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LINDA BLOCKER + JULIA HILL
C U L I N A RY M AT H
FOURTH EDITION
fm.indd 1 12/10/2015 4:27:04 PM

The Culinary Institute of America
President: Dr. Tim Ryan ’77
Vice-President, Continuing Education: Mark Erickson ’77
Director of Intellectual Property: Nathalie Fischer
Editorial Project Manager: Lisa Lahey ’00
Copyright © 2016 by The Culinary Institute of America, Linda Blocker and Julia Hill. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
Composition by SPi Global
Photography by The Culinary Institute of America
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee
to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400,
fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street,
Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their
best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to
the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or
extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained
herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where
appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other
commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please
contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the
United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in
print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit
our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Blocker, Linda, author. | Hill, Julie, 1954- author.
Title: Culinary math / Linda Blocker Julia Hill.
Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015043949 (print) | LCCN 2015044594 (ebook) | ISBN
9781118972724 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781119195580 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119195627 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Cooking—Mathematics.
Classification: LCC TX652 .B5844 2016 (print) | LCC TX652 (ebook) | DDC
641.501/51—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015043949
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
fm.indd 2 12/10/2015 4:27:04 PM

This book is dedicated to:
My husband, Dr. Seth Blocker, and my children, Rachel and Benjamin Blocker
My parents, Arnold and Roslyn Weiss
The memory of my grandparents: Robert and Freda Weiss and Jean Friedlander
—LINDA A. BLOCKER
The memory of my niece, Elizabeth Willis Minter

—JULIA H. HILL
We would also like to dedicate this book to the students who found success in this
math, perhaps for the first time!
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Contents
Acknowledgments v
Preface vi
1 Math Basics 1
2 Customary Units of Measure 24
3 Metric Measures 38
4 Basic Conversion of Units of Measure within
Volume or Weight 46
5 Converting Weight and Volume Mixed Measures 57
6 Advanced Conversions between Weight and Volume 66
7 Yield Percent 80
8 Applying Yield Percent 96
9 Finding Cost 106
10 Edible Portion Cost 118
11 Recipe Costing 131
12 Yield Percent: When to Ignore It 152
13 Beverage Costing 161
14 Recipe Size Conversion 172
15 Kitchen Ratios 192
APPENDIX A Formula Reference Review 204
APPENDIX B Units of Measure and Equivalency Charts 208
APPENDIX C Approximate Volume to Weight Chart and Approximate Yield
of Fruits and Vegetables Chart 211
APPENDIX D Rounding Realities 215
APPENDIX E Blank Food Cost Form 216
Answers to Chapter Problems 218

Culinary Math Glossary of Terms 222
Index 226
iv
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Acknowledgments
We would like to extend our gratitude to the people at The Culinary Institute of
America who helped make this project a reality:
MARK ERICKSON
NATHALIE FISCHER
LISA LAHEY
We would also like to thank those at John Wiley & Sons for their assistance:
MELISSA EDWARDS WHELAN

JOANNA TURTLETAUB
PATTY DONOVAN
GABRIELLE CORRADO
And we would also like to thank:
JOHN STORM
MARY COWELL
CATHY POWERS
DR. DAVID BROWER
The SUNY Delhi Hospitality Management Department
PHIL MANSFIELD
CIA Photographer
fm.indd 5 12/10/2015 4:27:04 PM

Preface
We are thrilled to bring you the fourth edition of Culinary Math. After decades of
teaching this material, we are both excited to create a textbook that offers students
an opportunity to find real success with the math that is required for in today’s food-
service industry. Many people are very talented at making delicious food; however,
that skill might not be enough. The math behind the menu items that are served in
the most successful restaurants must also be mastered in order to make a profit. The
purpose of this book is to guide you in understanding and appropriately using the
math of the food-service industry.
This edition has been improved and enriched to meet the needs of future
food- service professionals. In this edition, we have updated and improved the
practice problems, clarified content, and added new photography. Our most excit-
ing addition to the forth edition of Culinary Math is your opportunity to go to the
book companion site, where you can practice food costing (Chapter 11, page 131)
on an Excel food cost form. We felt it was necessary to recognize the increasing use of
computers in the food-service industry, particularly with food costing, and offer you
a chance to become familiar with it while studying culinary math.
Organization of the Book

This textbook is designed to help you master the topics of culinary math. Once you
have worked through the chapters in this text, you should feel confident costing out
recipes, converting recipe sizes, and working with kitchen ratios. Each individual
chapter is designed to move toward these goals one step at a time. These chapters
build on one another, so it is important to be comfortable with the material covered
in earlier chapters to be successful with the later material. Chapter 1 (page 1)
reviews the basic math necessary to be able to successfully master the math in the
remaining chapters. Chapter 2 (page 24) covers the units of measure used in most of
the professional kitchens in the United States, and Chapter 3 (page 38) is dedicated
vi
fm.indd 6 12/10/2015 4:27:04 PM

to the metric system. It is very important to commit these units of measure and their
conversions to memory to be able to work efficiently in the kitchen.
Chapters 4 and 5 (pages 46 and 57, respectively) cover converting units of
measure within weight and volume, and Chapter 6 (page 66) discusses converting
between weight and volume measures. Chapter 7 (page 80) presents the concept of
yield percent and how it is calculated. Chapter 8 (page 96) addresses how to use yield
percent to determine how much of a product is usable and how to order the correct
amount of a product for a particular need. Chapters 9 and 10 (pages 106 and 118,
respectively) examine how to calculate the cost and the edible portion cost, and Chap-
ter 11 (page 131) combines these concepts in recipe costing. Chapter 12 (page 152)
addresses when yield percent is ignored in ordering and costing. These situations are
exceptions to the rules covered in Chapter 7 through 11. How to identify these unique
circumstances and formulate the math to find the solutions is covered. Chapter 13
(page 161) deals with beverage calculations and costing. Chapter 14 (page 172) deals
with changing the yield of a recipe. Chapters 15 (page 192) introduces kitchen ratios,
which are ratios that are specific to the food-service industry.
Organization of Each Chapter

Each chapter begins with a short vignette describing a situation that might be encoun-
tered in the food-service industry, which connects the math in the chapter with a real-
world application. The chapter objectives make you aware of the material to be covered
in the chapter so that you can be sure you have met these objectives. Each chapter
includes a lesson and one or more example problems designed to show a method for
solving a given problem. The procedures that are demonstrated reflect tried-and-true
methods that have been presented successfully for more than 15 years; however, there
are usually several ways to solve a problem, and if you perform different calculations
but your solution matches the answer in the book, then you are probably on the right
track. At the end of each chapter there are practice problems for you to do on your own.
How Best to Use the Practice Problems

