include:
• Samsung and Forced Arbitration (Chapter 4)
• Johnson & Johnson Faces Continuing Lawsuits Over Its Talcum Powder (Chapter 6)
• Online Competition, Bankruptcy, and the “Retail Apocalypse” (Chapter 26)
xiii

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xiv Preface

4. Adapting the Law to the Online Environment features examine cutting-edge cyberlaw
topics, such as:
• The Problem of “Contract Cheating” (Chapter 14)
• Open Banking (Chapter 24)
• Big Tech’s Monopoly Problem (Chapter 38)
5. Business Law Analysis features appear in numerous chapters of the text. These
features are useful tools to help students master the legal analysis skills that they
will need to answer questions and case problems in the book, on exams, and in
everyday business situations. Topics include:
• The Impact of Patent Time Limits (Chapter 7)
• Deciding If a Court Would Impose a Quasi Contract (Chapter 10)
• Workers’ Compensation Claims (Chapter 28)
6. Ethical Issue features focus on the ethical aspects of a topic being discussed in order
to emphasize that ethics is an integral part of a business law course. Examples
include:
• Even Though Corporations Can Restrict the Speech of Their Employees, Should They
Do So? (Chapter 2)
• Does the Gig Economy Take Advantage of Independent Contractors? (Chapter 27)
• Does Corporate America Need Gender Quotas for Boards of Directors? (Chapter 36)
7. Managerial Strategy features emphasize the management aspects of business law
and the legal environment. Topics include:
• The Power of Precedents (Chapter 1)
• The Stakeholder Capitalism Movement (Chapter 3)
• Can a Person Who Is Not a Member of a Protected Class Sue for Discrimination?
­(Chapter 32)
8. Landmark in the Law features discuss a landmark case, statute, or development that
has significantly affected business law. Examples include:
• Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad Co. (Chapter 5)
• The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (Chapter 8)
• Federal Trade Commission Rule 433 (Chapter 22)

Making Ethical Business Decisions—The IDDR Approach


The Thirteenth Edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edition boasts its own frame-
work for helping students (and businesspersons) make ethical decisions—the IDDR
Approach, which is presented in Chapter 3. This systematic approach provides students
with a clear step-by-step process to analyze the legal and ethical implications of decisions
that are in everyday business operations. The IDDR Approach uses four logical steps:
• Step 1: Inquiry
• Step 2: Discussion
• Step 3: Decision
• Step 4: Review
Students can remember the first letter of each step easily by using the phrase “I Desire to
Do Right.” Material in Chapter 3 (Ethics in Business) details the goals of each IDDR step
and then provides a Sample Scenario to show students how to apply this new approach to
ethical decision making. The text now focuses on real-life application of ethical principles.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface xv

After Chapter 3, to reinforce the application of the IDDR Approach, students are asked
to use its various steps when answering each chapter’s A Question of Ethics. In addition, the
Thirteenth Edition retains the Ethical Issue feature in most chapters, several of which have
been refreshed with timely topics involving the ever-evolving technologies and trends in
business.

New Cases and Case Problems


The Thirteenth Edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edition has new cases and case
problems from 2019 and 2020 in nearly every chapter. The new cases have been carefully
selected to illustrate important points of law and to be of high interest to students and instruc-
tors. I have made it a point to find recent cases that enhance learning and are straightforward
enough for business law students to understand. At the end of each chapter, additional scenar-
ios are presented as case problems that require students to apply concepts learned from the text.
Certain cases and case problems have been carefully chosen as good teaching cases and are
designated as Spotlight Cases and Spotlight Case Problems. Some examples include Spotlight
on Gucci, Spotlight on Beer Labels, Spotlight on Nike, and Spotlight on the Seattle Mariners.
Instructors will find these Spotlight decisions useful to illustrate the legal concepts under
discussion, and students will enjoy studying the cases because they involve interesting and
memorable facts. Other cases have been chosen as Classic Cases because they establish a
legal precedent in a particular area of law.
Each case concludes with a section, called Critical Thinking, which includes at least one
question. Each question is labeled Ethical, Economic, Legal Environment, Political, Social, or
What If the Facts Were Different? In addition, Classic Cases include an Impact of This Case on
Today’s Law section that clarifies how the case has affected the legal environment. Suggested
answers to all case-ending questions can be found in the Answers Manual for this text.

Many New Highlighted and Numbered Case Examples


Many instructors use cases and examples to illustrate how the law applies to business. This
edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edition offers hundreds of new 2019 and 2020
highlighted and consecutively numbered Examples and Case Examples. Examples illustrate
how the law applies in a specific situation, and Case Examples present the facts and issues of
an actual case and then describe the court’s decision and rationale.
In addition, this edition presents Spotlight Case Examples, which deal with especially
high-interest cases, and Classic Case Examples, which discuss older, landmark decisions.
The numbered Examples and Case Examples features are integrated throughout the text to
help students better understand how courts apply legal principles in the real world.

Critical Thinking and Legal Reasoning Elements


For this edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edition, I have included a discussion of
legal reasoning in Chapter 1. The Business Law Analysis features that can be found throughout
the text emphasize legal reasoning skills as well. Critical Thinking questions conclude most of
the features and cases in this text. At the end of each chapter, a Debate This question requires
students to think critically about the rationale underlying the law on a particular topic.
Answers to all Critical Thinking questions, as well as to the Business Scenarios and Case
Problems at the end of every chapter, are presented in the Thirteenth Edition’s Answers Man-
ual. In addition, the answers to one case problem in each chapter, called the Business Case
Problem with Sample Answer, appear in Appendix E.
The chapter-ending materials also include a separate section of questions that focus on
critical thinking and writing. This section always includes a Time-Limited Group Assignment
and may also include a Critical Legal Thinking question requiring students to think critically

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvi Preface

about some aspect of the law discussed in the chapter or a Business Law Writing question
requiring students to compose a written response.

Other Pedagogical Devices Within Each Chapter


• Focus Questions (questions listed at the beginning of each chapter and repeated
in the margins of the text provide a framework of main chapter concepts for the
student).
• Margin definitions of each boldfaced Key Term.
• Know This (margin features).
• Exhibits (in most chapters).
• Photographs (with critical-thinking questions).

Chapter-Ending Pedagogy
• Practice and Review (in every chapter).
• Debate This (a statement or question at the end of Practice and Review).
• Key Terms (with appropriate page references to their margin definitions).
• Chapter Summary (in table format).
• Issue Spotters (in every chapter with answers in Appendix D).
• Business Scenarios and Case Problems (including in every chapter, a Business
Case Problem with Sample Answer that is answered in Appendix E; in selected
chapters, a Spotlight Case Problem; and in every chapter, a A Question of Ethics
that applies this textbook’s unique IDDR Approach to business ethics).
• Critical Thinking and Writing Assignments (including a Time-Limited Group
Assignment in every chapter, and a Business Law Writing or a Critical Legal
Thinking question in selected chapters).

Unit-Ending Pedagogy
Each of the seven units in the Thirteenth Edition of Business Law Today: Comprehensive Edi-
tion concludes with a Task-Based Simulation. This feature presents a hypothetical business
situation and then asks a series of questions about how the law applies to various actions
taken by the firm. To answer the questions, the student must apply the laws discussed
throughout the unit. (Answers are provided in the Answers Manual.)

Supplements
Business Law Today, Thirteenth Edition, provides a comprehensive supplements package
designed to make the tasks of teaching and learning more enjoyable and efficient. The fol-
lowing supplements are available for instructors.

MindTap Business Law for Business Law Today,


Thirteenth Edition
Today’s leading digital platform, MindTap, gives you complete control of your course—
equipping you to craft unique learning experiences that challenge students, build confidence
and elevate performance.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface xvii

Use MindTap as-is or customize it to meet your specific needs. You can even integrate it
easily into your institution’s Learning Management System (LMS).
A streamlined learning path and redesigned assessments minimize reader distraction,
while dual-pane assignments for students pair readings side-by-side with assessments. Mind-
Tap presents complex concepts using a blend of engaging narrative and media assets clearly
linked to assessments. So, students can start applying concepts to real-world situations from
the beginning of your course with content that progresses from understanding core concepts
to critical thinking and, ultimately, application.
Exclusive Instructor Tools allow you to customize course content to your needs and
tailor assessments to match the specific language and style of your course. New Instructor
Reports provide actionable insights into student performance and present opportunities for
just-in-time intervention.

Product Features
MindTap’s outcomes-based learning design propels students from memorization to mastery. It’s
the only platform today that gives you complete ownership of your course. With MindTap you
can challenge every student, build confidence, and empower today’s learners to be unstoppable.

Anchor Learning with Improved Learning Path Design


MindTap helps students focus by dividing the Learning Path into groups of bite-size activi-
ties that are anchored to a single concept. MindTap presents concepts by pairing instructional
content with assessment in a visually captivating side-by-side format.

Provide Learning on the Go


Offer your students the flexibility they need to fit learning into their day—wherever they
are and using whatever approach works best for them. Bite-size content and activities that
students can complete on a smartphone or tablet keep learning engaging, even on the go.

Quick Lesson Videos Present Complex Topics Visually


MindTap contains a variety of new and existing Quick Lesson Videos, placed within Learn
It activities and in the Additional Resources, Quick Lessons folder in the MindTap, to reach
all types of learners.

Access Everything You Need in One Place


Cut down on prep with preloaded, organized course materials in MindTap. Teach more effi-
ciently with interactive multimedia, assignments, quizzes and focused resources all on one
screen. With MindTap you give your students the power to read, listen and study on their
phones—so they can learn on their own terms.

Empower Students to Reach Their Potentials


Gain actionable insights into student engagement with MindTap’s twelve distinct metrics.
Identify topics troubling your entire class and instantly communicate with struggling stu-
dents. You can track your class’ performance down to the learning objective and curate your
lectures in real-time to respond to distinct class-wide needs. Students can track their scores
and take the guesswork out of studying with performance reports and personalized study
materials that help them progress toward their goals.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface

Control Your Course, Your Content


Only MindTap gives you complete control of your course. You have the flexibility to reorder
textbook chapters, add your own notes and embed a variety of content, including OER. Per-
sonalize course content to your students’ needs by editing question text or answer choices.
They can even read your notes, add their own and highlight key text to aid their progress.

Count on Our Dedicated Team, Whenever You Need Them


MindTap is not simply a comprehensive tool—it’s a network of support from a personalized
team eager to further your success. We’re ready to help—from setting up your course to
tailoring MindTap resources to meet your specific objectives. You’ll be ready to make an
impact from day one. And, we’ll be right here to help you and your students throughout the
semester—and beyond.

MindTap Table of Contents


Why Does [Topic] Matter to Me?
Immediately engage students with new activities that connect the upcoming chapter to an
authentic, real-world scenario designed to pique engagement and emphasize relevance. Use
these activities to ensure students read material before class and to trigger lively in-class
discussion.

Chapter-Level Ebook
Immediately engage students with a dynamic eBook that brings the value, concepts and
applications of the printed text to life. Students open an active learning experience as each
chapter provides opportunities to interact with content using the approach that’s best for
the individual learner.

Learn It Activities
Easily add multimedia instruction to your course to supplement textbook learning. Mind-
Tap’s Learn It activities offer small sections of instruction in the form of narrative, images,
and/or Quick Lesson Videos that highlight the most important concepts in each chapter.
Learn It activities reinforce the text’s instruction and even approach concepts in a different
way to promote student choice and autonomy with personalizing learning. You can assign
Learn It activities to ensure that students have read and understand key concepts before class.

Check Your Understanding—Chapter Quizzes


Use MindTap’s Check Your Understanding quizzes to assess student performance and imme-
diately identify class-wide learning needs.

Apply It Activities
Assign any of MindTap’s carefully designed, practically focused application activities to
ensure your students know how to make business decisions through the lens of the law.
• Case Problem Analyses offer a multi-step activity that asks students to
identify the facts in a scenario through a series of questions that promote a

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface xix

critical-thinking process so that students can arrive at the decision of the court.
In the second part, the facts are changed, and students apply the same critical-
thinking process on their own.
• Brief Hypotheticals help students spot the issue and apply the law in the context
of a short, fictional scenario.

Additional Resources (found at the part level)


• Business Cases develop students’ skills to apply critical-thinking and legal
reasoning through relevant real-world business scenarios.
• Quick Lesson Videos highlight the most important concepts in each chapter.
• PowerPoint Slides edited for student use offer visual outlines of each chapter.

Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero


Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system that allows instructors to
do the following:
• Author, edit, and manage Test Bank content from multiple Cengage Learning
solutions.
• Create multiple test versions in an instant.
• Deliver tests from their Learning Management System (LMS), classroom, or
wherever they want.

Start Right Away! Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero works on any operating system or
browser.
• Use your standard browser; no special installs or downloads are needed.
• Create tests from school, home, the coffee shop—anywhere with Internet access.

What Instructors Will Find


• Simplicity at every step. A desktop-inspired interface features drop-down menus
and familiar, intuitive tools that take instructors through content creation and
management with ease.
• Full-featured test generator. Create ideal assessments with a choice of fifteen
question types—including true/false, multiple choice, opinion scale/Likert, and
essay. Multi-language support, an equation editor, and unlimited metadata help
ensure instructor tests are complete and compliant.
• Cross-compatible capability. Import and export content into other systems.

Instructor Companion Website


The Instructor’s Companion Website is an all-in-one resource for class preparation, presen-
tation, and testing. Accessible through www.cengage.com/login with your faculty account,
you will find available for download:
• Instructor’s Manual. Includes activities and assessments for each chapter and
their correlation to specific learning objectives, an outline, key terms with
definitions, a chapter summary, and several ideas for engaging with students with
discussion questions, ice breakers, case studies, and social learning activities that
may be conducted in an on-ground, hybrid, or online modality.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx Preface

• Answers Manual. Provides answers to all questions presented in the text,


including the Focus Questions, the questions in each case and feature, the Issue
Spotters, the Business Scenarios and Case Problems, Critical Thinking and Writing
Assignments, and the unit-ending Task-Based Simulation features.
• Test Bank. A comprehensive test bank, offered in Blackboard, Moodle,
Desire2Learn, and Canvas formats, contains learning objective-specific true-false,
multiple-choice and essay questions for each chapter. Import the test bank into
your LMS to edit and manage questions, and to create tests.
• PowerPoint Slides. Presentations are closely tied to the Instructor Manual,
providing ample opportunities for generating classroom discussion and
interaction. They offer ready-to-use, visual outlines of each chapter, which may
be easily customized for your lectures.
• Guide to Teaching Online. Presents technological and pedagogical considerations
and suggestions for teaching the Business Law course when you can’t be in the
same room with students.
• Transition Guide. Highlights all of the changes in the text and in the digital
offerings from the previous edition to this edition.
• Educator Guide. Walks you through what the unique activities are in the
MindTap, where you’ll find them and how they’re built for easier curriculum
integration.

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Acknowledgments

S
ince I began this project many years ago, numerous business law professors and users
of Business Law Today have been kind enough to help me revise the book and digital
offerings, including the following:

John J. Balek Bradley D. Childs Joseph L. Flack Joseph D. Marcus


Morton College, Illinois Belmont University, Tennessee Washtenaw Community College, Michigan Prince George’s Community College, Maryland
John Jay Ballantine Corey Ciocchetti Jerry Furniss Woodrow J. Maxwell
University of Colorado, Boulder University of Denver, Colorado University of Montana Hudson Valley Community College,
New York
Lorraine K. Bannai Peter Clapp Joan Gabel
Western Washington University St. Mary’s College, California Florida State University Diane May
Winona State University, Minnesota
Marlene E. Barken Dale Clark Elizabeth J. Guerriero
Ithaca College, New York Corning Community College, New York Northeast Louisiana University Beverly McCormick
Phil Harmeson Morehead State University, Kentucky
Laura Barnard Tammy W. Cowart
Lakeland Community College, Ohio University of Texas, Tyler University of South Dakota William J. McDevitt
Nancy L. Hart Saint Joseph’s University, Pennsylvania
Denise A. Bartles, J.D. Stanley J. Dabrowski
Missouri Western State University Hudson County Community College, Midland College, Texas John W. McGee
New Jersey Mo Hassan Aims Community College, Colorado
Daryl Barton
Sandra J. Defebaugh Cabrillo College, California
Eastern Michigan University James K. Miersma
Eastern Michigan University Andy E. Hendrick Milwaukee Area Technical Institute, Wisconsin
Merlin Bauer
Patricia L. DeFrain Coastal Carolina University, South Carolina
Mid State Technical College, Wisconsin Susan J. Mitchell
Glendale College, California Janine S. Hiller Des Moines Area Community College, Iowa
Donna E. Becker
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
Frederick Community College, Maryland M. Yvonne Demory, Jim Lee Morgan
Richard J. Bennet J.D., LL.M. Karen A. Holmes West Los Angeles College, California
George Mason University Hudson Valley Community College, New York
Three Rivers Community College, Connecticut Jack K. Morton
Julia G. Derrick Fred Ittner University of Montana
Dr. Anne Berre College of Alameda, California
Brevard Community College, Florida
Schreiner University, Texas Annie Laurie I. Myers
Joe D. Dillsaver Susan S. Jarvis Northampton Community College,
Robert C. Bird University of Texas, Pan American Pennsylvania
Northeastern State University, Oklahoma
University of Connecticut
Claude W. Dotson Jack E. Karns Solange North
Bonnie S. Bolinger East Carolina University, North Carolina Fox Valley Technical Institute, Wisconsin
Northwest College, Wyoming
Ivy Tech Community College, Wabash Valley
Region, Indiana Larry R. Edwards Sarah Weiner Keidan Jamie L. O’Brien
Tarrant County Junior College, South Campus, Texas Oakland Community College, Michigan South Dakota State University
Brad Botz
Garden City Community College, Kansas Jacolin Eichelberger Richard N. Kleeberg Ruth R. O’Keefe
Hillsborough Community College, Florida Solano Community College, California Jacksonville University, Florida
Teresa Brady
Holy Family College, Pennsylvania George E. Eigsti Bradley T. Lutz Robert H. Orr
Kansas City, Kansas, Community College Hillsborough Community College, Florida Florida Community College at Jacksonville
Dean Bredeson
University of Texas at Austin Florence E. Elliott-Howard Diane MacDonald George Otto
Stephen F. Austin State University, Texas Pacific Lutheran University, Washington Truman College, Illinois
Lee B. Burgunder
California Polytechnic University, Tony Enerva Darlene Mallick Thomas L. Palmer
San Luis Obispo Lakeland Community College, Ohio Anne Arundel Community College, Maryland Northern Arizona University
Thomas D. Cavenagh Benjamin C. Fassberg John D. Mallonee David W. Pan
North Central College, Illinois Prince George’s Community College, Maryland Manatee Community College, Florida University of Tulsa, Oklahoma

xxi

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xxii Acknowledgments

Victor C. Parker, Jr. William M. Rutledge Elisabeth “Lisa” Sperow Whitney B. Westrich
North Georgia College and State University Macomb Community College, Michigan California Polytechnic State University, University of Cincinnati
San Luis Obispo
Jane Patterson Roberto Sandoval Clark W. Wheeler
Ozarks Technical Community College and University of Texas at El Paso Catherine A. Stevens Santa Fe Community College, Florida
Missouri State University College of Southern Maryland
Martha Wright Sartoris Lori Whisenant
Donald L. Petote North Hennepin Community College, Nicole Forbes Stowell, University of Houston, Texas
Genesee Community College, New York Minnesota Esquire Kay O. Wilburn
University of Southern Florida, St. Petersburg The University of Alabama at Birmingham
Francis D. Polk Kurt M. Saunders
Ocean County College, New Jersey Andrea Studzinski
California State University, John G. Williams, J.D.
Northridge College of DuPage Northwestern State University, Louisiana
Gregory Rabb
Jamestown Community College, New York Maurice Tonissi
Anne W. Schacherl Shallin S. Williams
Madison Area Technical College, Quinsigamond Community College, Massachusetts Tri-County Technical College
Brad Reid
Abilene Christian University, Texas Wisconsin James D. Van Tassel James L. Wittenbach
Edward F. Shafer Mission College, California University of Notre Dame, Indiana
Anne Montgomery
Ricketts Rochester Community College, Minnesota Russell A. Waldon Abby A. Wood, Esq.
University of Findlay, Ohio College of the Canyons, California Mt. San Antonio College
Lance Shoemaker, J.D.,
Donald A. Roark M.C.P., M.A. Frederick J. Walsh Margaret M. Wright,
University of West Florida West Valley College, California Franklin Pierce College, New Hampshire
J.D. LL.M.
Joey Robertson Lou Ann Simpson James E. Walsh, Jr. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Sam Houston State University Drake University, Iowa Tidewater Community College, Virginia Eric D. Yordy
Hugh Rode Anthony A. Smith Randy Waterman Northern Arizona University
Utah Valley State College Ithaca College Richland College, Texas Joseph Zavaglia, Jr.
Gerald M. Rogers Denise Smith Jerry Wegman Brookdale Community College, New Jersey
Front Range Community College, Colorado Missouri Western State College University of Idaho Alexandria Zylstra,
Dr. William J. Russell Hugh M. Spall Edward L. Welsh, Jr. J.D., LL.M.
Northwest Nazarene University, Idaho Central Washington University Phoenix College, Arizona George Mason University

In addition, I give my thanks to the staff at Cengage, especially Abbie Schultheis, Associate
Product Manager; Joe Sabatino, Product Director; Julia Chase, Senior Content Manager;
Cazzie Reyes and Liz Harnage, Learning Designers; Lisa Elliot, Subject Matter Expert;
Steven McMillian, Digital Delivery Lead; Nick Perez, Product Assistant; Ashley Maynard,
Permissions Analyst; and Nick Barrows, Permissions Project Manager. I also thank Andrew
Stock in Marketing. Additionally, I would like to thank my project manager Ann Borman
at SPi Global, the compositor, for accurately generating pages for the text and making it
possible for me to meet my ambitious schedule for the print and digital products.
I give special thanks to Katherine Marie Silsbee for managing the project and providing
exceptional research and editorial skills. I also thank William Eric Hollowell, co-author of the
Answers Manual for his excellent research efforts. I am grateful for the copyediting services of
Beverly Peavler and proofreading services of Maureen Johnson. I also thank Vickie Reierson
and Suzanne Jasin for their many efforts on this project.
Roger LeRoy Miller

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Dedication

To Judi and Jeff Camps,

Your move to the West


has been a boon to all of us
who love the outdoors
(and has added great company
for the indoors, too).

R.L.M.

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Unit 1
The Legal
Environment of
Business

1 Law and Legal Reasoning


2 Constitutional Law
3 Ethics in Business
4 Courts and Alternative Dispute Resolution
5 Tort Law
6 Product Liability
7 Intellectual Property Rights
8 Internet Law, Social Media, and Privacy
Sergii Gnatiuk/Shutterstock.com

9 Criminal Law and Cyber Crime

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Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock.com
Focus Questions
1 Law and Legal Reasoning
“Laws should be like In the chapter-opening quotation, Clarence Darrow asserts
The four Focus Questions below clothes. They should that law should be created to serve the public. Because
are designed to help improve your you are part of that public, the law is important to you. In
understanding. After reading this chapter, be made to fit the particular, those entering the world of business will find
you should be able to answer the following people they are themselves subject to numerous laws and government reg-
questions:
meant to serve.” ulations. A basic knowledge of these laws and regulations
1. What are four primary is beneficial—if not essential—to anyone contemplating a
Clarence Darrow
sources of law in the United 1857–1938
successful career in today’s business environment.
States? (American lawyer) Although the law has various definitions, all of them
are based on the general observation that law consists of
2. What is a precedent? When
enforceable rules governing relationships among individuals and between individuals and
might a court depart from
their society. In some societies, these enforceable rules consist of unwritten principles of
precedent?
behavior. In other societies, they are set forth in ancient or contemporary law codes. In
3. What is the difference the United States, our rules consist of written laws and court decisions created by modern
between remedies at law and legislative and judicial bodies. Regardless of how such rules are created, they all have one
remedies in equity? feature in common: they establish rights, duties, and privileges that are consistent with the
4. What are some important values and beliefs of a society or its ruling group.
differences between civil law In this introductory chapter, we look at how business law and the legal environment
and criminal law? affect business decisions. For instance, suppose that Mototron, Inc., plans to introduce
a driverless car equipped with lidar, a radar system that relies on lasers, and artificially
intelligent cameras. Even if its technicians put the vehicles through two million miles of
testing on closed courses and deem them low risk, Mototron cannot simply start selling
Law A body of enforceable rules
governing relationships among rides to consumers. The company must first test the cars on public roads, which requires
individuals and between individuals permission from state governments. It must also establish safety rules with federal regula-
and their society. tors and negotiate sustainable insurance rates. At each step, Mototron will have to adjust

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 3

its bottom line to take account of the legal costs of introducing cutting-edge but potentially
dangerous technology into the American marketplace.
Our goal in this text is not only to teach you about specific laws, but also to teach you
how to think about the law and legal environment, and to develop your critical-thinking
and legal reasoning skills. The laws may change, but the ability to analyze and evaluate the
legal (and ethical) ramifications of situations as they arise is an invaluable and lasting skill.

1–1 Business Activities and the Legal Environment


Laws and government regulations affect almost all business activities—from hiring and fir-
ing decisions to workplace safety, the manufacturing and marketing of products, business
financing, and more. To make good business decisions, businesspersons need to understand
the laws and regulations governing these activities.
Realize also that in today’s business world, simply being aware of what conduct can lead
to legal liability is not enough. Businesspersons must develop critical-thinking and legal Liability The state of being legally
reasoning skills so that they can evaluate how various laws might apply to a given situation responsible (liable) for something,
and determine the best course of action. Businesspersons are also pressured to make ethical such as a debt or obligation.
decisions. Thus, the study of business law necessarily involves an ethical dimension.
As you will note, each chapter in this text covers a specific area of the law and shows how
the legal rules in that area affect business activities. Although compartmentalizing the law
in this fashion facilitates learning, it does not indicate the extent to which many different
laws may apply to just one transaction. Exhibit 1–1 illustrates the various areas of the law
that may influence business decision making.

Exhibit 1–1 Areas of the Law That May Affect Business Decision Making

Contracts

Courts and Sales and


Court Procedures E-Commerce

Environmental Negotiable
Laws Instruments

Business
Business Creditors’
Decision
Organizations Rights
Making

Intellectual
Agency Property

Torts Professional
Liability

Product
Liability

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4 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

Example 1.1 Soon after it launched, YouTube faced a potentially catastrophic $1 billion
copyright infringement lawsuit. Entertainment conglomerate Viacom claimed that the
­video-hosting platform was not taking sufficient steps to remove unlicensed use of Viacom’s
content on its site. A federal judge ensured YouTube’s survival by ruling that the company
was in compliance with federal copyright law as long as it responded reasonably to “take-
down” requests from Viacom and other content providers.
Not surprisingly, with five hundred hours of video uploaded to its site each minute, You-
Tube has remained under constant legal pressure ever since. Liberal and conservative groups
have sued the company for discriminating against their political viewpoints. It has faced
regulatory scrutiny for, among other things, failing to protect users from sexual and racist
harassment and hosting misleading election-related video content. At one point, the Federal
Trade Commission fined the company $170 million for collecting personal information from
children without their parents’ consent. ■

1–2 Sources of American Law


Primary Source of Law A There are numerous sources of American law. A source that establishes the law on a particular
source that establishes the issue is called a primary source of law. Primary sources include the following:
law on a particular issue, such
as a constitution, a statute, an • The U.S. Constitution and the constitutions of the various states.
administrative rule, or a court • Statutory law—including laws passed by Congress, state legislatures, and local
decision.
governing bodies.
• Regulations created by administrative agencies, such as the federal Food and
Focus Question 1 Drug Administration.
What are four primary • Case law (court decisions).
sources of law in the United
States? We describe each of these important primary sources of law in the following pages. (See
the appendix at the end of this chapter for a discussion of how to find statutes, regulations,
and case law.)
Secondary Source of Law A A secondary source of law is a book or article that summarizes and clarifies a primary source
publication that summarizes or of law. Legal encyclopedias, compilations (such as Restatements of the Law, which summa-
interprets the law, such as a legal rize court decisions on a particular topic), official comments to statutes, treatises, articles
encyclopedia, a legal treatise, or an
in law reviews published by law schools, and articles in other legal journals are examples
article in a law review.
of secondary sources of law. Courts often refer to secondary sources of law for guidance in
interpreting and applying the primary sources of law discussed here.

1–2a Constitutional Law


The federal government and the states have written constitutions that set forth the general
Constitutional Law The body of organization, powers, and limits of their respective governments. Constitutional law, which
law derived from the U.S. Constitution deals with the fundamental principles by which the government exercises its authority, is
and the constitutions of the various the law as expressed in these constitutions.
states.
The U.S. Constitution is the basis of all law in the United States. It provides a framework
for statutes and regulations, and thus is the supreme law of the land. A law in violation of the
U.S. Constitution, if challenged, will be declared unconstitutional and will not be enforced,
no matter what its source.
The Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution reserves to the states all powers not
granted to the federal government. Each state in the union has its own constitution. Unless
it conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or a federal law, a state constitution is supreme within
that state’s borders.

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 5

1–2b Statutory Law


Laws enacted by legislative bodies at any level of government, such as the statutes passed by
Congress or by state legislatures, make up the body of law generally referred to as statutory Statutory Law The body of law
law. When a legislature passes a statute, that statute ultimately is included in the federal code enacted by legislative bodies (as
of laws or the relevant state code of laws. opposed to constitutional law,
administrative law, or case law).
Whenever a particular statute is mentioned in this text, we usually provide a footnote
showing its citation (a reference to a publication in which a legal authority—such as a statute Citation A reference to a
or a court decision—or other source can be found). In the appendix following this chapter, publication in which a legal
we explain how you can use these citations to find statutory law. authority—such as a statute or a
court decision—or other source can
Local Ordinances Statutory law also includes local ordinances. An ordinance is a regu- be found.
lation passed by a municipal or county governing unit to deal with matters not covered
Ordinance A regulation enacted
by federal or state law. Ordinances commonly have to do with city or county land use by a city or county legislative body
(zoning ordinances), building and safety codes, and other matters affecting only the local that becomes part of that city’s and
governing unit. county’s statutory law.

Applicability of Statutes A federal statute, of course, applies


to all states. A state statute, in contrast, applies only within the
state’s borders. State laws thus may vary from state to state. No
federal statute may violate the U.S. Constitution, and no state
statute or local ordinance may violate the U.S. Constitution or
the relevant state constitution.
Example 1.2 The tension between federal, state, and local laws
is evident in the national debate over so-called sanctuary c­ ities—
cities that limit their cooperation with federal immigration
authorities. Normally, law enforcement officials are supposed
to alert federal immigration authorities when they come into
Michael Dwyer/Alamy

contact with an undocumented immigrant. Then, immigration


officials request the state and local authorities to detain the indi-
vidual for possible deportation.
But a number of cities across the United States have adopted
either local ordinances or explicit policies that do not follow this
How have local “sanctuary cities” frustrated federal immigration
procedure. Police in these cities often do not ask or report the
procedures?
immigration status of individuals with whom they come into
contact. Other places refuse to detain undocumented immi-
grants who are accused of low-level offenses. ■

Uniform Laws During the 1800s, the differences among state laws frequently created dif-
ficulties for businesspersons conducting trade and commerce among the states. To counter
these problems, a group of legal scholars and lawyers formed the National Conference of
Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL, online at www.uniformlaws.org) in 1892
to draft uniform laws (“model statutes”) for the states to consider adopting. The NCCUSL still Uniform Laws Model laws
exists today and continues to issue uniform laws. developed by the National
Each state has the option of adopting or rejecting a uniform law. Only if a state legislature Conference of Commissioners on
Uniform State Laws for the states to
adopts a uniform law does that law become part of the statutory law of that state. Furthermore, consider enacting into statute.
a state legislature may choose to adopt only part of a uniform law or to rewrite the sections
that are adopted. Hence, even though many states may have adopted a uniform law, those
laws may not be entirely “uniform.”

The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) One of the most important uniform acts is the
Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), which was created through the joint efforts of

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6 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

the NCCUSL and the American Law Institute.1 The UCC was first issued in 1952 and has
been adopted in all fifty states,2 the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands.
The UCC facilitates commerce among the states by providing a uniform, yet flexible, set
of rules governing commercial transactions. Because of its importance in the area of com-
mercial law, we cite the UCC frequently in this text. From time to time, the NCCUSL revises
the articles contained in the UCC and submits the revised versions to the states for adoption.

1–2c Administrative Law


Administrative Law The body Another important source of American law is administrative law, which consists of the rules,
of law created by administrative orders, and decisions of administrative agencies. An administrative agency is a federal, state, or
agencies in order to carry out their local government agency established to perform a specific function.
duties and responsibilities.
Rules issued by various administrative agencies affect almost every aspect of a business’s
Administrative Agency A federal, operations. Regulations govern a business’s capital structure and financing, its hiring and
state, or local government agency firing procedures, its relations with employees and unions, and the way it manufactures
created by the legislature to perform and markets its products.
a specific function, such as to make
and enforce rules pertaining to the Federal Agencies At the national level, numerous executive agencies exist within the
environment.
c­ abinet departments of the executive branch. The Food and Drug Administration, for exam-
ple, is an agency within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Executive
agencies are subject to the authority of the president, who has the power to appoint and
remove their officers.
There are also major independent regulatory agencies at the federal level, including the
Federal Trade Commission, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Com-
munications Commission. The president’s power is less pronounced in regard to independent
agencies, whose officers serve for fixed terms and cannot be removed without just cause.

State and Local Agencies There are administrative agencies at the state and local levels
as well. Commonly, a state agency (such as a state pollution-control agency) is created as a
parallel to a federal agency (such as the Environmental Protection Agency).
Just as federal statutes take precedence over conflicting state statutes, so do federal agency
regulations take precedence over conflicting state regulations. Because the rules of state and
local agencies vary widely, we focus here exclusively on federal administrative law.

Agency Creation Because Congress cannot possibly oversee the actual implementation of
all the laws it enacts, it delegates such tasks to agencies. Congress creates an administrative
Enabling Legislation A statute agency by enacting enabling legislation, which specifies the name, composition, purpose, and
enacted by Congress that authorizes powers of the agency being created.
the creation of an administrative Example 1.3 The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was created in 1914 by the Federal
agency and specifies the name,
composition, purpose, and powers of
Trade Commission Act.3 This act prohibits unfair and deceptive trade practices. It also
the agency being created. describes the procedures the agency must follow to charge persons or organizations with
violations of the act, and it provides for judicial review (review by the courts) of agency
orders.
Other portions of the act grant the agency powers to “make rules and regulations for the
Adjudicate To render a judicial purpose of carrying out the Act,” and to conduct investigations of business practices. In
decision. Adjudication is the
addition, the FTC can obtain reports from interstate corporations concerning their business
trial-like proceeding in which an
administrative law judge hears practices, investigate possible violations of the act, publish findings of its investigations, and
and resolves disputes involving an recommend new legislation. The act also empowers the FTC to hold trial-like hearings and
administrative agency’s regulations. to adjudicate (resolve judicially) certain kinds of disputes involving its regulations.

1. This institute was formed in the 1920s and consists of practicing attorneys, legal scholars, and judges.
2. Louisiana has adopted only Articles 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9.
3. 15 U.S.C. Sections 45–58.