All of the work that you do for the practice problems should be shown so that errors
may be easily identified and corrected. When all the work is done on your calculator,
there is no way to backtrack and find errors, which can be a very effective learning tool.
Knowing how and why to make the calculations is as important as coming up with the
right answer. The correct answers for the odd-numbered problems are provided for
you in the back of the book so that you can check your calculations and gauge your
understanding of the concepts presented in the chapter. For additional practice in
recipe costing beyond the practice problems, you can access an interactive Excel food
cost form online at the book companion site.
The applied math of the culinary field is both challenging and rewarding. Do not
forget to use common sense when reading through the chapters, studying the examples,
and doing the practice problems.
vii
PREFACE
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Additional Resources
An Instructor’s Manual and a set of PowerPoint Slides to accompany the textbook
are available to qualified adopters for download at www.wiley.com/college/cia.
The Test Bank has been specifically formatted for Respondus, an easy-to-use
software program for creating and managing exams that can be printed to paper or
published directly to Blackboard, WebCT, Desire2Learn, eCollege, ANGEL, and
other eLearning systems. Instructors who adopt Culinary Math, Fourth Edition can
download the Test Bank for free. Additional Wiley resources also can be uploaded
into your LMS coursed at no charge.
A Book Companion Website provides readers with additional resources as well
as enabling instructors to download the electronic files for the Instructor’s Manual,
Power Point slides, and Test Bank.
Videos have been created to enhance your learning to meet specific chapter objec-
tives. You will be able to work on a practice problems along with the videos to ensure
your understanding of the steps for solving the problems.
WileyPLUS Learning Space

A place where students can define their strengths and nurture their skills, WileyPLUS
Learning Space transforms course content into an online learning community.
WileyPLUS Learning Space invites students to experience learning activities, work
through self-assessment, ask questions, and share insights. As students interact with the
course content, each other, and their instructor, WileyPLUS Learning Space creates
a personalized study guide for each student. Through collaboration, students make
deeper connections to the subject matter and feel part of a community.
Through a flexible course design, instructors can quickly organize learning activ-
ities, manage student collaboration, and customize their course—having full control
over content as well as the amount of interactivity between students.
WileyPLUS Learning Space lets the instructor:
• Assign activities and add your own materials.
• Guide your students through what’s important in the interactive e-textbook by

easily assigning specific content.
• Set up and monitor group learning.
• Assess student engagement.
• Gain immediate insights to help inform teaching.
Defining a clear path to action, the visual reports in WileyPLUS Learning Space help
both you and your students gauge problem areas and act on what’s most important.
viii
CULINARY MATH
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fm.indd 9 12/10/2015 4:27:05 PM
fm.indd 10 12/10/2015 4:27:05 PM
Math Basics
T
1
he understanding of numbers and how to correctly complete
basic mat h operat ions w it h all forms of numbers is t he
foundation of culinary math. Food costing, recipe size conversion,
recipe development, and cost control begin with the basic math concepts cov-
ered in this chapter. Errors in basic math calculations can become costly and
time-consuming. It is necessary for your success to master these skills before
tackling the math of the kitchen.
The primary goal of this chapter is to review basic math, including whole
numbers, fractions, and decimals. After completing the basic review, the chapter
covers percent and then word problems and their solutions. This chapter is designed
to be a resource that may be used as a reference for the subsequent chapters.
O BJECTI VES
• Identify the place value • Solve fraction a decimal or fraction to

of a whole number. problems. a percent.
• Identify the types of • Identify the first four • Round given numbers
fractions. place values to the right based on the situation.
of the decimal point.
• Convert a whole • Solve word problems
number to a fraction. • Solve decimal problems. for the part, whole, or
percent.
• Convert an improper • Convert fractions to
fraction to a mixed decimals and decimals
number. to fractions.
• Convert a mixed number • Convert a percent to a

to an improper fraction. decimal or fraction and
1
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WHOLE NUMBERS
Whole numbers are the counting numbers and 0. They are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on.
The following chart identifies the place value of whole numbers.
WHOLE NUMBERS
Trillions Billions Millions Thousands Units

hundreds
hundreds
hundreds
hundreds
hundreds
ones
ones
ones
ones
ones
tens
tens
tens
tens
tens
, , , ,
It is important to be familiar with place value when dealing with whole number
operations.
FRACTIONS
Fractions are numeric symbols of the relationship between the part and the whole. They
are composed of a numerator (the top number in a fraction) and a denominator (the
bottom number in a fraction). Fractions are frequently used in the kitchen. Measuring
cups, measuring spoons, and the volumes and weights of products ordered may be
expressed in fractional quantities. Most ingredients in the recipes or formulas found
in a kitchen or in a cookbook express quantities in fractional form. The fractions used
in the kitchen are, for the most part, the more common fractions: 18 , 1 4 , 13 , 12 , 23 , 34 .
A culinary recipe or formula would most likely never use a fraction such as 349 940 cup
of flour. However, when making calculations to increase or decrease a recipe’s yield,
you will be confronted with fractions that have to be converted to a measure that is
more realistic in the kitchen.
A fraction may be thought of as all of the following:
• A part of a whole number: 3 out of 5 slices of pie could be presented as 5. In

3
this example, 3 is the part and 5 is the whole.
• An expression of a relationship between two numbers:

3 The numerator , or top number
7 The denominator , or bottom number
3
• A division problem: The fraction 7 can also be written as the division problem
3 ÷ 7.
2
CULINARY MATH
c01.indd 2 12/10/2015 12:52:19 PM

TYPES OF FRACTIONS
A proper (common) fraction is a fraction in which the numerator is less than the denom-
inator. For example:
1 3
and
2 4
An improper fraction is a fraction with a numerator that is greater than or equal to the
denominator, such as:
28 140 28
, , and
7 70 28
A mixed number is a number that contains both a whole number and a fraction, such as:
3
4
8
A lowest-term fraction is the result of reducing a fraction so that the numerator and the
denominator have no other common factors beside 1. For example:
14 14 14 1
28 28 14 2
The fraction 14 28 is a proper fraction, but it is not in lowest terms. Both 14 and 28 share
the following factors: 2, 7, and 14. If you divide both 14 and 28 by the largest factor,
14, the result is 12, which is equivalent to 14 28 .
The result of reducing a fraction so that the numerator and the denominator
no longer have any common factors is a fraction expressed in its lowest terms, or
lowest-term fraction.
CONVERTING WHOLE NUMBERS TO FRACTIONS

To convert a whole number to a fraction, place the whole number over 1.
5
EXAM PLE 1. 1: 5
1
REM EM BER
CONVERTING IMPROPER FRACTIONS When dividing, the
TO MIXED NUMBERS numerator is the number
being divided.
To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, Numerator ÷ Denominator

divide the numerator by the denominator. The quotient
or
will be the whole number, and the remainder (if any) will
be placed over the denominator of the original improper Denominator Numerator
fraction to form the fractional part of the mixed number.
3
Chapter 1 MATH BASICS
c01.indd 3 12/10/2015 12:52:20 PM

EXAM PLE 1. 2:
Convert 235 to a mixed number.