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 7

Note that the powers granted to the FTC incorporate functions associated with the legis- Administrative Process The
lative branch of government (rulemaking), the executive branch (investigation and enforce- procedure used by administrative
ment), and the judicial branch (adjudication). Taken together, these functions constitute agencies in fulfilling their three basic
functions: rulemaking, enforcement,
the administrative process, which is the administration of law by administrative agencies. The and adjudication.
administrative process involves rulemaking, enforcement, and adjudication. ■

Rulemaking A major function of an administrative agency is rulemaking—­


formulating new regulations or amending old ones. When Congress enacts an
agency’s enabling legislation, it confers the power to make legislative rules, or sub-
stantive rules, which are legally binding on all businesses.
The Administrative Procedure Act (APA)4 imposes strict procedural require-
ments that agencies must follow in legislative rulemaking and other functions.
Example 1.4 The Occupational Safety and Health Act authorized the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to develop and issue rules governing
safety in the workplace. When OSHA wants to formulate rules regarding safety in
the steel industry, it has to follow specific procedures outlined by the APA. If an
agency fails to follow the APA’s rulemaking procedures, the resulting rule may not
be binding. ■

Legislative Rules. Legislative rulemaking under the APA typically involves the
following three steps (referred to as notice-and-comment rulemaking).
Which federal agency oversees worker
1. Notice of the proposed rulemaking. The notice must be published in the safety?
Federal Register, a daily publication of the U.S. government.
2. A comment period. The agency must allow ample time for interested parties to
comment in writing on the proposed rule. The agency takes these comments into Rulemaking The process by which
consideration when drafting the final version of the regulation. an administrative agency formally
adopts a new regulation or amends
3. The final rule. Once the agency has drafted the final rule, it is published in the an old one.
Federal Register. (See the appendix at the end of this chapter for an explanation of
how to find agency regulations.) Legislative Rules Administrative
agency rules that carry the same
Interpretive Rules. Administrative agencies also issue interpretive rules that are not legally weight as congressionally enacted
binding but simply indicate how an agency plans to interpret and enforce its statutory statutes.
­authority. The APA does not apply to interpretive rulemaking. Example 1.5 The Equal Employ- Interpretive Rules Nonbinding
ment Opportunity Commission periodically issues interpretive rules indicating how it plans rules or policy statements issued by
to interpret the provisions of certain statutes, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act. an administrative agency that explain
These informal rules provide enforcement guidelines for agency officials. ■ how it interprets and intends to apply
the statutes it enforces.
Enforcement and Investigation Agencies often enforce their own rules and have both
investigatory and prosecutorial powers. Agencies investigate a wide range of activities,
including coal mining, automobile manufacturing, and the industrial discharge of pollut-
ants into the environment.
In an investigation, an agency can request that individuals or organizations hand over
specified books, papers, electronic records, or other documents. In addition, agencies may
conduct on-site inspections, although a search warrant is normally required for such inspec-
tions.5 Sometimes, a search of a home, an office, or a factory is the only means of obtaining
evidence needed to prove a regulatory violation.
After investigating a suspected rule violation, an agency may decide to take action against
an individual or a business. Most administrative actions are resolved through negotiated

4. 5 U.S.C. Sections 551–706.


5. In some heavily regulated industries, such as the sale of firearms or liquor, agencies can conduct searches without obtaining a warrant.

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8 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

settlement at their initial stages without the need for formal adjudication. If a settlement
­cannot be reached, though, the agency may issue a formal complaint and proceed to
adjudication.

Administrative Law Judge Adjudication Agency adjudication involves a trial-like hearing before an administrative law
(ALJ) One who presides over an judge (ALJ). Hearing procedures vary widely from agency to agency. After the hearing, the
administrative agency hearing and ALJ renders a decision in the case. The ALJ can fine the charged party or prohibit the party
has the power to administer oaths,
from carrying on some specified activity.
take testimony, rule on questions of
evidence, and make determinations Either the agency or the charged party may appeal the ALJ’s decision to the commission
of fact. or board that governs the agency. If the party fails to get relief there, appeal can be made
to a federal court. Courts give significant weight (deference) to an agency’s judgment and
interpretation of its rules, though, and typically uphold the ALJ’s decision unless it is unrea-
sonable. If neither side appeals the case, the ALJ’s decision becomes final.

Ethical Issue Do administrative agencies exercise too much authority?


Administrative agencies, such as the Federal Trade Commission,
combine in a single governmental entity functions normally divided among the three branches of
government. They create rules, conduct investigations, and prosecute and pass judgment on viola-
tors. Yet administrative agencies’ powers often go unchecked by the other branches. Some busi-
nesspersons have suggested that it is unethical for agencies—which are not even mentioned in the
U.S. Constitution—to wield so many powers.
Although agency rulemaking must comply with the requirements of the Administrative Proce-
dure Act (APA), the act applies only to legislative, not interpretive, rulemaking. In addition, the APA
is largely procedural and aimed at preventing arbitrariness. It does little to ensure that the rules
passed by agencies are fair or correct—or even cost-effective. On those rare occasions when an
agency’s ruling is challenged and later reviewed by a court, the court cannot reverse the agency’s
decision unless the agency exceeded its authority or acted arbitrarily. Courts typically are reluctant
to second-guess an agency’s rules, interpretations, and decisions. Moreover, once an agency has
final regulations in place, it is difficult to revoke or alter them.

1–2d Case Law and Common Law Doctrines


The rules of law announced in court decisions constitute another basic source of American
law. These rules of law include interpretations of constitutional provisions, of statutes enacted
Case Law The rules of law by legislatures, and of regulations created by administrative agencies.
announced in court decisions. Case
Today, this body of judge-made law is referred to as case law. Case law—the doctrines and
law interprets statutes, regulations,
and constitutional provisions, and principles announced in cases—governs all areas not covered by statutory law or administra-
governs all areas not covered by tive law and is part of our common law tradition. We look at the origins and characteristics
statutory or administrative law. of the common law tradition in some detail in the discussion that follows.

1–3 The Common Law


Because of our colonial heritage, much American law is based on the English legal system.
Knowledge of this system is crucial to understanding our legal system today because judges
in the United States still apply common law principles when deciding cases.

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 9

1–3a Early English Courts


After the Normans conquered England in 1066, William the Conqueror and his successors
began the process of unifying the country under their rule. One of the means they used
to do this was the establishment of the king’s courts, or curiae regis. Before the Norman
Conquest, disputes had been settled according to the local legal customs and traditions in
various regions of the country. The king’s courts sought to establish a uniform set of rules
for the country as a whole. What evolved in these courts was the beginning of the common Common Law The body of law
law—a body of general rules that applied throughout the entire English realm. Eventually, developed from custom or judicial
the common law tradition became part of the heritage of all nations that were once British decisions in English and U.S. courts,
not attributable to a legislature.
colonies, including the United States.
Courts developed the common law rules from the principles underlying judges’ decisions
in actual legal controversies. Judges attempted to be consistent, and whenever possible, they Focus Question 2
based their decisions on the principles suggested by earlier cases. They sought to decide sim-
What is a precedent? When
ilar cases in a similar way and considered new cases with care because they knew that their
might a court depart from
decisions would make new law. Each interpretation became part of the law on the subject and
precedent?
served as a legal precedent—that is, a court decision that furnished an example or authority
for deciding subsequent cases involving identical or similar legal principles or facts.
In the early years of the common law, there was no single place or publication where court Precedent A court decision that
opinions, or written decisions, could be found. Beginning in the late thirteenth and early furnishes an example or authority for
fourteenth centuries, however, portions of significant decisions from each year were gath- deciding subsequent cases involving
ered together and recorded in Year Books. The Year Books were useful references for lawyers identical or similar facts.
and judges. In the sixteenth century, the Year Books were discontinued, and other reports of
cases became available. (See the appendix to this chapter for a discussion of how cases are
reported, or published, in the United States today.)

1–3b Stare Decisis


The practice of deciding new cases with reference to former decisions, or precedents, even-
tually became a cornerstone of the English and U.S. judicial systems. The practice forms a
doctrine called stare decisis 6 (a Latin phrase meaning “to stand on decided cases”). Stare Decisis A common law
Under the doctrine of stare decisis, judges are obligated to follow the precedents estab- doctrine under which judges are
lished within their jurisdictions. (The term jurisdiction refers to a geographic area in which obligated to follow the precedents
established in prior decisions.
a court or courts have the power to apply the law.) Once a court has set forth a principle of
law as being applicable to a certain set of facts, that court must apply the principle in future
cases involving similar facts. Courts of lower rank (within the same jurisdiction) must do
likewise. Thus, stare decisis has two aspects:
1. A court should not overturn its own precedents unless there is a strong reason to do so.
2. Decisions made by a higher court are binding on lower courts.

Controlling Precedents Precedents that must be followed within a jurisdiction are known
as controlling precedents. Controlling precedents are binding authorities. A binding authority is Binding Authority Any source of
any source of law that a court must follow when deciding a case. Binding authorities include law that a court must follow when
deciding a case.
constitutions, statutes, and regulations that govern the issue being decided, as well as court
decisions that are controlling precedents within the jurisdiction. United States Supreme Court
case decisions, no matter how old, remain controlling until they are overruled by a subsequent
decision of the Supreme Court, by a constitutional amendment, or by congressional legislation.
Know This
Courts normally must
Stare Decisis and Legal Stability The doctrine of stare decisis helps the courts to be more follow the rules set
efficient because if other courts have carefully reasoned through a similar case, their legal forth by higher courts
in deciding cases with
6. Pronounced stahr-ee dih-si-sis. similar fact patterns.

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10 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

The Power of Precedent Managerial Strategy

R oberta owns and manages an independent


auto repair shop in Boise City, Oklahoma.
Over the past several years, business has
Relying on Stare Decisis
With auto repairs, the customer is charged
a certain amount of “booked” hours per job,
been booming, thanks to an influx of people no matter how long the repair takes. Rober-
moving to Boise City from California. To take ta’s auto mechanics are paid per “booked”
advantage of this population boom, Roberta hour, also regardless of how long the actual
is considering opening a used car dealership repair takes. Consequently, the issue of
on an abandoned lot next to her repair shop. overtime does not apply. Roberta knows she
thanks to the doctrine of stare decisis, should
won’t be able to pay her salespeople using
Working Overtime the salespeople sue Roberta seeking over-
this system. To get more information on her
time pay, she could reasonably rely on the
Knowing that used car dealerships operate options, she calls Fran, a local labor lawyer,
Supreme Court’s decision as binding prece-
on extremely thin margins, Roberta and her for advice.
dent on this matter.
accountant attempt to come up with a list Fran tells Roberta that, under the federal
of all the costs to include in the new busi- Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), employers
Business Questions
ness plan. Roberta learns that other used car are not required to pay overtime for any
dealerships in the area are often open from 8 “sales[person] . . . primarily engaged in sell- 1. “When faced with a clearly errone-
A.M. to 7 P.M., presumably to take advantage ing or servicing any automobiles.” Further- ous precedent, my rule is simple,” writes
of customers who visit outside normal work more, in a recent case, the United States Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas.
hours. Most of the dealerships are also open Supreme Court upheld this segment of the “We should not follow it.” How do these
on weekends, meaning that any salespeople FLSA, holding that the “plain language” of words offer a cautionary tale for managers
that Roberta hires will work more than the the federal law should determine the out- relying on stare decisis to make business
normal forty-hour workweek. To determine come of any overtime pay dispute. So, under decisions?
her labor costs, Roberta needs to know if federal law, the salespeople at Roberta’s 2. Should Roberta consider paying her
she must pay these employees overtime for used car dealership would be exempt from salespeople overtime even though it is not
the extra hours. overtime pay. Furthermore, explains Fran, required by federal law? Why or why not?

reasoning and opinions can serve as guides. Stare decisis also makes the law more stable and
predictable. If the law on a given subject is well settled, someone bringing a case to court
can usually rely on the court to make a decision based on what the law has been. (See this
chapter’s Managerial Strategy feature to learn how this stability can help business managers
in their decision-making process.)

Departures from Precedent Although courts are obligated to follow precedents, some-
times a court will depart from the rule of precedent. If a court decides that a precedent is
simply incorrect or that technological or social changes have rendered the precedent inap-
plicable, the court may rule contrary to the precedent. Cases that overturn precedent often
receive a great deal of publicity.
Classic Case Example 1.6 In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,7 the United States
Supreme Court expressly overturned precedent. The Court concluded that separate educa-
tional facilities for whites and blacks, which had previously been upheld as constitutional,8
were inherently unequal. The Supreme Court’s departure from precedent in the Brown deci-
sion received a tremendous amount of publicity as people began to realize the ramifications
of this change in the law. ■

7. 347 U.S. 483, 74 S.Ct. 686, 98 L.Ed. 873 (1954).


8. See Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 16 S.Ct. 1138, 41 L.Ed. 256 (1896).

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 11

When There Is No Precedent Occasionally, courts must decide cases for which no prec-
edents exist, called cases of first impression. For instance, as you will read throughout this
text, the Internet and certain other technologies have presented many new and challenging
issues for the courts to decide.
When deciding cases of first impression, courts often look at persuasive authorities.
A persuasive authority is a legal authority that a court may consult for guidance but that is not Persuasive Authority Any legal
binding on the court. A court may consider precedents from other jurisdictions, for instance, authority or source of law that a court
although those precedents are not binding. A court may also consider legal principles and may look to for guidance but need not
follow when making its decision.
policies underlying previous court decisions or existing statutes. Additionally, a court might
look at fairness, social values and customs, and public policy (governmental policy based
on widely held societal values). Federal courts can also look at unpublished opinions (those
not intended for publication in a printed legal reporter) as sources of persuasive
authority.9

Stare Decisis and Legal Reasoning In deciding what law applies to a given dispute and
then applying that law to the facts or circumstances of the case, judges rely on the process
of legal reasoning. Through the use of legal reasoning, judges harmonize their decisions with Legal Reasoning The process
those that have been made before, as the doctrine of stare decisis requires. of reasoning by which a judge
Students of business law and the legal environment also engage in critical thinking and harmonizes his or her opinion with
the judicial decisions in previous
legal reasoning. For instance, you may be asked to provide answers for some of the case cases.
problems that appear at the end of every chapter in this text. Each problem describes the
facts of a particular dispute and the legal question at issue. If you are assigned a case problem,
you will be asked to determine how a court would answer that question, and why. In other
words, you will need to give legal reasons for whatever conclusion you reach.

Basic Steps in Legal Reasoning. At times, the legal arguments set forth in court opinions
are relatively simple and brief. At other times, the arguments are complex and lengthy.
Regardless of the length of a legal argument, however, the basic steps of the legal reasoning
process remain the same. These steps, which you can also follow when analyzing cases and
case problems, form what is commonly referred to as the IRAC method of legal reasoning.
IRAC is an acronym formed from the first letters of the words Issue, Rule, Application, and
Conclusion. To apply the IRAC method, ask the following questions:
1. Issue—What are the key facts and issues? This may sound obvious, but before
you can analyze or apply the relevant law to a specific set of facts, you must clearly
understand those facts. In other words, you should read through the case problem
carefully—more than once, if necessary. Make sure that you understand the
identities of the plaintiff (the one who initiates the lawsuit) and the defendant (the Plaintiff One who initiates a lawsuit.
one being sued) in the case, and the progression of events that led to the lawsuit.
Defendant One against whom a
Suppose that a plaintiff, Anna, comes before the court claiming assault (words
lawsuit is brought or the accused
or acts that wrongfully and intentionally make another person apprehensive of person in a criminal proceeding.
harmful or offensive contact). Anna claims that the defendant, Bryce threatened
her while she was sleeping. Although the plaintiff was unaware that she was being
threatened, her roommate, Jan, heard the defendant make the threat. So, in this
scenario, the identities of the parties are obvious. Anna is the plaintiff, and Bryce is
the defendant.
The legal issue in this case is whether the defendant’s action constitutes the
tort of assault even though the plaintiff was unaware of that threat at the time it
occurred. (A tort is a wrongful act brought under civil rather than criminal law.)

9. Rule 32.1 of the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure.

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12 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

2. Rule—What rule of law applies to the case? A rule of law may be a rule stated by
the courts in previous decisions, by a state or federal statute, or by a state or federal
administrative agency regulation. Often, more than one rule of law will be applicable
to a case.
Allege To state, recite, assert, or In our hypothetical case, Anna and her attorney allege (claim) that Bryce committed
charge. a tort. Therefore, the applicable law is the common law of torts—specifically, tort law
governing assault. Case precedents involving similar facts and issues thus would be
relevant.
3. Application—How does the rule of law apply to the particular facts and circumstances
of this case? This step is often the most difficult because each case presents a unique
set of facts, circumstances, and parties. Although cases may be similar, no two cases
are ever identical in all respects.
Normally, judges (and lawyers and law students) try to find previously decided
cases that are as similar as possible to the one under consideration. Such a case is
Case on Point A previous case called a case on point. In this situation, there might be case precedents showing that
involving factual circumstances and if a victim is unaware of the threat of harmful or offensive contact, then no assault
issues that are similar to those in the occurred. These would be cases on point that tend to prove that the defendant did
case before the court.
not commit assault and should win the case.
There might, however, also be cases showing that a sexual assault, at least, can
occur even if the victim is asleep. These would be cases on point in the plaintiff’s
favor. You will need to carefully analyze if there are any missing facts in Anna’s
claim. For instance, you might want to know the specific threat that Bryce made
(and Anna’s roommate overheard). Did he threaten to rape, kill, or beat her? Did he
know that she was asleep when he made the threat? Did he know that her roommate
heard the threat and would relay it to her when she awoke? Sometimes, you will
want to obtain additional facts before analyzing which case precedents should apply
and control the outcome of the case.
4. Conclusion—What conclusion should be drawn? This step normally presents few
problems. Usually, the conclusion is evident if the previous three steps have been
followed carefully. In our sample problem, for instance, you may determine that
Bryce did not commit a tort because Anna could not prove all of the required
elements of assault.

There Is No One “Right” Answer. Many people believe that there is one “right” answer to
every legal question. In many legal controversies, however, there is no single correct result.
Good arguments can usually be made to support either side of a legal controversy. Quite
often, a case does not involve a “good” person suing a “bad” person. In many cases, both
parties have acted in good faith in some measure or in bad faith to some degree. Addition-
ally, each judge has her or his own personal beliefs and philosophy. To some extent, these
Remedy The relief given to an personal factors shape the legal reasoning process.
innocent party to enforce a right or
compensate for the violation of a
right.
1–3c Equitable Remedies and Courts of Equity
A remedy is the means given to a party to enforce a right or to compensate for the violation of
a right. Example 1.7 Elena is injured because of Rowan’s wrongdoing. If Elena files a lawsuit
Focus Question 3 and is successful, a court can order Rowan to compensate Elena for the harm by paying her
What is the difference a certain amount. The compensation is Elena’s remedy. ■
between remedies at law and The kinds of remedies available in the early king’s courts of England were severely
remedies in equity? restricted. If one person wronged another, the king’s courts could award either money or
property, including land, as compensation. These courts became known as courts of law, and

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 13

the remedies were called remedies at law. Even though this system introduced uniformity
in the settling of disputes, when a person wanted a remedy other than property or economic
compensation, the courts of law could do nothing, so “no remedy, no right.”