4
23 3
5 23 4
5 5
20
3
EXAM PLE 1. 3:
Convert 239 43 to a mixed number.

5
239 24
43 239 5
43 43
215
24
CONVERTING MIXED NUMBERS TO IMPROPER FRACTIONS

STEPS TO CONVERTING MIXED NUMBERS TO IMPROPER FRACTIONS
STEP 1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator.
STEP 2. Add the result to the numerator.
STEP 3. Place the resulting number over the original denominator.
EXAM PLE 1. 4:
2
Convert 4 to an improper fraction.
3
2
STEP 1. Multiply 4 and 3. 4 4 × 3 = 12
3
2
STEP 2. Add 2 to the result. 4 12 + 2 = 14
3
STEP 3. Use 14 from step 2 as the numerator and 3 as the denominator.
14 2
4
3 3
Note that the denominator is the same in both the improper fraction and the mixed number.
4
CULINARY MATH
c01.indd 4 12/10/2015 12:52:21 PM

SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH FRACTIONS
ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
Fractions that are added to one another must have the same denominator, called the
common denominator.
EXAM PLE 1. 5:
1 2 3
7 7 7
7 is the common denominator.
EXAM PLE 1. 6:
1 5
Solve +
8 16
To solve this example, you must find a common denominator.
There are two ways to do this:
1. MULTIPLY THE TWO DENOMINATORS TOGETHER: To find the common denomi-

nator for 18 and 516, multiply the first denominator, 8, by the second denominator, 16:
(8 × 16) = 128. The numerator of each fraction must be multiplied by the same number
as the denominator was multiplied by, so that the value of the fraction remains the
same. In this example, multiply the 1 by 16 and multiply the 5 by 8. Thus:
1 1 16 16
8 8 16 128
5 5 8 40
16 16 8 128
16 40 56
128 128 128
This answer is not in lowest terms. In order to reduce it to lowest terms, divide the
numerator and the denominator by the greatest common factor. In this example, divide
56 and 128 by 8. The answer in lowest terms is 716.
2. DETERMINE IF ONE DENOMINATOR IS THE FACTOR OF THE OTHER: Especially in

recipes, it is not unusual for the denominator of one fraction to be evenly divisible
by the denominator in the other fraction. In the following example, 16 can be divided
5
c01.indd 5 12/10/2015 12:52:21 PM

by 8, so 8 can be used as the common denominator. This method can save time but will
work only when one of the denominators is a factor of the other:
1 5 (1 2) 5 2 5 7
+ = + = + =
8 16 (8 2) 16 16 16 16
You will notice in this approach that it is not necessary to reduce the answer. It is
already in lowest terms.
SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
Fractions that are subtracted from one another must also have a common denominator.
The same methods used for converting denominators to common denominators when
adding fractions can be used when subtracting fractions.
EXAM PLE 1. 7:
3 1 2 1
– = =
8 8 8 4
EXAM PLE 1. 8:
7 5 7 9 5 8 63 40 23
8 9 8 9 9 8 72 72 72
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
The process of multiplying fractions simply requires that the numerators be multiplied
together and the denominators be multiplied together; the results of the multiplied
numerators are placed over the results of the multiplied denominators.
Any mixed numbers must first be converted to improper fractions before multiplying
them.
Numerator Numerator NN
Denominator Denominator DD
EXAM PLE 1. 9:
4 3 12
7 5 35
6
CULINARY MATH
c01.indd 6 12/10/2015 12:52:22 PM

EXAM PLE 1. 10 :
1 1 1 3 1 1 3
1
2 5 7 2 5 7 70
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
To divide fractions, first convert any mixed numbers
to improper fractions. Next, invert the second fraction REM EM BER
(the divisor) by placing the denominator on top of the A common denominator
is not required when
numerator. Finally, change the division sign to a multi-
multiplying or dividing
plication sign and complete the equation as a multipli-
fractions.
cation problem.
EXAM PLE 1. 11:
3 2 3 5 3 3 9
1
4 3 4 3 4 5 20
EXAM PLE 1. 12:
7 3 7 4 28 1
9
1 4 1 3 3 3
DECIMALS
Decimals are another common style of number that is often found in the food-service
industry:
• Metric quantities are expressed in decimal form.
• Money is expressed in decimal form.
• Digital scales express weight in decimal form.
• Most calculators use decimal forms of numbers.
A decimal number is a number that uses a decimal point and place value to show values
less than 1. Like the fraction, a decimal is the representation of a part of the whole.
Decimals are expressed in powers of 10. A period (.), called a decimal point, is used to
indicate the decimal form of the number.
7
c01.indd 7 12/10/2015 12:52:22 PM

PLACE VALUES
The first four place values to the right of the decimal point are as follows:
DECIMAL PLACES
ten-thousandths
thousandths
hundredths
tenths
0 .
EXAM PLE 1. 13:
Convert the following fractions to decimal:
1
0.1
10
9
0.09
100
89
0.089
1, 000
321
0.0321
10, 000
A repeating or recurring decimal is the result of converting a fraction to a decimal that

repeats. If you convert 13 to a decimal, the result is 0.333333. . . (a repeating decimal in
which the 3 goes on infinitely). To record a repeating decimal, you can put a bar over
the first set of repeating digits.
SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH DECIMALS

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
The decimal points and place values must be aligned when adding and subtracting
decimal values. For instance, if you are adding 0.14 and 0.5, it is important to remember
that you can only add numbers of the same place value. So, you must add the 1 to the 5,
since they are both in the tenths place. The answer to this problem is 0.64, not 0.19.
8
CULINARY MATH
c01.indd 8 12/10/2015 12:52:23 PM

EXAM PLE 1. 14:
Solve the following decimal problems:
3.14 18.4 340.1 200.147 3.14

18.4
340.1
200.147
561.787
9.736 6.5 9.736
6.5
3.236
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS
When you are multiplying decimals, first, multiply as though they were whole num-
bers. Then mark off from right to left the same number of decimal places as found in
both the multiplier and the multiplicand (number multiplied) and place the point in
your answer (the product).
Multiplicand
Multiplier
Product
If, for example, you are multiplying 40.8 by 3.02, you would first do the multiplication
as if there were no decimal points 408 × 302 and then count how many decimal places,
or numbers to the right of the decimal point, there are. In this case, one number (8) is
to the right of the decimal point in 40.8, and two numbers (02) are to the right in 3.02.
This makes a total of three decimal places, so in the product we would insert the decimal
point so that there are three numbers to the right of the decimal point.
EXAM PLE 1. 15 :
40.8 3.02 40.8 1 decimal place

3.02 2 decimal places
816
12240
00
123.216 3 decimal places
DIVISION OF DECIMALS
As with multiplication, you are first going to divide decimals as you divide whole numbers:
Quotient
Divisor Dividend 9
c01.indd 9 12/10/2015 12:52:24 PM

There are five steps in dividing decimals:
STEP 1. Set up the division problem as you would if you were dividing whole
numbers.
STEP 2. Move the decimal point of the divisor to the right (if it is not already a
whole number) so that you have a whole number. This will eliminate a
decimal in the divisor.
STEP 3. Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places to the
right. If you need to move the decimal more places than there are digits,
add zeros to accommodate this move.
STEP 4. Place another decimal point right above the decimal’s new position in the
dividend. This places the decimal point in your answer (quotient).
STEP 5. Divide as though you are dividing whole numbers, disregarding the decimal
points. Be careful to keep the digits in the same place values lined up as
you divide. For the purposes of this text, dividing to the ten-thousandths
place is sufficient.
EXAM PLE 1. 16 :
Solve the following:
3.7
8.325 2.25 225 832.5
675
1575
1575
0
8
12 1.5 15 120
CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS AND

DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS
CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS
To convert a fraction to its equivalent decimal number, carry out the division to the
ten-thousandths place and truncate. Truncate means to cut off a number at a given
10
CULINARY MATH
c01.indd 10 12/10/2015 12:52:24 PM

decimal place without regard to rounding (e.g., 12.34567 truncated to the hundredths
place would be 12.34).
EXAM PLE 1. 17 :
Convert 12 to decimal form.
0.5
2 1.0
CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

To convert a decimal number to a fraction:
STEP 1. Read the number as a decimal using place value.
STEP 2. Write the number as a fraction.
STEP 3. Reduce to lowest terms.
EXAM PLE 1. 18 :
Convert 0.0075 to a fraction.
STEP 1. Seventy-five ten-thousandths
STEP 2.
75
10, 000
STEP 3.
75 3
10, 000 400
PERCENT
A percentage is a ratio of a number to 100. A ratio is a comparison of two numbers, or the
quotient of two numbers. A ratio can be expressed as a fraction, a division problem, or
an expression, such as 35, 3 ÷ 5, or 3 to 5. The term percent means “part of one hundred”;
the symbol for percent is %. Thus, 7 percent means 7 parts out of every 100. Like
fractions and decimals, percent is an expression of the relationship between part and
whole. If 34 percent of the customers in a restaurant favor nutritious entrées, a part
(34) of a whole number of customers (100) is being expressed. With percent, the whole
is always 100. In this example, all of the customers that enter the restaurant represent
100 percent.
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The use of percentage to express a rate is common practice in the food-service
industry. For example, food and beverage costs, labor costs, operating costs, fixed costs,
and profits are usually stated as a percent to establish standards of control. Additionally,
in a kitchen or bakeshop, percent is used to find yield percent and bakers’ percent,
which will be covered in later chapters.
To indicate that a number is a percent, the number must be accompanied by the
word percent or a percent sign (%).
CONVERTING DECIMAL TO PERCENT

To convert a decimal to a percent, multiply the number by 100 and add a percent sign.
EXAM PLE 1. 19 :
0.25 0.25 100 25%
A shortcut would be to simply move the decimal point two places to the right and add
a percent sign.
CONVERTING PERCENT TO DECIMAL

To convert a percent to its decimal form, divide by 100 and drop the percent sign.
EXAM PLE 1. 20 :
30
30% 0.30
100
A shortcut would be simply to move the decimal point two places to the left and drop
the percent sign.
If there is a fraction in the percent, first change that fraction to a decimal.
EXAM PLE 1. 21 :
1
Convert this percent to a decimal: 37 %
4
1
37 % 37.25%
4
37.25% converts to 0.3725
12
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PERCENT TO DECIMAL AND PERCENT TO FRACTION FLOWCHART
Start here with a

% PERCENT %
Is there a Fraction
in the Percent %?
No Yes
Divide % by 100 Change the Fraction

(Hint: move the decimal pt. to a Decimal!
2 places to the left.) (Note: This is still a Percent.)
←
You now have a

Decimal Number
(This number is no longer
in percent form!)
To change this number to a

You now have a
Fraction:
Fraction or Mixed Number
1) Read it (using place value) (This number is not in
2) Write it (as a fraction) percent form.)
3) Reduce it
PERCENTS IN THE KITCHEN

In the kitchen it is often necessary for the chef to work
with percentages. Chefs may use percentages to calculate REMEMBER
and apply a yield percent or food cost percent. In these Any time you use
percentages on a
cases, it is helpful to remember the following formulas.
mathematical operation—
Part on a calculator, with a
PERCENT =
Whole pencil and paper,
or in your head—you must
PART = Whole × Percent
first convert the percent to
Part its decimal form.
WHOLE =
Percent
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Hints for using formulas involving percentages:
• The number or word that follows the word of is usually the whole number
and the word is usually is connected to the part. What is 20 percent of 70? In
this example, of 70 implies that 70 is the whole; 20 is the percent. The what is
implies that the part is the unknown and what you are solving for.
• The percentage will always be identified with either the symbol % or the word
percent.
• The part will usually be less than the whole.
• Before trying to solve the problem, identify the part, whole, and percent and
which you need to solve for.
THE PERCENT TRIANGLE

The following triangle is a tool used to find part, whole, or percent. Rather than mem-
orizing the three separate formulas provided in the preceding section, many students
find the following triangle helpful and easy to remember.
STEPS FOR USING THE PERCENT TRIANGLE
STEP 1. Determine what you are looking for—

part, whole, or percent.
STEP 2. To find the part

Cover the P for part. P
W and % are side by side. This directs you
to multiply the whole by the percent. (Re-
member first to change the percent to a W %
decimal by dividing by 100.)
The Percent Triangle
To find the whole
Cover the W for whole.
P is over %. This directs you to divide the part by the percent. (Remember
first to change the percent to a decimal by dividing by 100.)
To find the percent

Cover the % for percent.
P is over W. This directs you to divide the part by the whole and multiply
the answer by 100 to convert it to the percent.
ROUNDING
Rounding is an important basic math skill. In the world of mathematics, rounding is
predominantly a numeric concept (5 or more rounds up and 4 or less rounds down).
Many basic math textbooks contain exercises that have the students practice rounding to
14 a specific place value. In the applied math needed in the food-service industry, however,
CULINARY MATH
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it is far more important to consider the situation before rounding. When dealing with
money, for example, it is important to round to the cent or the hundredths place.
Determining to round up or down is clearly dependent on the situation. Whether you
choose to round up or down can affect the outcome dramatically. In the food-service
industry, the number you rounded may be multiplied by a very large number. If you
have rounded incorrectly, the answer could result in a large loss of income, several
people going hungry at a party you are catering, or not having enough of a particular
ingredient. Rounding will be covered more specifically in the chapters to follow.
SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS

Word problems are good practice for applied math because they use real-life situa-
tions. Following is a list of steps designed to break down the process of solving word
problems into manageable pieces.
STEPS TO SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS
STEP 1. Determine what is being solved for.
STEP 2. Decide what must be done to get the answer.
STEP 3. Perform the necessary calculations.
STEP 4. Find out if the question has been answered by the calculations.
STEP 5. Decide whether the answer is reasonable.
In culinary math, step 5 takes on a whole new meaning because it is related to real
situations dealing with food. For instance, a problem could ask how many apple pies
should be made for dinner if 40 percent of your customers usually order a slice of apple
pie. Each pie is cut into 8 slices, and you are expecting 240 customers this evening. After
you complete the calculations, your answer indicates that you need 240 pies. At this
point, you should ask yourself if this answer makes sense given the other information
you have. If you are expecting 240 customers, this would mean that the number you
arrived at allows for one pie per person; clearly something is wrong with the calcu-
lations. When this occurs, you should go over your work to find where the error was
made. Your ability to find errors will indicate a clear understanding of the concept and
facilitate your learning. If you pay close attention to making sure your answer makes
sense, it is clear to see that the correct answer is 12 pies.
EXAM PLE 1. 22 :
Donna, the restaurant manager, is planning a dinner that her restaurant is catering. She
knows that they will be serving 300 guests. Donna predicts that 40% of the guests will order
the beef entrée. How many orders of the beef entrée should Donna have the kitchen prepare?

In this problem, you are being asked to find the number of beef entrées to prepare.
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You know the total number of guests, which represents the whole, and you know the
percentage of guests that will be ordering beef. Therefore, you must be looking for the
part. Using the triangle, if you cover up the P for part, the formula that you should use
is Whole × Percent (in decimal form).

300 × 0.4 = 120 beef entrées
STEP 4. Find out if the question has been answered by the calculation.
The question asked for how many beef entrées you should prepare. The calculations show
that 120 beef entrées is 40% of 300. The problem is solved.

The answer of 120 beef entrées is reasonable because if we estimate 50%, or half, of the guests,
it would be 150 entrées. We were looking for only 40%, so 120 beef entrées is reasonable.
EXAM PLE 1. 23 :
You purchased a used convection oven for $410. As a result of paying in cash, you got
a 15% discount from the asking price. What was the original price?
In this problem, you are being asked to find the original price of the convection oven.
You are given the price you paid after a 15% discount. The asking price is the whole.
So, using the percent triangle we determine, by covering up the whole, that the formula
is Part ÷ Percent (in decimal form). However, we cannot say that $410 represents 15%
of the asking price. We need a part and a percent that are related. If the discount is
15% of the asking price, then the $410 must represent 85% of the asking price. Now
you have a related part and percent.
$410 ÷ 0.85 = $482.3529, or $482.35
STEP 4. Find out if the question has been answered by the calculation.
The question asked for the asking price of the convection oven. We determined that
$410 is 85% of $482.35—the asking price.

16 The answer of $482.35 is greater than $410 by a reasonable amount.
CULINARY MATH
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Basic math is the foundation for all of the math covered in this text. Understanding the
concepts covered is the key to your success in culinary math. As you complete the work
in this chapter, make sure that you have a good handle on these concepts. You should
refer back to this chapter as you progress through the book, if needed.
CHAPTER PRACTICE
Answers to odd-numbered questions may be found on page 218.
Calculate the following. Reduce your answer to lowest terms.
1. 1 1 2. 1 1
+ = + =
2 8 6 5
1 1 2 3
3. 6 + = 4. + =
6 4 3 4
1 2 2 _1
5. 10 + + = 6. =
9 3 10 6
1_1 3 2
7. = 8. 7 _ =
2 8 8 24
5 2 4
9. × = 10. 15 × =
6 3 5
3 3 1 1
11. 1 ×4 = 12. ÷ =
4 8 2 4
1 7 1
13. ÷ = 14. 1 ÷6=
4 8 2
3 7
15. 1 ÷6 =
8 10
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Complete the following chart by deciding if the answer is reasonable.
Unreasonable Answer Should

Question Answer Because Be Approximately
16. What is your salary

per month for your $32.41
full-time job?
17. You have 3 pints of

strawberries. Each
cake requires 1 12 6 cakes
pints. How many
cakes can you make?
18. You have 20

pounds of dough.
Each loaf requires
3 2 loaves
4 pound of dough.
How many loaves

can you make?
19. How much do you pay

$32.41
in rent each month?
20. How many

customers did you 3.02
serve last night?
21. What is the check

average in your $0.29
restaurant?
22. How many total

hours did the
168 hours
dishwasher work
this week?
Convert the following fractions into their decimal equivalent.
1
EXAMPLE: = 0.5
2
23. 3 24. 3 25. 9

= = =
2 8 18
26. 5 27. 2 28. 7

= = =
16 5 8
29. 6 30. 3 31. 26

= = =
24 48 5
66 440 4,400
32. = 33. = 34. =
18 10 100 1,000
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Solve the following. If your answer has more than four decimal places, drop all digits
past four places (truncate). Do not round the answer.
35. 3.6024 +18.32 + 51.05 + 2.5 =
36. 0.0365 + 0.001+ 0.999 =
37. 9.765 − 4.0631=
38. 1.26345 − 0.99 =
39. 78 ÷ 0.0347=
40. How many times can 95 be divided by 4.75?
41. 3.25 ÷ 12 =
42. 032 × 1.1 =
43. 0.065 × 2.001=
1
44. 42 × 2 % =
2
Find the decimal equivalent for the following:
1
45. 150% 46. 9.99% 47. %
4
48. 100% 49. 0.5% 50. 25%
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Change these numbers to percentages.
51. 0.0125 52. 9.99 53 . 0.00001
2 1
54. 55. 1
5 8
Complete the following table. If your answer has more than four decimal places, drop
all digits past four places (truncate). Do not round or reduce the answer.
Decimal Fraction Percent

5
56.
6
57. 0.009
3
58. 7 %
4
59. 1.23
60. 0.45%
7
61.
8
For the following table, the given situations present a number that is a result of math-
ematical calculations. However, these numbers do not necessarily make sense in a
kitchen. Determine if the situation requires the number to be rounded up or down,
and give an explanation.
Circle the Correct