Remedies in Equity Equity is a branch of law—founded on notions of justice and fair


­ ealing—that seeks to supply a remedy when no adequate remedy at law is available. When
d
individuals could not obtain an adequate remedy in a court of law, they petitioned the king for
relief. Most of these petitions were referred to the chancellor, an adviser to the king who had
the power to grant new and unique remedies. Eventually, formal chancery courts, or courts
of equity, were established. The remedies granted by the chancery courts were called remedies
in equity.
Plaintiffs (those bringing lawsuits) had to specify whether they were bringing an “action
at law” or an “action in equity,” and they chose their courts accordingly. A plaintiff might ask
a court of equity to order the defendant to perform within the terms of a contract. A court
of law could not issue such an order because its remedies were limited to the payment of
money or property as compensation for damages.
A court of equity, however, could issue a decree for specific performance—an order to per-
form what was promised. A court of equity could also issue an injunction, directing a party
to do or refrain from doing a particular act. In certain cases, a court of equity could allow for
the rescission (cancellation) of the contract, thereby returning the parties to the positions that
they held prior to the contract’s formation. Equitable remedies will be discussed in greater
detail in the chapters covering contracts.

The Merging of Law and Equity Today, in most states, the courts of law and equity have Know This
merged, and thus the distinction between the two courts has largely disappeared. A plaintiff Even though courts of
may now request both legal and equitable remedies in the same action, and the trial court
law and equity have
judge may grant either form—or both forms—of relief.
merged, the principles
The distinction between legal and equitable remedies remains significant, however,
because a court normally will grant an equitable remedy only when the remedy at law of equity still apply, and
(property or monetary damages) is inadequate. To request the proper remedy, a business- courts will not grant an
person (or her or his attorney) must know what remedies are available for the specific kinds equitable remedy unless
of harms suffered. Exhibit 1–2 summarizes the procedural differences (applicable in most the remedy at law is
states) between an action at law and an action in equity. inadequate.

Equitable Maxims Over time, the courts have developed a number of equitable maxims that Equitable Maxims General
provide guidance in deciding whether plaintiffs should be granted equitable relief. Because propositions or principles of law that
of their importance, both historically and in our judicial system today, these maxims are set have to do with fairness (equity).
forth in this chapter’s Landmark in the Law feature.

Exhibit 1–2 Procedural Differences between an Action at Law and an Action in Equity


PROCEDURE ACTION AT LAW ACTION IN EQUITY
Initiation of lawsuit By filing a complaint By filing a petition
Decision By jury or judge By judge (no jury)
Result Judgment Decree
Remedy Monetary damages or property Injunction, specific
performance, or rescission

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14 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

1–3d Schools of Legal Thought


How judges apply the law to specific cases, including disputes relating to the business world,
depends on their philosophical approaches to law, among other things. The study of law,
Jurisprudence The science or often referred to as jurisprudence, includes learning about different schools of legal thought
philosophy of law. and discovering how each school’s approach to law can affect judicial decision making.

Natural Law The oldest school of The Natural Law School According to the natural law theory, a higher, or universal, law
legal thought, based on the belief exists that applies to all human beings. Each written law should reflect the principles inher-
that the legal system should reflect ent in natural law. If it does not, then it loses its legitimacy and need not be obeyed.
universal (“higher”) moral and ethical
The natural law tradition is one of the oldest and most significant schools of jurispru-
principles that are inherent in human
nature. dence. It dates back to the days of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.), who
distinguished between natural law and the laws governing a particular nation.
According to Aristotle, natural law applies universally to all humankind.
The notion that people have “natural rights” stems from the natural law tra-
dition. Those who claim that certain nations, such as China and North Korea,
are depriving many of their citizens of their human rights are implicitly appeal-
ing to a higher law that has universal applicability.
The question of the universality of basic human rights also comes into
play in the context of international business operations. For instance, U.S.
companies that have operations abroad often hire foreign workers as employ-
ees. Should the same laws that protect U.S. employees apply to these foreign
employees? This question is rooted implicitly in a concept of universal rights
Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

that has its origins in the natural law tradition.

Legal Positivism Positive law, or national law, is the written law of a given
society at a particular point in time. In contrast to natural law, it applies only to
the citizens of that nation or society. Those who adhere to legal positivism believe
that there can be no higher law than a nation’s positive law.
According to the positivist school, there is no such thing as “natural rights.”
Rather, human rights exist solely because of laws. If the laws are not enforced,
What is the basic premise of Aristotle’s natural anarchy will result. Thus, whether a law is morally “bad” or “good” is irrele-
law theory? vant. The law is the law and must be obeyed until it is changed—in an orderly
manner through a legitimate lawmaking process. A judge who takes this view
Legal Positivism A school of legal will probably be more inclined to defer to an existing law than would a judge who adheres
thought centered on the assumption to the natural law tradition.
that there is no law higher than
the laws created by a national
The Historical School The historical school of legal thought emphasizes the evolutionary
government. Laws must be obeyed,
even if they are unjust, to prevent
process of law by concentrating on the origin and history of the legal system. This school
anarchy. looks to the past to discover what the principles of contemporary law should be. The legal
doctrines that have withstood the passage of time—those that have worked in the past—are
Historical School A school of deemed best suited for shaping present laws. Hence, law derives its legitimacy and author-
legal thought that looks to the past ity from adhering to the standards that historical development has shown to be workable.
to determine what the principles of
contemporary law should be.
­Followers of the historical school are more likely than those of other schools to adhere
strictly to decisions made in past cases.

Legal Realism In the 1920s and 1930s, a number of jurists and scholars, known as legal
Legal Realism A school of legal realists, rebelled against the historical approach to law. Legal realism is based on the idea that
thought that holds that the law is only law is just one of many institutions in society and that it is shaped by social forces and needs.
one factor to be considered when
This school reasons that because the law is a human enterprise, judges should look beyond
deciding cases, and that social and
economic circumstances should also
the law and take social and economic realities into account when deciding cases.
be taken into account. Legal realists also believe that the law can never be applied with total uniformity. Given
that judges are human beings with unique experiences, personalities, value systems, and

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 15

Equitable Maxims Landmark


in the Law
In medieval England, courts of equity were
expected to use discretion in supplementing
the common law. Even today, when the same
5. Equity regards substance rather than
form. (Equity is more concerned with
fairness and justice than with legal
court can award both legal and equitable technicalities.)
remedies, it must exercise discretion. 6. Equity aids the vigilant, not those
Students of business law and the legal who rest on their rights. (Equity will
environment should know that courts often not help those who neglect their
invoke equitable maxims when making their rights for an unreasonable period of
decisions. Here are some of the most signif- time.) Application to Today’s World The
icant equitable maxims: equitable maxims listed here underlie many
The last maxim has come to be known as of the legal rules and principles that are com-
1. Whoever seeks equity must do equity.
the equitable doctrine of laches. The doctrine monly applied by the courts today—and that
(Anyone who wishes to be treated
arose to encourage people to bring lawsuits you will read about in this book.
fairly must treat others fairly.)
while the evidence was fresh. If they failed For instance, in the contracts materials,
2. Where there is equal equity, the law
must prevail. (The law will determine to do so, they would not be allowed to bring you will read about the doctrine of promissory
the outcome of a controversy in which a lawsuit. What constitutes a reasonable estoppel. Under this doctrine, a person who
the merits of both sides are equal.) time, of course, varies according to the cir- has reasonably and substantially relied on
3. One seeking the aid of an equity court cumstances of the case. the promise of another may be able to obtain
must come to the court with clean Time periods for different types of some measure of recovery, even though no
hands. (Plaintiffs must have acted cases are now usually fixed by statutes of enforceable contract exists. The court will
fairly and honestly.) ­limitations—that is, statutes that set the estop (bar) the one making the promise from
4. Equity will not suffer a wrong to be maximum time period during which a certain asserting the lack of a valid contract as a
without a remedy. (Equitable relief will action can be brought. After the time allowed defense. The rationale underlying the doc-
be awarded when there is a right to under a statute of limitations has expired, no trine of promissory estoppel is similar to that
relief and there is no adequate remedy action can be brought, no matter how strong expressed in the fourth and fifth maxims just
at law.) the case was originally. listed.

intellects, different judges will obviously bring different reasoning processes to the same case.
Female judges, for instance, might be more inclined than male judges to consider whether a
decision might have a negative impact on the employment of women or minorities.

1–4 Classifications of Law


The law may be broken down according to several classification systems. One classification
system divides law into substantive law (all laws that define, describe, regulate, and create legal Substantive Law Law that defines,
rights and obligations) and procedural law (all laws that establish the methods of enforcing describes, regulates, and creates
the rights established by substantive law). legal rights and obligations.
Example 1.8 A state law that provides employees with the right to workers’ compensation Procedural Law Law that
benefits for any on-the-job injuries they sustain is a substantive law because it creates legal establishes the methods of enforcing
rights. Procedural laws, in contrast, establish the method by which an employee must notify the rights established by substantive
the employer about an on-the-job injury, prove the injury, and periodically submit additional law.
proof to continue receiving workers’ compensation benefits. ■ Note that a law may contain
both substantive and procedural provisions.
Other classification systems divide law into federal law and state law, and private law
(dealing with relationships between persons) and public law (addressing the relationship

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16 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

Cyberlaw An informal term used to between persons and their governments). Frequently, people use the term cyberlaw to refer
refer to all laws governing electronic to the emerging body of law that governs transactions conducted via the Internet, but
communications and transactions, cyberlaw is not really a classification of law. Rather, it is an informal term used to refer to
particularly those conducted via the
Internet.
both new laws and modifications of traditional legal principles that relate to the online
environment.

Focus Question 4 1–4a Civil Law and Criminal Law


What are some important Civil law spells out the rights and duties that exist between persons and between persons
differences between civil law and their governments, as well as the relief available when a person’s rights are violated.
and criminal law? Typically, in a civil case, a private party sues another private party who has failed to comply
with a duty. Much of the law that we discuss in this text—including contract law and tort
law—is civil law.
Criminal law has to do with wrongs committed against society for which society demands
Civil Law The branch of law dealing
redress. Criminal acts are proscribed by local, state, or federal government statutes. Thus,
with the definition and enforcement
of all private or public rights, as criminal defendants are prosecuted by public officials, such as a district attorney (D.A.), on
opposed to criminal matters. behalf of the state, not by their victims or other private parties.
Whereas in a civil case the object is to obtain a remedy (such as monetary damages) to
Criminal Law The branch of law compensate the injured party, in a criminal case the object is to punish the wrongdoer in
that defines and punishes wrongful
actions committed against the public.
an attempt to deter others from similar actions. Penalties for violations of criminal statutes
consist of fines and/or imprisonment—and, in some cases, death.

1–4b Common Law and Civil Law Systems


Two types of legal systems predominate around the globe today. One is the common law
­system of England and the United States, which we discussed earlier. In a common law sys-
tem, the body of law derives from custom and judicial decisions and depends on the impor-
tance of legal precedent.
Civil Law System A system of law The other, known as a civil law system, is based on Roman civil law, or “code law,” which
derived from Roman law that is based relies on legal principles enacted into law by a legislature or governing body. Thus, in a
on codified laws (rather than on case civil law system, the primary source of law is a statutory code, and case precedents are not
precedents).
judicially binding, as they normally are in a common law system. Although judges in a civil
law system often refer to previous decisions as sources of legal guidance, those decisions
are not binding. (Note that a civil law system is not the same as civil law, discussed in the
previous section.)
Generally, countries that were once colonies of Great Britain have retained their
English common law heritage. The civil law system, which is used in most continental
European nations, has been retained in countries that were once colonies of those nations
(see Exhibit 1–3). In the United States, the state of Louisiana, because of its historical ties
to France, is heavily influenced by principles of civil law systems. A third, less prevalent
legal system is widespread in Islamic countries, where the law is often influenced by
sharia, the religious law of Islam.

1–4c National and International Law


U.S. businesspersons increasingly engage in transactions that extend beyond our national
borders. For this reason, those who pursue a career in business today should have an under-
standing of the global legal environment.
National Law Law that pertains The law of a particular nation, such as Japan or Germany, is national law. National law,
to a particular nation (as opposed to of course, varies from country to country because each country’s law reflects the interests,
international law). customs, activities, and values that are unique to that nation’s culture. Even though the laws
and legal systems of various countries differ substantially, broad similarities do exist.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 17

Exhibit 1–3 The Legal Systems of Selected Nations


CIVIL LAW COMMON LAW
Argentina Indonesia Australia Nigeria
Austria Iran Bangladesh Singapore
Brazil Italy Canada United Kingdom
Chile Japan Ghana United States
China Mexico India Zambia
Egypt Poland Israel
Finland South Korea Jamaica
France Sweden Kenya
Germany Tunisia Malaysia
Greece Venezuela New Zealand

In contrast, international law applies to more than one nation. International law can be International Law Law that
defined as a body of written and unwritten laws observed by independent nations and gov- governs relations among nations.
erning the acts of individuals as well as governments. It is a mixture of rules and constraints
derived from a variety of sources, including the laws of individual nations, customs devel-
oped among nations, and international treaties and organizations.
The key difference between national law and international law is that government author-
ities can enforce national law. If a nation violates an international law, however, enforcement
is up to other countries or international organizations, which may or may not choose to
act. If persuasive tactics fail, the only option is to take coercive actions against the violating
nation. Coercive actions range from the severance of diplomatic relations and boycotts to
sanctions and, as a last resort, war.

Practice and Review


Suppose that the California legislature passes a law that severely restricts carbon dioxide emissions of
automobiles in that state. A group of automobile manufacturers files a suit against the state of California
to prevent enforcement of the law. The automakers claim that a federal law already sets fuel economy
standards nationwide and that these standards are essentially the same as carbon dioxide emission
standards. According to the automobile manufacturers, it is unfair to allow California to impose more
stringent regulations than those set by the federal law. Using the information presented in the chapter,
answer the following questions.
1. Who are the parties (the plaintiffs and the defendant) in this lawsuit?
2. Are the plaintiffs seeking a legal remedy or an equitable remedy? Why?
3. What is the primary source of the law that is at issue here?
4. Read through the appendix that follows this chapter, and then answer the following question:
Where would you look to find the relevant California and federal laws?

Debate This
Under the doctrine of stare decisis, courts are obligated to follow the precedents established in their
jurisdiction unless there is a compelling reason not to do so. Should U.S. courts continue to adhere to this
common law principle, given that our government now regulates so many areas by statute?

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
18 UNIT ONE: The Legal Environment of Business

Key Terms
adjudicate 6 defendant 11 ordinance 5
administrative agency 6 dissenting opinion 27 per curiam opinion 27
administrative law 6 enabling legislation 6 persuasive authority 11
administrative law judge (ALJ) 8 equitable maxims 13 plaintiff 11
administrative process 7 historical school 14 plurality opinion 27
allege 12 international law 17 precedent 9
binding authority 9 interpretive rules 7 primary source of law 4
case law 8 jurisprudence 14 procedural law 15
case on point 12 law 2 remedy 12
citation 5 legal positivism 14 rulemaking 7
civil law 16 legal realism 14 secondary source of law 4
civil law system 16 legal reasoning 11 stare decisis 9
common law 9 legislative rules 7 statutory law 5
concurring opinion 27 liability 3 substantive law 15
constitutional law 4 majority opinion 27 uniform laws 5
criminal law 16 national law 16
cyberlaw 16 natural law 14

Chapter Summary: Law and Legal Reasoning


Sources of American Law 1. Constitutional law—The law as expressed in the U.S. Constitution and the various state
constitutions. The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the land. State constitutions are supreme
within state borders to the extent that they do not violate the U.S. Constitution or a federal law.
2. Statutory law—Laws or ordinances created by federal, state, and local legislatures. None of
these laws can violate the U.S. Constitution, and no state statute or local ordinance can violate
the relevant state constitution. Uniform laws, when adopted by a state legislature, become statutory
law in that state.
3. Administrative law—The rules, orders, and decisions of federal or state government administrative
agencies. Federal administrative agencies are created by enabling legislation enacted by the U.S.
Congress. Agency functions include rulemaking, investigation and enforcement, and adjudication.
4. Case law and common law doctrines—Judge-made law, including interpretations of constitutional
provisions, of statutes enacted by legislatures, and of regulations created by administrative agencies.
Case law governs all areas not covered by statutory law or administrative law, and is part of our
common law tradition.
The Common Law 1. Common law—Law that originated in medieval England with the creation of the king’s courts, or
curiae regis, and the development of a body of rules that were common to (or applied in) all regions
of the country.
2. Stare decisis—A doctrine under which judges “stand on decided cases”—or follow the rule of
precedent—in deciding cases. Stare decisis is the cornerstone of the common law tradition.
3. Stare decisis and legal reasoning—Judges use legal reasoning to harmonize their decisions with
those that have been made before, as required by the doctrine of stare decisis. The basic steps of
legal reasoning form what is often referred to as the IRAC method of legal reasoning. IRAC stands
for Issue, Rule, Application, and Conclusion. First, clearly grasp the relevant facts and identify
the issue. Second, determine the rule of law that applies to the case. Third, analyze (using cases
on point) how the rule of law applies to the particular facts of the dispute, and fourth, arrive at a
conclusion.

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CHAPTER 1: Law and Legal Reasoning 19

4. Remedies—A remedy is the means by which a court enforces a right or compensates for a
violation of a right. Courts typically grant legal remedies (monetary damages or property) but may
also grant equitable remedies (specific performance, injunction, or rescission) when the legal
remedy is inadequate or unavailable.
5. Schools of legal thought—Judges’ decision making is influenced by their philosophy of law. The
following are four important schools of legal thought, or legal philosophies:
a. Natural law—One of the oldest and most significant schools of legal thought. Those who believe
in natural law hold that there is a universal law applicable to all human beings and that this law
is of a higher order than positive, or national, law.
b. Legal positivism—A school of legal thought centered on the assumption that there is no law
higher than the laws created by the government. Laws must be obeyed, even if they are unjust,
to prevent anarchy.
c. Historical school—A school of legal thought that stresses the evolutionary nature of law and
looks to doctrines that have withstood the passage of time for guidance in shaping present laws.
d. Legal realism—A school of legal thought that generally advocates a less abstract and more
realistic approach to the law. This approach takes into account customary practices and the
social and economic circumstances in which transactions take place.
Classifications of Law The law may be broken down according to several classification systems, such as substantive or
procedural law, federal or state law, and private or public law. Three broad classifications are civil and
criminal law, common law systems, and civil law systems, and national and international law. Cyberlaw
is not really a classification of law but a term that refers to the growing body of case and statutory law
that applies to Internet transactions.