The Situation Rounded Answer Explanation
62. A case of zucchini will serve 76 or 77 servings

76.8 people. How many
people can you serve?
63. A magnum of wine will 12 or 13 servings

fill 12.675 glasses with 4
ounces of wine. How many
glasses will you be able to
sell from this bottle?
20
CULINARY MATH
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Circle the Correct
The Situation Rounded Answer Explanation
64. You need 6.4 pounds of 6 or 7 pounds

onions for a recipe. How
many pounds should you
purchase?
65. You have calculated a $12.27 or $12.28

selling price of $12.2704
for the special of the day.
How much should you
charge for this special?
66. 6 8 . 6 5 % of a mango is 68% or 69%

usable. What percent can
you use?
67. 1 3 . 3 7 4 pies will be 13 or 14 pies

necessary to serve the
guests at a party you are
catering. How many pies
should you bake?
68. 1 12 teaspoons of cumin $0.04 or $0.05

costs $0.0439. How much
does the cumin cost?
1
69. 5 watermelons are
4 5 or 6 watermelons
needed to make fruit
salad. How many
watermelons should you
order for this fruit salad?
Solve each of the following word problems. Show your work. For percent answers,
round to the nearest tenth percent. Any partial pennies, round up.
70. A restaurant purchases 80 pounds of sweet potatoes. Twenty-five percent of the

potatoes are peels. How many pounds of sweet potatoes are peels?
71. If you order 300 lobster tails and you use 32 percent, how many do you have left?
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72. You made 400 rolls, which is 40 percent of what you have to make. What is the
total number of rolls you have to make?
73. You have 60 percent of a bottle of raspberry syrup remaining. If 10 fluid ounces
were used, how many fluid ounces did the bottle originally hold?
74. Out of 250 cakes, you use 34 percent for a party. How many cakes are left over?
75. What percent discount would you have gotten if the actual price of an item was
$16.95 and you paid $15.96?
76. Annual recycling costs are $7,000. Annual sales amount to $1,185,857. What
percent of sales does recycling cost represent?
77. Last night you served 30 guests Shrimp Scampi. This represents 15% of all of the
entrées you served. How many entrées did you serve?
78. If a caterer receives an order for 2,800 canapés at $0.06 each and he requires
30 percent down how much will the client owe after the deposit is paid?
79. You paid $508 for a new piece of equipment after a 9 percent discount. What was
the original price? Round your answer to the nearest cent.
80. By 10:00 a.m. only 3 cups remain in a coffee urn. Eighty-five percent of the coffee
has been consumed. How many cups of coffee does the urn hold?
81. You are serving 3 different entrées at a party you are catering. If 100 guests are
having Beef Wellington, 175 guests are having Pasta Primavera, and 45 percent of the
guests are having Coq Au Vin. How many guests are expected at this party?
22
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82. A case of apples you received has 12 rotten apples in it. If this represents 25 percent
of the entire case, how many apples were in the case?
83. Mr. Willis purchased $150.00 worth of spices and herbs. Because this was such a
large order, the supplier charged Mr. Willis only $132.00. What percent discount did
Mr. Willis receive?
84. Talia usually charges $0.95 per piece for mini appetizers. For a large party she
charges her customers $780 for one thousand mini appetizers. What percent discount
was Talia offering?
85. You are catering a dinner party for 25 guests. Each guest will be served a ramekin
of chocolate mousse. If only 18 guests show up, what percent of the mousse will be
left over?
86. There are 47 people working in your café. Twenty-nine employees are part time.
What percent of your employees are full time? Round your answer to the nearest tenth
of a percent.
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Customary Units
of Measure
W
hen you work in a kitchen, it is necessary to know the units
of measure and the relationship between the units. Many
of the measuring devices found in a kitchen may not have mark-
ings on them, and you will need to know the relative size of measuring contain-
ers to be able to distinguish one from another. For instance, if a recipe calls for
1 quart of chicken stock, you need to be able to select the correct measuring
container.
Imagine that you are working in a U.S. kitchen that is “in the weeds”
(running behind in production) for lunch. You are preparing cream of broccoli
soup and need 3 quarts of chicken stock. The only measuring container available
is a 1-gallon container. You are aware that there are 4 quarts in 1 gallon and,
therefore, 34 of the container will equal 3 quarts. If you did not know this, you
would have to take the additional time to look for a quart container and fill the
quart measure three times. Knowing the units of measure will allow you to solve
these problems. As a professional in the food-service industry, you will need to
be very familiar with many different units of measure.
Accurate measuring in the kitchen results in consistency, better control
of food costs, and accuracy in production. Proper measurement improves food
quality, labor utilization, and use of trim. For example, imagine that a recipe calls
for 1
8 ounce of saffron (a very expensive spice). However, instead of weighing
24
c02.indd 24 12/9/2015 10:53:07 AM

the product, the cook just uses a small handful. If the cook has used too much
saffron, the cost is greater than it would have been if the proper amount had
been measured. Additionally, the taste of the final product will be altered by
the carelessness.
O BJECTI VES
• List the names and • Define count as used • Define a fluid ounce,
abbreviations of the in the food-service explaining how it dif-
units of measure industry. fers from an ounce.
most commonly used • Recall the equivalents • Recall the equivalents
in the food-service of volume measures of weight measures
industry. without references. without references.
MEASURING EQUIPMENT
As shown here, the following pieces of measuring equipment are used most often in a
professional kitchen in the United States.
Nested measuring cups are used for dry ingredients. The common sizes are 1 cup,
2 cup, 3 cup, and 4 cup. Measuring cups are widely used to define the quantity of
1 1 1
ingredients in recipes; however, measurement by weight is more accurate. For instance,

if two cooks were measuring 12 cup of brown sugar, the amount they put in their recipe
might be different depending on how tightly the brown sugar is packed in the cup.
If, on the other hand, both chefs
were weighing the brown sugar,
there would be no discrepancy.
Graduated measuring cups
may be made of plastic or alu-
minum and are usually used for
measuring liquids. The common
sizes are 1 cup, 1 pint, 1 quart,
and 1 gallon.
Measuring spoons are used for
dry and liquid ingredients. The
common sizes are 1 tablespoon,
Measuring cups, from left to right: metal graduated
1 teaspoon, 12 teaspoon, and measure, nested measuring cups, plastic graduated
4 teaspoon.
1
measure.
25
Chapter 2 CUSTOMARY UNITS OF MEASURE
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PROPER MEASURING TECHNIQUES
Measurement in the professional kitchen or bakeshop is critical to preparing a recipe
accurately. In order to keep costs in line and ensure consistency of quality and quan-
tity, ingredients and portion sizes must be measured correctly each time a recipe is
made. There are procedures for using specific measuring devices that ensure ingredi-
ents are measured properly and with consistency.
PROCEDURE FOR USING VOLUME MEASURES
Volume is the space filled by a liquid, gas, or solid. Volume-measuring devices must be
filled correctly to give an accurate measure. For liquids, use graduated liquid measur-
ing cups or pitchers and fill to the desired level. The measuring utensil must be sitting
on a level, stable surface for an accurate measurement. The mark on the measuring
device should be at eye level.
For dry volume measure, it is important that all ingredients be in the form called
for in the recipe before measuring (i.e., ground, diced, chopped). Use nested mea-
suring tools for dry ingredients measured by volume. Overfill the measure, and then
scrape away the excess as you level off the measure. Never pack down or tamp the
ingredients unless the recipe specifically instructs you to do so.
Scoops, also known as dishers, are used primarily for measuring portion sizes of
solid products such as cookie dough, ice cream, stuffing, cooked rice, and the like.
When using scoops to measure, be careful to fill them completely and level them off
so that each portion is correct.
USING WEIGHT MEASURE
Weight is a measurement of the heaviness of a substance. In professional kitchens, weight

is usually the preferred type of measurement because it is easier to attain accuracy with
weight than it is with volume. The tool used for measuring weight is a scale. There are
different types of scales: digital scales, spring scales, and balance-beam scales. To ensure
correct measuring, all scales must be on a level surface and kept clean and free of debris.
If you use a container or parchment to hold ingredients as they are weighed out,
place the empty container or parchment on the scale and reset it to zero (known as to
tare). Digital scales have a tare button that resets the scale to zero. A spring scale will
have a knob or dial to turn that will rotate the numbers or move the marker; in either
case, the marker and zero are in alignment when the scale has been properly tared.
When using a balance-beam scale, place the container that is to hold the ingredient on
the left-hand side of the sale. To zero out (tare) the scale, place an identical container,
or an item that is the same weight as the container, on the right-hand side of the scale,
and move the weight on the front of the scale to the right until the scale is balanced. To
weigh ingredients on spring scales or digital scales, fill the container slowly until the
desired weight shows on the readout or dial. To weigh ingredients on a balance-beam
scale, adjust the weight on the front of the scale by moving it to the right the amount of
notches that equals the weight to be measured, or place weights that equal the amount
to be weighed on the right-hand side of the scale. Add the substance to be measured
to the left-hand side of the scale until the scale is balanced.
26
CULINARY MATH
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Ladles are used for measur-
ing liquid. The common sizes
include 2 fluid ounces, 4 fluid
ounces, and 8 fluid ounces.
Portion scoops come in a wide
variety of sizes and are used to
regulate single portions of finished
food rather than ingredients. The
scoops are numbered, and each
number corresponds to the num-
ber of scoops it would take to make
a quart. For instance, a number 30
Portion instruments, from left to right: portion scoops, scoop means that there would be
measuring spoons, ladles. 30 scoops needed to make a quart.
This photograph shows a number
10 scoop, which holds 3.2 f luid
ounces, a number 16 scoop, which
holds 2 fluid ounces, and a number
30 scoop, which holds 1.06 fluid
ounces.
The most common scales
to measure weight in a kitchen
are the digital (electronic) scale,
the balance-beam scale, and the
spring-loaded scale.
Scales, from left to right: spring scale, digital scale,
balance-beam scale.
COMMON FOOD-SERVICE MEASURES AND ABBREVIATIONS
Common Term Abbreviation

teaspoon t, tsp
tablespoon T, tbsp
cup C, c
pint pt
quart qt
gallon G, gal
fluid ounce fl oz
ounce oz
pound lb, #
each ea
bunch bu
to taste tt
27
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COUNT
HINT
When using or reading
volume measurement
Count, in the culinary world, is used to determine the
abbreviations, it is easy number of a particular ingredient used in a recipe. For
to confuse a capital instance, a recipe may call for 3 strawberries, 1 pine-
T (tablespoon) and a apple, 2 medium onions, or 1 loaf of bread. Count is
lowercase t (teaspoon). often a convenient measurement because the ingredi-
To avoid mistakes, ent is used in the recipe in the same unit in which it is
pay attention to this purchased.
difference.
VOLUME
Volume measurement, as it applies to the kitchen, generally refers to the common mea-
suring tools used in the United States, such as cups, teaspoons, and quarts. These tools
are used to define the space that is filled with the products being measured. Volume
measures are related to each other in a very specific way. For example, 1 cup of a sub-
stance is always equal to 16 tablespoons of the same substance, just as 1 tablespoon
of a substance is always equal to 3 teaspoons of the same substance (see the following
figures showing several volume measure equivalents using a liquid ingredient). Volume
is a preferred method of measure for specific measuring situations. For example, small
quantities of both liquid and dry ingredients are easy to measure using measuring
spoons. Larger quantities of liquids are measured with volume measuring tools such
as pints, quarts, and gallons. The fluid ounce is also a unit of volume measure. Many
products are purchased in volume measure, such as a case of apples, a flat of raspberries,
a bushel of crabs, a gallon of milk, and a pint of cream.
16 tablespoons is equivalent to 1 cup.

28
CULINARY MATH
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2 cups is equivalent to 1 pint.
2 pints is equivalent to 1 quart.
4 quarts is equivalent to 1 gallon.
The following chart shows units of volume measures and their equivalents. These
equivalents are always the same, regardless of what substance is being measured.
U.S. STANDARD VOLUME EQUIVALENTS
Volume Measures Volume Equivalents

1 tablespoon 3 teaspoons
1 cup 16 tablespoons
1 pint 2 cups
1 quart 2 pints
1 gallon 4 quarts
29
c02.indd 29 12/9/2015 10:53:31 AM

BUSHELS AND PECKS
Bushels and pecks are volume
measures (for nonliquid products)
occasionally used in the food-
service industry. For instance,
during a visit to your local farmer’s
market you might find bushels of
apples or pecks of peaches. Or,
if you are on Maryland’s Eastern
Shore, you might buy a bushel
of crabs. A bushel is the largest Bushel baskets at a farm stand.
volume measure used in the food

industry. There are 4 pecks in a
bushel and 2 gallons in a peck.
VOLUME OF PORTION SCOOPS

When the food is ready to be served, portion scoops are often used to make the amount
portioned on a plate consistent. Portion scoops are numbered. Each number relates to
the number of scoops that are in 32 fluid ounces, or 1 quart. The following table gives
the standard portion scoop numbers and their equivalents in fluid ounces.
SCOOP EQUIVALENTS
Scoop Number Fluid Ounces in One Scoop