Issue Spotters
1. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides protection for the free exercise of religion. A state legislature enacts a law that
outlaws all religions that do not derive from the Judeo-Christian tradition. Is this law valid within that state? Why or why not? (See
Sources of American Law.)
2. Apex Corporation learns that a federal administrative agency is considering a rule that will have a negative impact on the firm’s ability to
do business. Does the firm have any opportunity to express its opinion about the pending rule? Explain. (See Sources of American Law.)
—Check your answers to the Issue Spotters against the answers provided in Appendix D.

Business Scenarios and Case Problems


1–1. Binding versus Persuasive Authority. A county 3. A state statute conflicts with the common law of that state.
court in Illinois is deciding a case involving an issue that has 4. A state constitutional amendment conflicts with the U.S.
never been addressed before in that state’s courts. The Iowa Constitution.
Supreme Court, however, recently decided a case involving a
very similar fact pattern. Is the Illinois court obligated to follow 1–3. Remedies. Arthur Rabe is suing Xavier Sanchez for
the Iowa Supreme Court’s decision on the issue? If the United ­breaching a contract in which Sanchez promised to sell Rabe a
States Supreme Court had decided a similar case, would that Van Gogh painting for $150,000. (See The Common Law.)
decision be binding on the Illinois court? Explain. (See The 1. In this lawsuit, who is the plaintiff, and who is the defendant?
­Common Law.) 2. If Rabe wants Sanchez to perform the contract as promised,
what remedy should Rabe seek?
1–2. Sources of Law. This chapter discussed a number of
sources of American law. Which source of law takes priority 3. Suppose that Rabe wants to cancel the contract because
in the following situations, and why? (See Sources of American Sanchez fraudulently misrepresented the painting as an
Law.) original Van Gogh when in fact it is a copy. In this situation,
what remedy should Rabe seek?
1. A federal statute conflicts with the U.S. Constitution.
4. Will the remedy Rabe seeks in either situation be a remedy
2. A federal statute conflicts with a state constitutional
at law or a remedy in equity?
provision.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
ordres de l'amiral Keith, chef des diverses croisières de l'Océan. Ces ordres ne se
firent pas attendre, et le Bellérophon fut invité à venir jeter l'ancre dans la rade de
Plymouth. À peine s'y trouvait-il que deux frégates fortement
Arrivée à Plymouth.
armées vinrent se ranger sur ses flancs, et le placer ainsi sous
la garde de leurs canons. On vit plusieurs fonctionnaires anglais se succéder,
recevoir des communications du capitaine Maitland, lui en apporter, sans que rien
transpirât du sujet de leurs entretiens. L'amiral Keith se rendit à bord du
Bellérophon pour faire à Napoléon une visite de convenance, visite qui fut courte,
et pendant laquelle il ne prononça pas un mot qui eût trait aux intentions du
gouvernement britannique. Tandis que ce silence de sinistre
Fâcheux augures
dès qu'on touche augure régnait autour de l'illustre prisonnier, on voyait sur tous
au rivage les visages qu'on avait l'habitude de rencontrer sur le
d'Angleterre. Bellérophon, et notamment sur celui du capitaine Maitland,
l'embarras de gens qui avaient une nouvelle fâcheuse à
cacher, ou des promesses à retirer; et ce qui était plus inquiétant, ces mêmes gens
tout en ayant l'envie d'être aussi respectueux, n'osaient plus l'être. Survint dans le
moment le général Gourgaud, annonçant qu'il n'avait pu porter au prince régent la
lettre de Napoléon, et qu'il avait été obligé de la remettre à l'amiral Keith. C'étaient
là autant de signes fort peu rassurants.

Napoléon en se rendant à bord du Bellérophon ne s'était fait illusion qu'à moitié,


mais placé entre le risque de tomber dans les mains des Anglais comme prisonnier
de droit, ou le risque de se confier à leur honneur, il avait préféré s'exposer au
dernier, et il attendait sans regrets qu'on lui fît connaître son sort. En attendant il
pouvait se faire une idée par ce qui se passait dans la rade de Torbay, de l'effet
qu'il produisait encore sur le monde. S'il n'avait été qu'un Érostrate de grande
proportion, ne cherchant dans la gloire que le bruit qu'elle produit, il aurait eu lieu
d'être content. Effectivement à peine la nouvelle de son
Curiosité ardente
de toute arrivée avait-elle pénétré dans l'intérieur, et de proche en
l'Angleterre proche jusqu'à Londres, qu'une curiosité folle s'était emparée
pendant que de toute l'Angleterre impatiente de voir de ses yeux le
Napoléon est sur personnage fameux qui depuis vingt ans avait tant occupé la
ses rivages. renommée. Les Anglais avaient toujours représenté Napoléon
comme un monstre odieux qui avait dominé les hommes par la
terreur, mais la curiosité n'est pas scrupuleuse, et tout en le détestant ils voulaient
absolument l'avoir vu. Les journaux britanniques en célébrant sa captivité avec une
joie féroce, blâmaient en même temps la curiosité frénétique qui entraînait leurs
compatriotes vers lui, et cherchaient à la décourager par leur blâme. Mais ils ne
réussissaient ainsi qu'à l'exciter davantage, et tout ce qu'il y avait de chevaux sur la
route de Londres à Plymouth était employé à transporter la foule des curieux. Des
milliers de canots entouraient sans cesse le Bellérophon, et passaient là des
heures, s'entre-choquant les uns les autres, et s'exposant même à de graves
dangers. Chaque jour en effet il y avait des noyés sans que l'empressement
diminuât. On savait que tous les matins Napoléon venait respirer l'air un instant sur
le pont du vaisseau qui l'avait amené en Angleterre; on attendait ce moment, et dès
qu'on l'apercevait une sorte de silence régnait sur la mer, puis par un respect
involontaire la foule se découvrait, sans pousser aucune acclamation ni amicale ni
hostile. Les ministres anglais s'apercevant que la pitié pour le
Ordre d'écarter les
curieux. malheur, la sympathie pour la gloire, finissaient par atténuer la
haine, ordonnèrent d'écarter les visiteurs, et de ne plus leur
permettre de circuler autour du Bellérophon qu'à une distance qui décourageât leur
curiosité. Ils avaient hâte d'en finir, et ils étaient résolus à ne pas laisser longtemps
indécises les questions qui concernaient l'empereur Napoléon.

Ils avaient été aussi étonnés que le capitaine Maitland en


Étonnement du
gouvernement voyant Napoléon se remettre lui-même entre les mains de
anglais en l'Angleterre. Informés de son évasion par les nouvelles de
apprenant la Paris, ils avaient partagé le mécontentement de la diplomatie
présence de européenne à l'égard de M. Fouché, et ils avaient cru le grand
Napoléon à bord du perturbateur complétement hors d'atteinte, et toujours libre de
Bellérophon. bouleverser l'Europe à la première occasion. Leur joie égala
leur surprise en apprenant que l'empereur déchu était en rade
de Plymouth, sur l'un des vaisseaux de la marine royale. L'acte de confiance de
Napoléon ne les toucha nullement, et provoqua même dans certains esprits la
barbare pensée de le livrer à Louis XVIII, qui prendrait devant l'histoire la
responsabilité d'en débarrasser la terre. Mais une aussi
Difficulté de
déterminer en droit odieuse résolution était impossible dans un pays où toutes les
la véritable position grandes mesures se discutent publiquement. Cependant, en
de Napoléon. écartant toute résolution de ce genre, et en rentrant dans le
droit strict, il naissait de graves difficultés relativement à la
manière d'envisager la position de l'illustre fugitif. S'il eût été pris en mer, cherchant
à fuir, il aurait été prisonnier de plein droit, sauf à résoudre ultérieurement la
question de savoir si, la guerre étant finie, il était permis d'en détenir l'auteur. Mais
avant d'aborder cette question, il s'en élevait une beaucoup plus délicate, c'était de
savoir si on pouvait considérer comme prisonnier de guerre un ennemi qui s'était
volontairement livré lui-même.

Les plus savants jurisconsultes d'Angleterre, consultés à


Avis des
jurisconsultes cette occasion, éprouvèrent un assez grand embarras.
anglais. Pourtant, en présence du repos universel toujours menacé par
Napoléon, cet embarras ne pouvait être de longue durée.
Notre qualité de Français conservant une sympathie toute naturelle pour le vieux
compagnon de notre gloire, ne doit pas nous faire méconnaître une vérité évidente,
c'est que l'Europe bouleversée pendant vingt ans, tout récemment encore arrachée
à son repos et réduite à verser des torrents de sang, ne pouvait renoncer à se
garantir contre les nouvelles entreprises, toujours à redouter, du plus audacieux
génie. S'il eût été un souverain déchu de nature ordinaire,
La détention de
Napoléon fondée comme Louis XVIII, les devoirs de l'hospitalité auraient
sur le droit, et la commandé de lui laisser choisir dans la libre Angleterre un lieu
nécessité de où il irait paisiblement terminer sa carrière. Mais laisser se
garantir l'Europe de promener dans les rues de Londres l'homme qui venait de
nouveaux s'évader de l'île d'Elbe, et d'appeler les armées de l'Europe
bouleversements.
dans le champ clos de Ligny et de Waterloo, était impossible.
Si les États doivent respecter la vie d'autrui, ils ont aussi le
droit de défendre la leur, et les jurisconsultes anglais eurent recours avec raison au
principe de la défense légitime, qui autorise chacun à pourvoir à sa sûreté quand
elle est visiblement menacée. Toutes les sociétés enchaînent les êtres reconnus
dangereux, et l'Europe entière, la France comprise, ayant expérimenté outre
mesure à quel point Napoléon était dangereux pour elle, avait le droit de lui enlever
les moyens de nuire. Après 1814, elle lui avait ôté le trône en lui laissant l'île
d'Elbe: en 1815, après l'évasion de l'île d'Elbe, elle avait le droit de lui ôter la
liberté. Nier cette vérité, c'est fermer les yeux à la lumière. Mais le droit de défense
légitime s'arrête au danger même, et où le danger cesse le droit cesse aussi. En
détenant Napoléon, qui expierait ainsi sa terrible activité, on
Ce droit ne pouvait
aller jusqu'à n'avait le droit ni de le tourmenter, ni d'abréger sa vie, ni
tourmenter et surtout de l'humilier. Respecter son génie était un devoir
humilier Napoléon. absolument égal au droit de l'enchaîner. Ainsi tout ce qui ne
serait pas indispensable pour prévenir une nouvelle évasion,
serait une cruauté gratuite, destinée à peser éternellement sur la mémoire de ceux
qui s'en rendraient coupables. Sous ce dernier rapport, les résolutions britanniques
ne furent pas aussi avouables que sous le premier, et la triste fin de notre récit va
prouver que l'Angleterre compromit sa gloire en ne respectant pas celle de
Napoléon.

On s'occupa d'abord du lieu à désigner pour sa résidence.


Choix de l'île
Sainte-Hélène pour Désormais la Méditerranée était condamnée par l'essai qu'on
le lieu de sa en avait fait. Il fallait de toute nécessité une mer moins
détention. rapprochée. L'océan Indien était trop éloigné, car il importait à
la sécurité générale qu'on pût avoir des nouvelles fréquentes
du redoutable captif. D'ailleurs l'île de France, la seule qu'on pût choisir dans la mer
des Indes, était trop peuplée et trop fréquentée pour qu'on songeât à en faire un
lieu de détention. Il aurait fallu en effet y mettre Napoléon sous des verrous afin de
pouvoir assurer sa garde, et c'eût été une indignité dont personne, même alors,
n'aurait voulu se rendre coupable. Il y avait au milieu même de l'Atlantique, dans
l'hémisphère sud, à égale distance des continents d'Afrique et d'Amérique, une île
volcanique, d'accès difficile, dont la stérilité avait toujours repoussé les colons, et
dont la solitude était telle qu'on y pouvait détenir un prisonnier, quel qu'il fût, sans
l'enfermer dans les murs d'une forteresse. Cette île était celle de Sainte-Hélène, et
à cause des avantages qu'elle offrait comme lieu de détention, elle avait déjà fixé
l'attention des hommes d'État qui cherchaient à éloigner Napoléon des mers
d'Europe. Elle fut unanimement désignée comme le lieu le plus propre à le détenir,
et la Compagnie des Indes la céda à l'État pour la durée de cette détention. Le
climat n'en était pas réputé insalubre; il était à peu près celui de toutes les îles
intertropicales, et s'il pouvait devenir dangereux pour un habitant des zones
tempérées, c'était uniquement pour celui à qui le vieux monde avait à peine suffi
pour y déployer sa prodigieuse activité. Mais soyons justes, si on avait voulu
trouver une prison proportionnée à cette activité, il aurait fallu lui rendre le monde,
et Napoléon l'avait assez tourmenté pour qu'on eût le droit de lui en interdire
l'accès pour toujours.

On adopta donc Sainte-Hélène. Il fut convenu qu'on


Mode de la
détention à laquelle chercherait au centre de l'île, loin de la partie habitée, un lieu
Napoléon est assez spacieux pour que Napoléon pût s'y mouvoir à son aise,
condamné. s'y promener à pied, à cheval même, sans s'apercevoir qu'il
était prisonnier. Jusque-là tout était renfermé dans les limites
de la nécessité; mais il ne fallait y ajouter ni les gênes inutiles, ni surtout les
humiliations, qui pour l'illustre captif devaient être aussi cruelles que la captivité
même. Néanmoins le cabinet britannique, obéissant aux
Le titre d'empereur
désormais refusé à mauvaises passions du temps, déclara que Napoléon, qu'on
Napoléon. avait toujours qualifié du titre d'empereur, même à l'île d'Elbe,
ne serait plus appelé dorénavant que le général Bonaparte.
Certes ce titre était bien glorieux, et les plus grands potentats de la terre auraient
pu se consoler de n'en pas avoir d'autre. Mais refuser à Napoléon le titre qu'il avait
porté douze ans, que le monde entier lui avait reconnu, que l'Angleterre elle-même
lui avait donné en 1806 en traitant à Paris par le ministère de lord Lauderdale, en
1814 en traitant à Châtillon par le ministère de lord Castlereagh, était une
résolution dépourvue de dignité, et, comme on le verra, de véritable prudence.
Dans ce siècle, où nous avons vu tant de princes passer du trône dans l'exil, de
l'exil sur le trône, quiconque parlant à Louis XVIII ou à Charles X dépouillés de leur
couronne, eût osé leur refuser leur titre royal, eût été accusé d'outrager d'augustes
infortunes. Il est vrai que ces princes, héritiers incontestés d'une longue suite de
rois, étaient les représentants de ce qu'il y a de plus respectable au monde, la
possession antique et plusieurs fois séculaire. Mais le génie (au degré, bien
entendu, auquel il s'était manifesté chez Napoléon) était un titre tout aussi
respectable, et les souverains qui avaient puisé dans ce titre l'excuse de leur
humilité devant l'empereur des Français, de leur empressement à rechercher son
alliance, à mêler leur sang au sien, étaient mal placés pour en nier la valeur
morale, et en ne voulant plus reconnaître chez Napoléon que la force brutale, un
moment heureuse, ils autorisaient les peuples à dire qu'ils n'avaient eux-mêmes
fait autre chose que céder bassement à cette force. En retirant
Inconvenance et
inconvénient de ce au vaincu de Waterloo le titre d'empereur, ils ne rendaient pas
refus. Louis XVIII plus légitime ou plus solide sur son trône, au
contraire ils diminuaient le prestige attaché au caractère de la
souveraineté, en prouvant que c'était chose de hasard, qui se donnait ou s'ôtait
selon les caprices de la fortune. On prétendra sans doute que priver Napoléon de
ses titres, c'était après tout lui infliger de pures souffrances d'amour-propre, qui
n'ont guère le droit d'intéresser la postérité, et sur lesquelles il eût été digne à lui de
se montrer indifférent. Assurément, si l'intention de l'humilier n'avait pas été
évidente, il aurait pu se consoler de n'être plus dans la langue des vivants que le
général Bonaparte; mais on fait au vaincu qu'on cherche à humilier le devoir de
résister à l'humiliation, et de plus, en refusant à Napoléon les qualifications sous
lesquelles il avait l'habitude d'être désigné, on créait une cause de contestations
incessantes, qui devait ajouter aux rigueurs de sa captivité, et faire peser sur la
mémoire des ministres britanniques un reproche de persécution, qui n'a pas laissé
d'inquiéter leurs enfants, car lorsque les passions d'un temps sont éteintes,
personne ne voudrait avoir outragé le génie.

En conséquence de ces résolutions il fut décidé que


Mesures de
précaution inutiles Napoléon serait qualifié du simple titre de général, et
et humiliantes. considéré comme prisonnier de guerre; qu'il serait désarmé,
que les officiers de sa suite le seraient également, qu'on lui
accorderait seulement trois d'entre eux pour l'accompagner, en excluant le général
Lallemand et le duc de Rovigo, considérés comme dangereux; qu'on visiterait ses
effets et ceux de ses compagnons, qu'on prendrait l'argent, la vaisselle, les bijoux
précieux dont ils seraient porteurs, afin de les priver de tout ce qui serait de nature
à faciliter une évasion; qu'ils seraient immédiatement conduits à Sainte-Hélène, où
Napoléon pourrait se mouvoir dans un espace déterminé, assez étendu pour que la
promenade à cheval y fût possible, et que s'il voulait franchir cet espace, il serait
suivi par un officier. Certes, nous le répétons, toutes les précautions ayant pour but
d'empêcher l'illustre captif de s'évader, étaient de droit, et la juste punition des
inquiétudes qu'il causait au monde: mais lui contester le titre sous lequel la
postérité le reconnaîtra, fouiller ses effets, lui compter ses compagnons d'exil, lui
enlever son épée, c'étaient là d'inutiles indignités; car que pouvaient-ils à trois, à
quatre, à six? que pouvaient-ils avec leurs épées et quelques mille louis cachés
dans leurs bagages? Ah! ce n'était pas son épée, dont il ne s'était jamais servi, qu'il
fallait demander à Napoléon, mais son génie, et puisqu'on ne pouvait le lui arracher
qu'en le tuant, ce que Blucher avait voulu, ce que les ministres de la libre
Angleterre n'osaient pas vouloir, ce que pas un des souverains de l'Europe n'aurait
ordonné, il fallait l'enchaîner, l'enchaîner pour le repos universel, mais sans
aggraver inutilement le poids de ses chaînes, sans y ajouter surtout d'inqualifiables
outrages!

Il fut décidé en outre que, le Bellérophon étant trop vieux


Napoléon doit
voyager sur le pour une longue traversée, Napoléon serait transféré sur le
Northumberland. Northumberland, excellent vaisseau de haut bord, qu'une
division composée de bâtiments de différents échantillons
l'escorterait, que l'amiral Cockburn commanderait cette division, et serait chargé du
premier établissement à faire à Sainte-Hélène pour y recevoir les prisonniers. On
recommanda à l'amirauté de ne mettre à exécuter ces ordres que le temps
absolument nécessaire pour que le Northumberland fût en état de prendre la mer,
car on était incommodé d'avoir à Plymouth un objet de curiosité passionnée, et on
était pressé d'en débarrasser l'Angleterre et l'Europe.

Ces résolutions à peine adoptées furent mandées à


Communication des
ordres britanniques Plymouth, avec ordre à lord Keith d'en donner communication
à Napoléon. à celui qu'elles concernaient. Déjà le bruit en était arrivé par
les journaux, et il n'avait point surpris Napoléon, qui s'attendait
bien à ne pas obtenir le traitement d'un prince inoffensif. Mais ce bruit causa une
vive douleur à ses compagnons d'infortune, qui se virent condamnés ou à se
séparer de lui, ou à s'ensevelir tout vivants dans le tombeau de Sainte-Hélène.
Lord Keith, assisté du sous-secrétaire d'État Bunbury, s'étant présenté à bord du
Bellérophon, fit lecture à Napoléon des résolutions prises à son égard. Napoléon
écouta cette lecture avec froideur et dignité, puis la lecture terminée énuméra à
lord Keith, sans emportement, mais avec fermeté, les raisons qu'il avait de
protester contre les décisions du gouvernement britannique. Il
Sa protestation.
dit qu'il n'était point prisonnier de guerre, car il s'était
transporté volontairement à bord du Bellérophon; qu'il n'y avait pas même été
contraint par la nécessité, car il lui eût été facile de se jeter dans les rangs de
l'armée de la Loire, et de prolonger indéfiniment la guerre; qu'il aurait même pu en
renonçant à la prolonger, choisir parmi ses ennemis une autre puissance que
l'Angleterre pour se livrer à elle; que s'il s'était abandonné à l'empereur Alexandre,
longtemps son ami personnel, ou à l'empereur François, son beau-père, ni l'un ni
l'autre ne l'auraient traité de la sorte; que c'était pour mettre fin aux maux de
l'humanité qu'il s'était rendu, et par estime pour l'Angleterre qu'il était venu lui
demander asile; qu'elle ne justifiait pas en ce moment l'honneur qu'il lui avait fait, et
que la conduite qu'elle tenait aujourd'hui envers un ennemi désarmé, n'ajouterait
guère à sa gloire dans l'avenir; qu'il protestait donc contre l'infraction au droit des
gens commise sur sa personne, qu'il en appelait à la nation anglaise elle-même
des actes de son gouvernement, et surtout à l'histoire qui jugerait sévèrement des
procédés aussi peu généreux. Napoléon dédaigna de s'occuper des points relatifs
à son futur séjour, aux traitements qu'il y recevrait, et quitta lord Keith avec la fierté
qui convenait à sa grandeur, laquelle ne dépendait ni des caprices de la fortune, ni
de la violence de ses ennemis.

Il fut profondément sensible néanmoins aux indignes détails ajoutés à cet arrêt
de détention perpétuelle prononcé contre lui. Il était trop clairvoyant pour ne pas
reconnaître que cette détention était pour l'Europe un droit et une nécessité, mais il
sentit vivement les humiliations gratuites par lesquelles on aggravait sa captivité,
comme de songer à lui ôter son épée, son titre souverain et quelques débris de son
naufrage. Il n'en dit rien, mais il résolut de ne point se prêter aux indignes
traitements qu'on voudrait lui infliger, dût-il être amené ainsi aux dernières
extrémités. Son premier projet avait été de prendre un de ces noms d'emprunt que
les princes adoptent quelquefois pour simplifier leurs relations. Ainsi il avait eu
l'idée de prendre le titre de colonel Muiron, en mémoire d'un brave officier tué au
pont d'Arcole en le couvrant de son corps. Mais dès qu'on lui contestait le titre que
la France lui avait donné, que l'Europe lui avait reconnu, que sa gloire avait
légitimé, il ne voulait point faciliter à ses ennemis la tâche de l'humilier, ni laisser
infirmer de son consentement le droit que la France avait eu de le choisir pour chef.
Il persista à se qualifier d'Empereur Napoléon. Quant à son épée, il était déterminé
à la passer au travers du corps de celui qui tenterait de la lui enlever.
Lorsqu'il revit ses compagnons d'infortune après
Choix des
compagnons d'exil ces communications, il leur parla avec calme, et Août 1815.
de Napoléon. les pressa instamment de consulter avant tout
leurs intérêts de famille et leurs affections dans le parti qu'ils
avaient à prendre. Il les trouva tous décidés à le suivre partout où on le
transporterait, et aux conditions qu'y mettrait la haine ombrageuse des vainqueurs
de Waterloo. Il regretta beaucoup l'exclusion prononcée contre les généraux
Lallemand et Savary, mais il n'y avait point à disputer. Il désigna le grand maréchal
Bertrand, le comte de Montholon et le général Gourgaud. Ces désignations avaient
épuisé son droit de choisir ses compagnons de captivité limités à trois. Il était
entendu que les femmes avec leurs enfants ne feraient pas nombre, qu'elles
pourraient accompagner leurs maris, et accroître ainsi la petite colonie qui allait
suivre Napoléon dans son exil. Cependant, parmi les personnages venus avec lui
en Angleterre s'en trouvait un auquel il tenait, bien qu'il le connût depuis peu de
temps, c'était le comte de Las Cases, homme instruit, de conversation agréable,
sachant bien l'anglais, ayant été jadis officier de marine et pouvant être fort utile au
delà des mers. Napoléon désirait beaucoup l'emmener à Sainte-Hélène, et lui était
prêt à suivre Napoléon en tous lieux. On profita de ce que les ordres britanniques
en limitant le nombre des compagnons d'exil de Napoléon, n'avaient parlé que des
militaires, pour admettre M. de Las Cases à titre d'employé civil. On accorda en
outre un médecin et douze domestiques. Ces détails une fois réglés, on disposa
tout pour le départ le plus prochain.

Dès que le Northumberland, équipé fort à la hâte, put mettre


Translation de
Napoléon du à la voile, on le dirigea sur la rade de Start-Point où le
Bellérophon sur le Bellérophon l'attendait, exposé sur ses ancres à un très-
Northumberland. mauvais temps. Lord Keith, qui s'appliqua constamment à
tempérer dans l'exécution la rigueur des ordres ministériels,
avait réservé pour le moment du départ d'Europe l'accomplissement des mesures
les plus pénibles, telles que le désarmement des personnes et la visite de leurs
bagages. On demanda leur épée à ceux qui en portaient, et un agent des douanes
visita leurs effets, prit en dépôt leur argent, et en général tous les objets de quelque
valeur. Le fidèle Marchand, valet de chambre de Napoléon, qui par sa bonne
éducation, son dévouement simple et modeste, lui rendit depuis tant de services,
avait pris d'adroites précautions pour lui conserver quelques ressources. Il ne
restait à l'ancien maître du monde que les quatre millions secrètement déposés
chez M. Laffitte, environ 350,000 francs en or, et le collier de diamants que la reine
Hortense l'avait forcé d'accepter. Le collier fut confié à M. de Las Cases, qui
l'enferma dans une ceinture. Les 350,000 francs furent répartis entre les
domestiques, et cachés sous leurs habits, sauf la somme de 80,000 francs, qui fut
seule laissée en évidence, et prise en dépôt par l'agent des douanes. Comme
l'indignité des procédés ne fut pas poussée jusqu'à visiter les personnes, les objets
cachés ne furent point découverts. Les autres furent inventoriés pour être remis
aux prisonniers au fur et à mesure de leurs besoins. Ces tristes formalités
accomplies, on transborda les prisonniers dans les canots de la flotte, et le
capitaine Maitland s'approchant avec respect, fit à Napoléon des adieux qui le
touchèrent. Bien que dans son désir de l'amener à bord du Bellérophon le capitaine
Maitland eût promis peut-être plus qu'il n'espérait, il n'avait été ni l'auteur ni le
complice d'une perfidie, et il regrettait sincèrement le traitement auquel était
destiné l'illustre prisonnier. Napoléon ne lui fit aucun reproche, et le chargea même
de ses remercîments pour l'équipage du Bellérophon. Au moment de passer d'un
vaisseau à l'autre, l'amiral Keith, avec un chagrin visible et le ton le plus
respectueux, lui adressa ces paroles: Général, l'Angleterre m'ordonne de vous
demander votre épée.— À ces mots Napoléon répondit par un
Lord Keith n'ose
pas enlever son regard qui indiquait à quelles extrémités il faudrait descendre
épée à Napoléon. pour le désarmer. Lord Keith n'insista point, et Napoléon
conserva sa glorieuse épée. C'était le moment de se séparer
de ceux qui n'avaient pas obtenu l'honneur de l'accompagner. Savary, Lallemand
se jetèrent dans ses bras, et eurent la plus grande peine à s'en arracher. Napoléon
après avoir reçu leurs embrassements, leur dit ces paroles: Soyez heureux, mes
amis... Nous ne nous reverrons plus, mais ma pensée ne vous quittera point, ni
vous ni tous ceux qui m'ont servi. Dites à la France que je fais des vœux pour elle...
—Il descendit ensuite dans le canot amiral qui devait le conduire à bord du
Northumberland, où il arriva escorté de l'amiral Keith. L'amiral Cockburn entouré de
son état-major, et ayant ses troupes sous les armes, le reçut avec tous les
honneurs dus à un général en chef. Là comme ailleurs, Napoléon, à qui il ne restait
que sa gloire, put jouir de l'éclat qu'elle répandait autour de lui. Ces marins, ces
soldats ne s'occupant d'aucun des grands dignitaires de leur nation, le cherchaient
des yeux, le dévoraient de leurs regards. Ils lui présentèrent
Départ des côtes
d'Angleterre. les armes, et il les salua avec une dignité tranquille et
affectueuse. Une fois la translation d'un bord à l'autre
terminée, l'amiral ne perdit pas un instant pour lever l'ancre, car la rade n'était pas
sûre, et il avait l'ordre de hâter son départ. Le Northumberland mit immédiatement
à la voile, le 8 août 1815, suivi de la frégate la Havane, et de plusieurs corvettes et
bricks chargés de troupes. Cette division se dirigea vers le golfe de Gascogne pour
venir doubler le cap Finistère, et descendre ensuite au sud, le long des côtes
d'Afrique. Napoléon en sortant de la Manche aperçut les côtes
Dernier regard jeté
sur les côtes de de France à travers la brume, et les salua avec une vive
France. émotion, convaincu qu'il était de les voir pour la dernière fois.

Le moment du départ est un moment de trouble qui étourdit le cœur et l'esprit, et


ne leur permet pas de sentir dans toute leur amertume les séparations les plus
cruelles. C'est lorsque le calme est revenu, et qu'on est seul,
Situation de
Napoléon à bord du que la douleur devient poignante, et qu'on apprécie
Northumberland. complétement ce qu'on a perdu, ce qu'on quitte, ce qu'on ne
reverra peut-être plus. Une tristesse muette et profonde régna
parmi le petit nombre d'exilés que la volonté de l'Europe poussait en cet instant
vers un autre hémisphère. Sans afficher une indifférence affectée, Napoléon se
montra calme, poli, sensible aux égards de l'amiral Cockburn, qui dans la limite de
ses instructions était disposé à adoucir autant que possible la captivité de son
glorieux prisonnier. L'amiral Georges Cockburn était un vieux
Conduite et
caractère de marin, grand, sec, absolu, susceptible, jaloux à l'excès de son
l'amiral Cockburn. autorité, mais sous ces dehors déplaisants cachant une
véritable bonté de cœur, et incapable d'ajouter à la rigueur des
ordres de son gouvernement. Il avait établi Napoléon sur son vaisseau le mieux
qu'il avait pu, et tâché de lui rendre les coutumes anglaises supportables. Ayant
défense de le traiter en empereur, il lui donnait le titre d'Excellence, mais en
corrigeant par la forme ce que ce changement pouvait avoir de blessant. Napoléon
avait à la table de l'amiral la place du commandant en chef; ses compagnons
étaient répartis à ses côtés, suivant leur rang. Les officiers de l'escadre invités tour
à tour, lui étaient présentés successivement. Napoléon les accueillait avec
bienveillance, leur adressait des questions relatives à leur état, en se servant de M.
de Las Cases pour interprète, ne montrait ni admiration ni dédain pour ce qu'il
voyait, avait soin de louer ce qui était louable dans la tenue des vaisseaux anglais,
et demeurait en tout simple, vrai et tranquille. Une seule chose lui avait paru tout à
fait incommode, et il ne l'avait pas dissimulé, c'était la longueur des repas anglais.
Lui qui dans son ardente activité n'avait jamais pu, quand il était seul, demeurer
plus de quelques instants à table, ne pouvait se résigner à y passer des heures
avec les Anglais. L'amiral ne tarda point à comprendre qu'il fallait faire céder les
coutumes nationales devant un tel hôte, et le service fini il se levait avec son état-
major, assistait debout à la sortie de Napoléon, lui offrait la main si le pont du
vaisseau était agité par les flots, et venait ensuite reprendre la vie anglaise avec
ses officiers.

Napoléon se promenait alors sur le pont du Northumberland, quelquefois seul,


quelquefois accompagné de Bertrand, Montholon, Gourgaud, Las Cases, tantôt se
taisant, tantôt épanchant les sentiments qui remplissaient son âme. S'il était peu
disposé à parler, il allait, après s'être promené quelque temps, s'asseoir à l'avant
du bâtiment, sur un canon que tout l'équipage appela bientôt le canon de
l'Empereur. Là il considérait la mer azurée des tropiques, et se regardait marcher
vers la tombe où devait s'ensevelir sa merveilleuse destinée, comme un astre qu'il
aurait vu coucher. Il n'avait aucun doute, en effet, sur l'avenir qui lui était réservé, et
se disait que là-bas, vers ce sud où tendait son vaisseau, il trouverait non pas une
relâche passagère, mais la mort après une agonie plus ou moins prolongée.
Devenu pour ainsi dire spectateur de sa propre vie, il en
Longues
méditations de contemplait les phases diverses avec une sorte d'étonnement,
Napoléon pendant tour à tour s'accusant, s'absolvant, s'apitoyant sur lui-même,
cette traversée. comme il aurait fait à l'égard d'un autre, toujours confiant dans
l'immensité de sa gloire, et toujours persuadé que dans les
vastes horizons de l'histoire du monde, il n'y avait presque rien d'égal à la bizarre
grandeur de sa destinée! De ces longues rêveries il sortait rarement amer ou irrité,
mais souvent poussé par le spectacle saisissant de sa vie à en raconter les
circonstances les plus frappantes. Il rejoignait alors ses compagnons d'infortune,
s'adressait à celui dont le visage répondait le plus à son impression du moment, et
se mettait à faire le récit, toujours avidement écouté, de telle ou telle de ses
actions. Chose singulière et pourtant explicable, c'étaient les deux extrémités de sa
carrière qui revenaient en ce moment à son esprit! Ou il parlait du dernier
événement, qui retentissait dans son âme comme un son violent dont les vibrations
n'avaient pas encore cessé, c'est-à-dire de Waterloo, ou bien il reportait son esprit
vers ses glorieux débuts en Italie, débuts qui avaient enchanté sa jeunesse, et lui
avaient pronostiqué un si grand avenir. S'il cédait à ses impressions les plus
récentes et parlait de Waterloo, c'était pour se demander ce qui avait pu égarer
certains de ses lieutenants dans cette journée fatale, et leur inspirer une si étrange
conduite!—Ney, d'Erlon, Grouchy, s'écriait-il, à quoi songiez-vous?— Alors, sans
récriminer, sans chercher à jeter ses fautes sur autrui, il se
Exclamations qui lui
échappent de demandait comment Ney avait pu sans ordre, et deux heures
temps en temps au trop tôt, essayer de frapper le coup décisif en lançant sa
sujet des derniers cavalerie, et il n'en trouvait d'autre explication que le trouble
événements. qui s'était emparé de cette âme héroïque. Quant à d'Erlon, si
excellent officier d'infanterie, il ne s'expliquait guère sa
manière de disposer ses divisions dans cette journée, et du reste ne mettait en
doute ni son courage, ni son dévouement, ni ses talents. Il déplorait ces erreurs
sans se plaindre, et s'il devenait un peu plus sévère, c'était pour Grouchy, car les
fautes de Ney et de d'Erlon n'étaient pas, disait-il, irréparables, tandis que celle de
Grouchy avait été mortelle. Ne contestant ni sa fidélité ni son courage qui ne
pouvaient être contestés, il déclarait inexplicable son absence de Waterloo, et ne
sachant pas ce que nous avons su depuis, il s'épuisait à en chercher les motifs
sans les découvrir. Il s'en prenait alors à la fatalité, dieu silencieux que les hommes
accusent volontiers parce qu'il ne répond point; mais en descendant au fond de lui-
même, il voyait bien que cette fatalité n'était autre, après tout, que la force des
choses réagissant contre les violences qu'il avait voulu lui faire subir. Il semblait du
reste sincèrement persuadé que, les Anglais vaincus à
Sa manière de
juger Waterloo. Waterloo, l'Europe aurait ressenti une profonde émotion, que,
bien qu'elle parût implacable, elle aurait probablement fait
d'utiles réflexions; qu'en tout cas, sous l'influence du succès, les ressources qu'il
avait préparées auraient suffi pour repousser à leur tour les Russes et les
Autrichiens, et, ne méconnaissant ni la gravité de la situation, ni l'épuisement de la
France, ni l'acharnement de l'Europe, il répétait avec douleur que sans la faute d'un
homme la cause nationale aurait pu triompher!

Pourtant il ne revenait pas volontiers sur ce sujet, et lorsqu'il y était amené,


c'était sous l'empire d'impressions trop récentes, trop fortes pour être dominées,
comme un homme qui tombé dans un précipice, ne peut s'empêcher de rechercher
le faux pas qui l'y a conduit. Il revenait plus volontiers sur ses
Napoléon raconte
les circonstances jeunes années, sur son éducation à Brienne, sur les signes de
de sa jeunesse. génie militaire déjà donnés au siége de Toulon, sur les
jouissances que lui avaient fait éprouver ses premiers succès!
Il s'animait alors, et contait avec un charme et un éclat qui ravissaient ceux qui
l'écoutaient, l'ancienne origine de sa famille qui remontait aux républiques d'Italie,
sa préférence instinctive pour la France quand la Corse était disputée entre
plusieurs maîtres, son entrée au collége de Brienne, son goût pour l'étude, sa
logique naissante qui étonnait dans un enfant de son âge, sa taciturnité, son
orgueil qui lui avait rendu insupportable la seule punition qu'il eût encourue à
l'école, son avenir plus d'une fois entrevu par quelques-uns de ses maîtres, son
entrée au régiment, ses relations à Valence, ses premières affections pour une
jeune dame qu'il avait retrouvée plus tard, et qu'il avait eu la satisfaction de tirer
d'une situation pénible, son arrivée devant Toulon, et là le commencement des
jouissances de la gloire, lorsque entouré de conventionnels violents, de généraux
ignorants, il avait saisi d'un coup d'œil le vrai point d'attaque, le fort de l'Éguillette,
obtenu la permission de l'enlever, et décidé par cette manœuvre la retraite des
Anglais! Que de présages heureux alors! que de rêves enivrants, et cependant
mille fois surpassés par la réalité! Ainsi, après avoir consacré
Son habitude de se
coucher sur un ses matinées à la lecture, il finissait ses journées sur le pont
canon que les du Northumberland, tantôt le parcourant à grands pas, tantôt
matelots appellent captivant par ses récits ceux qui avaient voulu partager son
le canon de infortune, ou bien couché sur son canon de prédilection,
l'Empereur. regardant le sillage du vaisseau qui le portait vers sa dernière
demeure.

Tandis que le temps s'écoulait de la sorte, on avait traversé le golfe


de Gascogne, doublé les caps Finistère et Saint-Vincent, et pris la Sept. 1815.
direction des îles africaines, par un vent favorable mais faible. La
navigation était lente, la chaleur extrême. Napoléon en
Arrivée en vue des
côtes d'Afrique. souffrait sans se plaindre. Le 23 août, on atteignit Madère, et
on voulut s'y arrêter pour y prendre des vivres frais. Mais tout
à coup une violente bourrasque de vent d'Afrique obligea de mettre à la voile, pour
ne pas essuyer la tourmente sur ses ancres. Elle fut telle que la frégate la Havane
et le brick le Furet furent séparés de la division, et contraints de naviguer pour leur
compte. Après quarante-huit heures, on revint mouiller à
Coup de vent à
Madère. Madère, et embarquer les rafraîchissements dont on avait
besoin. Les habitants maltraités par la dernière bourrasque, et
superstitieux comme des Portugais, attribuaient à la présence de Napoléon le
dommage qu'ils avaient souffert. C'était, disaient-ils, l'homme des tempêtes, qui ne
pouvait apparaître quelque part sans y apporter la désolation. Le 29 août on
traversa les tropiques. Le 23 septembre on atteignit l'équateur, et il est inutile de
dire que Napoléon fut seul excepté des usages auxquels les marins soumettent
tous ceux qui passent la ligne pour la première fois. Il les en dédommagea en leur
faisant distribuer 500 louis, ce qui porta leur joie jusqu'au délire. Les matelots du
Northumberland qui ne le connaissaient que par les récits de la presse anglaise,
laquelle s'était appliquée pendant quinze ans à le représenter comme un monstre,
éprouvaient en le voyant paisible, doux, bienveillant, une surprise croissante, et
avec leur naïve pénétration devinant son chagrin contenu mais visible, lui
donnaient mille preuves touchantes de sympathie. Ils mettaient un grand soin à
tenir propre le canon sur lequel il avait coutume de s'asseoir, et dès qu'il s'en
approchait ils s'éloignaient par respect pour sa solitude et ses pensées.
Napoléon avait continué à raconter les premiers temps de
Napoléon se
rappelle ses sa vie, sa proscription après le 9 thermidor, ses relations avec
souvenirs d'Italie. les chefs du Directoire, les explications qu'il leur donnait
chaque jour en leur remettant les dépêches arrivées des
armées, l'opinion qu'il leur avait inspirée de son intelligence de la guerre, l'espèce
d'entraînement qui les avait portés tous à lui décerner le commandement de Paris
dans la journée de vendémiaire, puis quelques mois après le commandement de
l'armée d'Italie, son apparition à Nice au milieu de vieux généraux jaloux de son
élévation, mais bientôt subjugués lorsqu'ils l'avaient vu se placer par un prodige
d'habileté entre les Piémontais et les Autrichiens, jeter les uns sur Turin, les autres
sur Gênes, franchir le Pô, et s'établir sur l'Adige, où pendant une année entière il
était resté invincible pour les armées de l'Autriche! Il revivait, il avait vingt-six ans,
et retrouvait toute la flamme de la jeunesse en faisant lui-même ces récits
enivrants. Et, chose singulière! s'il avait un véritable plaisir à raconter de vive voix
ses merveilleuses actions, à se procurer ainsi une sorte de mirage qui faisait reluire
à ses propres yeux les temps de sa jeunesse, il n'éprouvait aucun penchant à les
écrire, bien différent en cela de ce qu'il avait paru disposé à faire lors de son départ
pour l'île d'Elbe. À cette époque, au moment de quitter
Ses compagnons le
pressent d'écrire Fontainebleau, l'idée d'écrire son histoire, à l'exemple de tant
ses campagnes, et d'autres grands hommes, lui avait apparu tout à coup comme
il s'y refuse d'abord. un dernier but qui n'était pas indigne de lui. Maintenant au
contraire, ni sa gloire ni celle de ses compagnons d'armes ne
semblait l'intéresser. C'est qu'il était bien changé depuis l'île d'Elbe, bien descendu
dans l'abîme où devait s'enfoncer et finir sa grande destinée! À l'île d'Elbe l'atteinte
du malheur était nouvelle pour lui, elle l'excitait sans l'abattre, car à son insu et au
fond de son âme se cachait une dernière espérance. Mais
Son profond
découragement. après cette apparition du 20 mars, après Waterloo, quel avenir
pouvait-il rêver encore?... Parvînt-il à rompre la lourde chaîne
dont les Anglais avaient chargé ses mains, à traverser sain et sauf le vaste Océan,
où pourrait-il descendre, seul, sans même une poignée de braves pour l'aider à
mettre pied à terre? Et la France, qui l'avait accueilli alors, voudrait-elle se prêter à
un troisième essai, quand le second avait été si désastreux? L'âme humaine se
défend longtemps avant de déposer toute espérance, et il n'y a presque pas
d'exemple dans l'histoire d'une grande âme dans laquelle l'espérance se soit
complétement éteinte. Marius sur les ruines de Carthage, Pompée après Pharsale,
Annibal après Zama, espéraient encore, et avaient des motifs d'espérer. Mais
après Waterloo, Napoléon pouvait-il attendre quelque chose encore de la fortune?
Aussi jamais découragement n'égala le sien, et s'il cachait le néant de sa vie à ses
fidèles serviteurs, il le sentait profondément, et dans cet état il était incapable du
travail qu'exige une grande composition. Il pouvait bien raconter son histoire de
vive voix, lorsque excité par la vivacité de ses souvenirs il n'avait qu'à céder à son
éloquence naturelle, mais la composer, la préciser, l'écrire enfin, était un effort dont
il n'avait ni le courage ni même le goût. Renonçant pour jamais à figurer sur la
scène du monde, il semblait qu'il fût indifférent à la manière de figurer devant la
postérité. Souvent ses compagnons d'exil, transportés après l'avoir entendu, le
pressaient d'écrire ce qu'il venait de dire avec tant de puissance et de chaleur.
Gourgaud, Las Cases, Montholon, Bertrand, le suppliaient de
Les instances de
ses compagnons prendre la plume, lui offraient de la tenir eux-mêmes au
finissent par besoin, d'écrire sous sa brûlante dictée presque aussi vite qu'il
l'emporter, et il se parlerait, et de donner ainsi à la fin de sa vie ce noble et
décide à écrire ses dernier emploi: il résistait comme si sa gloire même n'eût pas
Mémoires. mérité un effort.—Que la postérité, disait-il, s'en tire comme
elle pourra. Qu'elle recherche la vérité si elle veut la connaître.
Les archives de l'État en sont pleines. La France y trouvera les monuments de sa
gloire, et si elle en est jalouse, qu'elle s'occupe elle-même à les préserver de
l'oubli...— Puis, dans son âme engourdie, une flamme
Sa confiance dans
l'histoire. d'orgueil jaillissant tout à coup, J'ai confiance dans l'histoire!
s'écriait Napoléon; j'ai eu de nombreux flatteurs, et le moment
présent appartient aux détracteurs acharnés. Mais la gloire des hommes célèbres
est, comme leur vie, exposée à des fortunes diverses. Il viendra un jour où le seul
amour de la vérité animera des écrivains impartiaux. Dans ma carrière on relèvera
des fautes sans doute, mais Arcole, Rivoli, les Pyramides, Marengo, Austerlitz,
Iéna, Friedland, c'est du granit, la dent de l'envie n'y peut rien!...—Napoléon
affichait ainsi une immense confiance dans l'histoire, même au sein de ce profond
mais tranquille désespoir qui constituait l'état actuel de son âme. Pourtant on lui
disait que l'histoire il fallait l'éclairer, que lui seul le pouvait, qu'autrement une partie
de ses grandes pensées s'évanouirait, que ce serait là un noble et utile aliment à
sa puissante activité, et qu'au surplus ils l'aideraient tous à élever ce beau
monument. Peu à peu, à force d'entendre les mêmes exhortations, et surtout à
force de découragement, il avait fini par reprendre goût à quelque chose, car l'âme
humaine ou quitte cette terre, ou si elle y demeure finit par s'attacher à quelque
objet, et peut parfois trouver un dernier plaisir à arroser des plantes ou à régler des
horloges, comme Dioclétien ou Charles-Quint. Napoléon consentit donc à
entreprendre enfin cette tâche qu'il s'était proposée en partant pour l'île d'Elbe. Ne
pouvant dominer la fougue de son esprit jusqu'à l'obliger à suivre les mouvements
trop lents de sa main, il était incapable d'écrire, ou bien il traçait des caractères
illisibles. Il se mit donc à dicter en débutant par les campagnes
Napoléon dicte à
M. de Las Cases la d'Italie, pour lesquelles il eut recours à la plume de M. de Las
première Cases. Son projet était de distribuer les diverses parties de
campagne d'Italie, son histoire entre ses compagnons d'exil, pour que tous
et au général participassent à l'honneur de ce travail, et eussent le temps de
Gourgaud la le revoir, et de le mettre au net. Cependant, oppressé par les
campagne de 1815. souvenirs de Waterloo, et comme pour en soulager son cœur,
il résolut de dicter au général Gourgaud le récit de la
campagne de 1815, et il commença immédiatement cette partie de sa tâche. Le
temps ne lui manquait pas, car la navigation s'était allongée
Longueur de la
navigation. par les efforts mêmes de l'amiral pour l'abréger. À cette
époque, dans l'état de l'art nautique, une fois l'équateur
franchi, on se laissait porter par les vents alizés jusque dans le voisinage des côtes
du Brésil, puis descendant au sud on tâchait de rencontrer des vents variables
d'ouest pour revenir sur Sainte-Hélène. L'amiral Cockburn pressé d'arriver, pour
son hôte encore plus que pour lui-même, avait imaginé de suivre une autre route.
En se tenant près des côtes d'Afrique, et en s'engageant dans le rentrant du golfe
de Guinée, on trouve quelquefois des vents variables d'ouest qui portent vers
l'Afrique, après quoi retrouvant les vents d'est, on est poussé vent arrière sur
Sainte-Hélène. L'amiral avait donc adopté cette direction. Elle ne lui avait d'abord
que trop bien réussi, car il s'était enfoncé dans le golfe de Guinée jusqu'à toucher
presque au Congo. Il y avait essuyé des orages, une chaleur suffocante, et des
lenteurs qui faisaient même murmurer son équipage. Napoléon, qui n'avait pas
grand intérêt à voir finir cette navigation, car pour lui arriver c'était passer d'une
prison dans une autre, employait le temps à dicter. Ses matinées s'écoulaient avec
M. de Las Cases ou avec le général Gourgaud, auxquels il dictait tantôt le récit des
campagnes d'Italie, tantôt celui de la campagne de 1815. Ces messieurs n'osant
l'interrompre, suivaient sa parole le mieux qu'ils pouvaient, et puis se retiraient pour
recopier en caractères lisibles des dictées saisies pour ainsi dire au vol. Ils les
soumettaient le lendemain à Napoléon, qui les revoyait attentivement, tantôt
abrégeant ce qui était trop étendu, tantôt développant ce qui était trop
sommairement exposé, et mettant un grand soin à veiller à la correction du
langage, à laquelle il était devenu extrêmement sensible en avançant en âge. Une
chose seule le contrariait dans la suite de son travail, c'était le défaut de
documents auxquels il pût se reporter soit pour les dates, soit pour certains détails.
Comme tous ceux qui ont beaucoup agi, et qui ont beaucoup à retenir, il se
trompait quelquefois sur la date des faits, et les intervertissait, du reste rarement.
Mais sur le caractère des événements, sur leur importance, sur les lieux, sur les
hommes, sa mémoire était infaillible, et il les retraçait avec une vérité saisissante. Il
regrettait aussi de n'avoir pas ses ordres, ses lettres surtout, qui jettent un si grand
jour sur ses opérations, sur leurs motifs, et qui permettent de retrouver sa pensée,
lui mort, comme s'il vivait encore. La privation de ces divers documents le dépitait
parfois, sans le détourner néanmoins d'un travail qui était devenu son unique
ressource. Il ne s'en reposait qu'en se livrant à des lectures, dont les grandes
productions de l'esprit humain étaient l'objet exclusif. Marchand avait eu soin
d'emporter sa bibliothèque de campagne, qui était malheureusement fort restreinte.
Un jour, tandis qu'il exprimait le regret de n'avoir pas une bibliothèque mieux
fournie, on aperçut un vaisseau de commerce qui s'approchait du Northumberland.
M. de Las Cases se souvint alors de la précaution qu'il avait prise d'expédier une
caisse de livres pour le Cap.—C'est peut-être, dit-il à Napoléon, le bâtiment qui
porte mes livres.—C'était ce bâtiment en effet, et la caisse recueillie au passage,
remise à bord, ouverte immédiatement, causa à l'illustre captif, qui ne pouvait plus
avoir que des jouissances d'esprit, l'une de ces petites satisfactions qui allaient
composer désormais tout son bonheur.

Il y avait près de soixante-dix jours qu'on avait quitté les côtes


d'Angleterre, et ayant enfin rencontré les vents du sud-est qui Octob. 1815.
soufflent du Cap, on fut porté vent arrière sur Sainte-Hélène. Le 15
octobre, à la pointe du jour, à une distance de douze lieues en mer, on aperçut un
pic tout entouré de nuages: c'était le pic de Diane qui domine
Arrivée le 15
octobre en vue de l'île de Sainte-Hélène. Napoléon était enfin arrivé aux portes
Sainte-Hélène. de sa prison. À midi à peu près on jeta l'ancre dans la petite
rade de James-Town, et on aperçut une côte triste, sombre,
Aspect de l'île. hérissée de rochers, qui eux-mêmes étaient hérissés de
canons. La frégate la Havane et le brick le Furet, séparés de
la division à Madère, avaient devancé de dix-sept jours le vaisseau amiral. Ils
avaient annoncé la prochaine arrivée des prisonniers, transmis les ordres de
Londres, débarqué une partie des troupes, et l'île, d'aspect ordinairement pacifique,
avait pris tout à coup un aspect de guerre à l'approche de l'homme de la guerre,
qu'elle était destinée à renfermer et à consumer sous son ciel dévorant.

L'île de Sainte-Hélène est le résultat d'une éruption


Sa constitution, son
climat, ses produits. volcanique qui a jailli au milieu de l'océan Atlantique, dans
l'hémisphère sud, un peu avant le tropique du Capricorne.
L'île, ayant de neuf à dix lieues de circonférence, entourée partout de côtes
inaccessibles, s'annonce par des rochers saillants, arides, portant au ciel leurs
têtes noirâtres, et dominés par le pic de Diane qui les surpasse tous. Au sein de
ces vastes plaines de l'Océan, Sainte-Hélène offrant aux vapeurs le seul point qui
puisse les arrêter, les fixe autour d'elle, et se montre constamment au sein des
brouillards. Le volcan, père de cette île, a eu son cratère tourné au nord, et ce
cratère, situé au pied même du pic de Diane, se présente refroidi mais béant au
voyageur arrivant d'Europe. Plusieurs vallées s'en détachent, étroites, longues,
parallèles, aboutissant à la mer comme des ruisseaux destinés jadis à y porter la
lave, et formant de petites criques, dont une, un peu plus spacieuse que les autres,
constitue le port de James-Town, le seul abordable de l'île. Sur le revers sud
s'étendent des plateaux, séparés entre eux par des ravins profonds, taillés à pic le
long de la mer, par conséquent inaccessibles, et exposés au vent du sud-est qui
souffle du Cap. Aussi tandis que dans les étroites vallées du nord il coule un peu
d'eau, venant des nuages que le pic de Diane attire à lui, tandis qu'il s'y développe
un peu de verdure, qu'il y règne un peu de fraîcheur, sur le revers opposé les
plateaux tournés vers le sud sont incessamment balayés, par un vent chaud et sec,
dépourvus d'eau et de gazon, à peine recouverts d'une maigre végétation toujours
penchée sous la constance du vent, et ne donnant presque pas d'ombre sous un
ciel où il en faudrait beaucoup. Telle est Sainte-Hélène, chaude, venteuse et sèche
sur les plateaux inclinés au sud, un peu moins aride dans les vallées dirigées vers
le nord, triste partout, point malsaine pour le corps habitué à y vivre, mais mortelle
pour l'âme qui a vécu au milieu des grands spectacles du monde civilisé. Sur ce
rocher stérile, situé à une immense distance des divers continents, des colons
n'auraient pas eu beaucoup à faire, et en effet il ne s'en est guère établi à Sainte-
Hélène. Pourtant comme les bâtiments venant des Indes y sont portés par le vent
du Cap, et qu'après une longue traversée le navigateur aime à poser le pied sur un
sol ferme, à respirer l'air de terre, à voir la verdure, à savourer quelques fruits, à
goûter quelques aliments frais, les convois de la Compagnie des Indes s'y arrêtent
volontiers, comme dans une hôtellerie placée pour eux au milieu de l'Océan. Aussi
parmi les quatre mille habitants de Sainte-Hélène, dont trois mille occupent le petit
port de James-Town, ne s'est-il développé qu'une industrie, consistant à nourrir un
peu de bétail apporté du Cap, à cultiver quelques légumes et quelques fruits, et n'y
a-t-il qu'une joie dans l'année, c'est celle qui éclate lorsque les convois de l'extrême
Orient revenant en Europe s'y arrêtent un instant pour s'y reposer, s'y rafraîchir,
plaisir qu'ils payent d'un peu de l'argent gagné en Asie.

Tel est le lieu où Napoléon devait terminer sa vie. C'est toujours pour les
navigateurs, d'où qu'ils viennent, où qu'ils aillent, une joie d'arriver. Pour la
première fois peut-être ce sentiment ne fut point éprouvé à bord du
Northumberland, du moins parmi les illustres passagers qu'il venait de transporter.
Leur sentiment fut celui de prisonniers apercevant la porte de la prison qui va se
refermer à jamais sur eux. La population de l'île était tout entière sur le quai, et
aurait composé une foule si son nombre l'avait permis. Napoléon monta sur le
pont, et regarda tristement ce séjour abrupte; noirâtre, où il allait s'ensevelir tout
vivant. Il n'exprima aucun désir, et laissa le soin à l'amiral de prononcer sur l'instant
de sa mise à terre, et sur le lieu où il devait séjourner provisoirement. L'amiral se
hâta de quitter son vaisseau pour aller chercher un pied-à-terre où Napoléon pût
prendre gîte, en attendant qu'on eût préparé son établissement définitif. L'amiral
employa deux journées à cette recherche, et vint en s'excusant de ce retard
annoncer à Napoléon la découverte d'une maison petite mais suffisante, dans
laquelle il pourrait jouir immédiatement du plaisir d'être à terre.
Napoléon débarque
le 17 octobre à Le 17 octobre Napoléon quitta le Northumberland, fort regretté
Sainte-Hélène. de l'équipage, qu'il remercia des soins dont il avait été l'objet.
Arrivé à la petite maison que l'amiral lui avait choisie, il la
trouva tellement exposée aux regards des habitants qu'il jugea impossible d'y
rester plus d'une ou deux journées. L'amiral lui promit de s'occuper dès le
lendemain d'en chercher une mieux placée, et dans laquelle il serait garanti des
regards des curieux.

Il existait une habitation dans laquelle Napoléon aurait été


Il y avait à Sainte-
Hélène une convenablement établi, c'était celle de Plantation-House, joli
habitation château destiné au gouverneur de l'île, situé dans une vallée
convenable, celle fraîche et ombragée, parce qu'elle s'ouvrait au nord, et
de Plantation- joignant à l'avantage du site celui d'une construction élégante,
House. et suffisamment vaste. Avec le moindre respect des
convenances, c'est celle qu'on aurait dû choisir, mais par un
Pourquoi elle n'est sentiment d'inexplicable mesquinerie, en prêtant l'île de
pas réservée à
Sainte-Hélène à l'État, la Compagnie des Indes avait fait
Napoléon.
réserve du château du gouverneur, et par une insouciance
plus inqualifiable encore, lord Bathurst n'avait pas songé à exiger d'elle ce sacrifice.
Par ces motifs, Plantation-House, où Napoléon aurait trouvé tout de suite une
retraite saine et décente, avait été exclu des choix qu'on aurait pu faire. Il restait
sur l'un des plateaux du sud, celui de Longwood, une ferme de la Compagnie,
servant de résidence au sous-gouverneur, et qui pouvait, moyennant qu'on y
ajoutât quelques constructions, recevoir une vingtaine de maîtres et de
domestiques. Le plateau de Longwood était assez étendu
Choix du plateau
de Longwood, où pour la promenade à pied et à cheval, couvert en partie d'un
l'on doit construire bois de gommiers, mais malheureusement tourné au sud-est,
des bâtiments et exposé au vent du Cap. C'était là un inconvénient qui devait
d'habitation. être infiniment sensible avec le temps, mais au premier
aspect, ce plateau n'avait rien de désagréable. Il présentait un
campement commode et sain pour les troupes destinées à veiller sur la demeure
de Napoléon, et enfin les côtes qui le terminaient vers la mer étaient à peu près
inaccessibles. C'étaient là pour l'amiral de suffisantes raisons de préférence; aussi
le proposa-t-il à Napoléon en lui offrant d'aller y faire une course à cheval, pour qu'il
pût juger si le lieu lui convenait. Napoléon accepta cette proposition, se rendit le
lendemain à Longwood en compagnie de l'amiral, et y trouvant, après plusieurs
mois de mer, un peu de terre et de verdure, et surtout une solitude où les regards
des curieux ne pourraient le découvrir, agréa cet emplacement, et consentit à ce
qu'on entreprît les travaux qui pouvaient le rendre habitable.

En remontant de James-Town jusqu'au pic de Diane pour se


Établissement
provisoire à Briars. rendre à Longwood, Napoléon avait remarqué dans cette
vallée assez fraîche un petit pavillon qui lui avait plu. Au retour
de Longwood il le visita, et exprima le désir de s'y établir temporairement. Le
propriétaire était un négociant du pays, résidant avec sa famille dans une maison
voisine. Il offrit avec empressement le pavillon, dans lequel Napoléon voulut
s'établir sans aucun délai. Il fallait qu'il consentît à dormir, manger, travailler dans la
même pièce, mais elle s'ouvrait sur une jolie vallée, et il prit en bonne part ce chétif
logement que dans le pays on appelait Briars. Ne sachant comment abriter
quelques-uns de ses domestiques, on eut recours à une tente qui fut dressée à
côté du pavillon. Le plus grand inconvénient de ce séjour,
Privations
auxquelles c'était de séparer Napoléon de ses compagnons d'infortune,
Napoléon se trouve lesquels pour le voir étaient obligés chaque jour de faire un
exposé à Briars. assez long trajet. On parvint cependant à trouver un réduit
pour M. de Las Cases, que Napoléon tenait à avoir auprès de
lui, parce qu'il lui dictait en ce moment le récit des campagnes d'Italie. Il avait donc
l'indispensable, et ne tenait aucun compte des privations physiques, ayant essuyé
bien pis dans ses longues et terribles guerres. Il est vrai que le danger et la gloire
relevaient tout alors, et qu'aujourd'hui la dure captivité aurait empoisonné même
l'abondance et les plaisirs. Il en sentit, hélas, à cette époque une première et dure
rigueur! Jusqu'ici, empereur à bord du Bellérophon, général en chef sur le
Northumberland, il avait pu se croire libre, car le navire était une prison flottante
dans laquelle ses propres gardiens étaient aussi captifs que lui. Aucune
surveillance n'avait donc été exercée à bord du Northumberland. Mais une fois
qu'on fut à terre, l'amiral, inquiet pour sa responsabilité, n'osa
Napoléon une fois
à terre est pas laisser à son prisonnier l'île pour prison. Elle avait neuf à
condamné à une dix lieues de circonférence tout au plus, des côtes presque
inabordables, n'était guère accessible que par le petit port de
surveillance qui lui James-Town sévèrement gardé, et était entourée en outre
est très-pénible. d'une croisière nombreuse. Si donc Napoléon avait cherché à
s'évader, il lui eût été bien difficile, surtout dans les premiers
jours, avant d'avoir pu se ménager des complices, de disparaître tout à coup, et de
trouver un bâtiment qui le transportât en Amérique. Néanmoins, voulant avoir la
certitude physique et continue de sa présence, l'amiral entoura Briars de
sentinelles qui ne devaient pas perdre de vue ceux qui l'habitaient. L'œil perçant de
Napoléon les eut bientôt découvertes, et ce fut pour lui l'une des plus vives, des
plus douloureuses impressions de sa captivité. L'amiral, rempli d'ailleurs des
meilleures intentions, avait bien prévu que Napoléon qui avait passé sa vie à
cheval, et obligé ses contemporains à y passer la leur, ne pourrait se priver de cet
exercice, et il s'était procuré en conséquence trois chevaux de selle assez bons,
tirés du Cap comme tous ceux qu'on avait dans l'île. Napoléon
Il ne veut pas
monter à cheval, était disposé à s'en servir, mais quand il vit qu'un officier
parce qu'il est suivi. anglais s'apprêtait à mettre le pied à l'étrier pour le suivre, il ne
voulut plus de cette distraction, quelque nécessaire qu'elle fût
à son corps et à son esprit, et il ordonna de renvoyer les chevaux. Faisant
cependant la réflexion fort naturelle que l'amiral serait ainsi bien mal récompensé
d'une attention délicate, il revint sur son ordre, et garda les chevaux sans en user.

Certains juges ont blâmé Napoléon de sentir ces souffrances, ou de laisser voir
qu'il les sentait. Il est aisé de parler des maux d'autrui, et d'enseigner comment il
faudrait les supporter. Pour moi que la vue de la souffrance d'autrui affecte
profondément, je ne sais guère blâmer ceux qui souffrent, et je n'aurais pas le
courage de rechercher si tel jour, à telle heure, de nobles victimes, torturées par la
douleur, ont manqué de l'attitude impassible qu'on désirerait leur imposer. Je ne
sais pas de plus touchantes victimes que Pie VII, que Louis XVI, que Marie-
Antoinette, et il est tel instant que je voudrais supprimer de leur cruelle agonie. Le
corps humain n'est pas bon à voir dans les convulsions de la douleur physique.
L'âme humaine n'est pas meilleure à voir dans certains instants de la douleur
morale, et il faut jeter sur elle le voile d'une compassion respectueuse. Si Napoléon
eût été un anachorète chrétien, on aurait pu lui dire: Courbez
Mouvements
d'irritation dont il ne la tête sous le soufflet des bourreaux.—Mais cette âme
peut se défendre. indomptable à la fatigue, aux souffrances physiques, aux
dangers, tombée de si haut, frémissait sous les humiliations,
et il faut pardonner ces premiers tressaillements d'impatience à l'homme qui, ayant
vu pendant quinze ans les rois à ses pieds, était maintenant plongé dans leurs fers.
Ses compagnons eurent le tort de contribuer à l'irriter en lui
Ses plaintes et
celles de ses racontant comment ils étaient traités à James-Town. Surveillés
compagnons. dans leurs moindres mouvements, partout suivis d'un soldat,
ils éprouvaient des gênes insupportables, et se plaignirent
vivement à leur maître infortuné, qui fut affecté de leurs peines plus que des
siennes. Napoléon, ne se contenant plus, et répétant ce qu'il avait dit à lord Keith,
s'écria qu'on violait en lui le droit des gens et l'humanité; qu'il n'était pas prisonnier
de guerre, car il s'était volontairement confié aux Anglais après avoir fait à leur
générosité un appel dont ils n'étaient pas dignes; qu'il aurait pu se jeter sur la Loire,
y continuer la guerre, la rendre atroce, ou bien se livrer à son beau-père, à son
ancien ami l'empereur Alexandre, qui auraient bien été forcés par la loi du sang ou
par celle de l'honneur de le traiter avec égards; que les Anglais n'avaient donc pas
sur lui les droits qu'on a sur les prisonniers; que d'ailleurs ce droit cessait avec la
guerre, qu'enfin il y avait envers les prisonniers des ménagements mesurés à leur
rang, à leur situation, dont on ne s'écartait jamais. Napoléon, se rappelant à cette
occasion comment il avait agi autrefois avec l'empereur d'Autriche, avec le roi de
Prusse qu'il aurait pu détrôner, avec l'empereur de Russie qu'il avait pu faire
prisonnier à Austerlitz, et auxquels il avait épargné la plupart des conséquences de
leurs désastres, comparait amèrement leur conduite à la sienne, oubliant dans ces
plaintes éloquentes la véritable cause de traitements si différents, oubliant
qu'Alexandre, Frédéric-Guillaume, François II, lorsqu'il les traitait si bien, ne lui
inspiraient aucune crainte, tandis que lui, au contraire, tout vaincu qu'il était, faisait
peur au monde, qu'il devait par conséquent à son génie, et à l'abus de ce génie,
l'étrange forme de captivité à laquelle il était réduit. Après cet emportement qui
l'avait soulagé, il s'écria tout à coup: Du reste, pour moi, il ne m'appartient pas de
réclamer. Ma dignité me commande le silence, même au milieu des tourments,
mais vous à qui tant de réserve n'est pas commandée, plaignez-vous. Vous avez
des femmes, des enfants, qu'il est inhumain de faire souffrir de la sorte, et qui
motivent suffisamment toutes les réclamations que vous pourrez élever.—

Ils se plaignirent en effet, et l'amiral qui avait le visage, mais


L'amiral Cockburn
point le cœur sec, fit de son mieux pour leur rendre
fait ce qu'il peut
supportable le séjour de James-Town. Il ne se relâcha point de
pour adoucir la
sa surveillance, car sa responsabilité le faisait trembler; mais il
situation des exilés.
prescrivit à ses officiers les plus grands égards, sans renoncer
cependant à la précaution essentielle de ne jamais perdre de vue le principal des
prisonniers.

Après quelques jours la situation s'améliora un peu.


Napoléon
commence à Successivement on établit à Briars une partie des
s'habituer à cette compagnons de Napoléon, et on facilita leurs rapports avec
situation. lui. Il put les recevoir à sa table, reprendre son travail avec
eux, occuper enfin cet esprit dévorant qui le dévorait lui-même
quand on ne lui donnait pas d'autre aliment. Il reprit ses entretiens, et essaya
quelques promenades à pied qu'on lui laissa faire sans le suivre, voyant qu'à pied il
ne pourrait aller bien loin. Il se mit à parcourir les petites vallées parallèles à celle
de James-Town, et tournées au nord. Abritées contre le vent du sud et le soleil,
elles étaient, comme nous l'avons dit, fraîches, ombragées, et terminées par des
vues assez pittoresques. Un jour Napoléon, s'étant fort éloigné, s'arrêta dans le
modeste cottage d'un militaire anglais, le major Hudson. Il s'y montra doux et
simple, fut accueilli avec respect, et sortit fort touché de la réception cordiale qu'on
lui avait faite. Mais il était loin de Briars, et on lui prêta des chevaux pour y revenir.
Il fit ainsi une assez longue course à cheval, ce qui ne lui était point arrivé depuis
bien du temps, et parut y prendre quelque plaisir. Peu à peu il s'habitua au singulier
gîte où il était établi, se figurant que bientôt il en aurait un plus supportable, et y
vécut comme à l'un de ces nombreux bivouacs où il avait passé une partie de son
orageuse vie.

L'hôte chez lequel Napoléon était descendu, commerçant de


condition obscure, mais de cœur excellent, s'étudiait à le faire jouir de Nov. 1815.
son jardin et de sa modeste société. Il avait deux jeunes filles parlant
un peu le français, fort animées, fort innocentes, chantant médiocrement, mais
avec l'heureuse humeur de la jeunesse. Elles venaient voir l'empereur déchu, le
questionnaient avec l'ignorance de leur âge et de leur condition, puis lui jouaient
des airs italiens sur un instrument très-peu harmonieux. Napoléon écoutait et
répondait à leurs questions naïves avec une extrême bonté. L'une d'elles, qui avait
rencontré dans un roman historique le nom de Gaston de Foix, et qui prenait le
héros de Ravenne pour un général de l'Empire, lui demandait si Gaston était bien
brave, et s'il était mort.—Oui, répondait Napoléon avec une patience toute
paternelle, il était brave, et il est mort.—Il s'intéressait à ces enfants comme aux
oiseaux voltigeant dans son jardin. C'étaient là désormais ses seules distractions: il
n'en devait ni trouver, ni rechercher, ni désirer d'autres!

Les mois d'octobre et de novembre s'écoulèrent ainsi, paisiblement mais


tristement, comme allaient s'écouler toutes les années de cette captivité sans
exemple. À cette époque arrivèrent les premiers courriers
Arrivée des
premières d'Europe. Les exilés reçurent de leurs familles des nouvelles
nouvelles d'Europe. qui furent pour eux un doux soulagement. Napoléon seul n'en
reçut point de la sienne. Sa mère, ses frères, ses sœurs,
dispersés, fugitifs, réduits à se cacher, n'avaient pu se procurer les moyens de lui
écrire. Marie-Louise n'avait pas même songé à l'entretenir de son fils. Les
nouvelles intéressantes pour lui furent celles des journaux. Elles lui parlaient de la
France avec beaucoup de détail, et elles le touchèrent profondément. Les
Bourbons, entrés si doucement en France en 1814, rentraient cette fois la colère
au cœur, et une funeste illusion dans l'esprit. Ils croyaient qu'une vaste conspiration
les avait seule expulsés au 20 mars, et qu'il était à la fois juste et politique de la
punir. Les journaux annonçaient de nombreux exils, de
Intérêt qu'éprouve
Napoléon pour Ney, nombreuses arrestations parmi les hommes les plus dévoués
La Bédoyère, à Napoléon, et tous compromis à cause de lui. Ney, La
Drouot, Lavallette, Bédoyère, Drouot, Lavallette, étaient menacés de poursuites
qu'il sait poursuivis. rigoureuses et d'exécutions sanglantes. Napoléon fut fort ému
du sort qui menaçait ces trois derniers qu'il aimait
sincèrement, et quant à Ney, pour lequel il avait moins d'affection, mais dont il
admirait l'énergie guerrière, il ressentit de son malheur une pitié profonde. Il fut non
pas blessé, mais affligé du système de défense qu'on semblait
Comment il
comprend la adopter pour l'infortuné maréchal. Avec cette logique
défense de Ney. puissante qui éclatait dès qu'il raisonnait sur un sujet, il indiqua
tout de suite le vrai système de défense à employer.—On se

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