4 8
5 6.4
6 5.33
8 4
10 3.2
12 2.66
16 2
20 1.6
24 1.33
30 1.06
40 0.8
60 0.53
FLUID OUNCES
Some recipes list quantities of ingredients by the fluid ounce, and many ingredients are
purchased and packaged by the fluid ounce. Fluid ounces refer to volume, not weight.
30
CULINARY MATH
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The following chart lists the volume equivalents for fluid ounces. It is important to
be familiar with these equivalents.
ADDITIONAL VOLUME EQUIVALENTS
Volume Measure Equivalent in Fluid Ounces

1
1 tablespoon 2fluid ounce
1 cup 8 fluid ounces
1 pint 16 fluid ounces
1 quart 32 fluid ounces
1 gallon 128 fluid ounces
In this book, fluid ounces are labeled differently than weight ounces. This is not
necessarily the case in the real world. Unfortunately, many measuring tools, packages,
and recipes use these two very different measures interchangeably. Be aware of this,
and use common sense to prevent culinary disasters.
WEIGHT
In contrast to volume, weight is how heavy a substance is. Weight is determined by
using a scale. In kitchens in the United States, there are two units of measure most
commonly used to express weight: pounds and ounces. You might occasionally come
across another unit of weight, the ton, which is 2,000 pounds. As mentioned previously,
weight measure is the most accurate way to ensure that the quantity is correct and
consistent. Unfortunately, most recipes tend to rely on volume measures.
WEIGHT EQUIVALENT
1 pound = 16 ounces
THE OUNCE CONFUSION

Many people believe that 1 cup of any ingredient always weighs 8 ounces, no matter
what is in the cup. In truth, only 1 cup (8 fluid ounces) of water or water-like liquids
(liquids that have the same density as water) will assuredly weigh 8 ounces. If something
other than water or a water-like liquid is measured in a cup, it will still equal 8 fluid
ounces, but it will not necessarily weigh 8 ounces.
This confusion comes from not distinguishing the term ounce from the term fluid
ounce. An ounce is something that you weigh, and a fluid ounce is a volume measure.
The measurement for 1 fluid ounce is derived from the amount of space needed to
hold a quantity of water weighing 1 ounce. Fluid ounces and ounces are the same only
when the ingredient being measured has the same density as water.
Some examples of water-like liquids include alcohol, juices, vinegar, and oil (actu-
ally, oil is lighter than water, but the difference is so small that it is ignored in culinary
31
c02.indd 31 12/9/2015 10:53:33 AM

Many people mistakenly use a volume measures to measure ingredients in ounces by weight. Cups
measure in fluid ounces. If a 4-fluid-ounce cup (equivalent to 12 cup) were used to measure flour,
1
the quantity in the ladle would weigh only about 2 2 ounces for this type of flour (see figure above).
applications). In instances such as these, the terms fluid ounce and ounce may be used
interchangeably. By contrast, when a recipe calls for a liquid such as honey, corn syrup,
molasses, maple syrup, or heavy cream, you must pay close attention to the type of
measure called for. One cup or 8 fluid ounces of any of these substances will not weigh
8 ounces (for example, 8 fluid ounces of honey weighs 12 ounces), and results will vary
significantly if the terms are used interchangeably.
CHAPTER REVIEW
To work efficiently in a kitchen and prepare food products successfully, it is necessary
to learn units of measure and their equivalents. The measurements discussed in this
chapter are currently used in the majority of commercial kitchens in the United States.
If you are planning to go anywhere else in the world to cook, you will also need to
know the metric system (see Chapter 3).
Weight is generally the more accurate unit of measure. There is a difference
between fluid ounces, a unit of volume, and ounces, a unit of weight. Many manu-
facturers, when printing the measurements on measuring devices, will omit fl (the
32
CULINARY MATH
c02.indd 32 12/10/2015 6:26:53 PM

abbreviation for fluid) before the word ounce on an item clearly designed to measure
fluid ounces. The culinary professional should use common sense and be alert.
STUDY AIDS
TIPS TO HELP YOU MEMORIZE THE EQUIVALENTS
1. Make flash cards using index cards or small pieces of paper and the table below to
assist you. There will be more study cards added in Chapter 3.
MEASUREMENT STUDY CARDS
Front of the Card Back of the Card

1 tbsp = tsp 1 tbsp = 3 tsp
1 cup = tbsp 1 cup = 16 tbsp
1 cup = tsp 1 cup = 48 tsp
1 pt = cups 1 pt = 2 cups
1 gal = qt 1 gal = 4 qt
1 gal = pt 1 gal = 8 pt
1 gal = cups 1 gal = 16 cups
1 cup of water = fl oz 1 cup of water = 8 fl oz
1 quart of water = fl oz 1 quart of water = 32 fl oz
1 gal of water = fl oz 1 gal of water = 128 fl oz
1
1 tbsp of water = fl oz 1 tbsp of water = 2 fl oz
1 pound = oz 1 pound = 16 oz
2. Practice using the flash cards until you know the measurements and their
equivalents quickly and without error. One way to do this is to make two piles: the
ones you know and the ones that you do not know. Practice until all the cards are in
the pile of the ones you know.
3. Study in groups. Using the flash cards, flip a card down onto the table. Who-
ever says the equivalent first keeps the card. Quiz each other with the cards you have
in your hand, because those will be the cards your studymates don’t know as well as
you do.
4. If you have access to an equipment storage room, become familiar with the
measuring containers. Take out all of the measuring containers you can find. Fill
the largest container with water and see how many times you can fill the smaller
containers. You may also want to weigh a container filled with various ingredients on
the scale. (Many people are visual learners and find it helpful to see the relationships
between these measures.)
5. Use study aids such as those shown in the following figures.
33
c02.indd 33 12/9/2015 10:53:38 AM

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leaders demanded of Andros that he surrender both his office and
himself. The man refused and fled to his stronghold, whence he
defied the patriots and continued to the last to declare his power,
though like water now fast escaping from his grasp.
Surrounding their ex-master they made him a prisoner, not a
refugee, and at length he gave in and was captured and sent to
confinement, along with the others of his recent government.
With an instinct for conventions, the citizens were soon
assembled. Howsoever great had been their heat in their moment of
rebellion and triumph, they were calm enough to be wise when the
time arrived to declare for themselves. They reinstated Bradstreet
and the Council of ’86. They declared the old Government in force
and their former charter ipso facto restored, unimpaired by the
interim of nearly three years of maladministration.
William and Mary received the report of all these swiftly terminated
proceedings with a favor which was not unblended with
astonishment. Admiring the Protestant spirit, which it had become
their own special province to uphold, they lost no time in confirming
the entire course of actions, even to the temporary resumption of
their old charter privileges and powers, by the patriots across the
sea. And there, for a time, they were contented to permit the matter
to rest. The affairs of England they had found so completely
engrossing that they had no time to spare toward regranting a
specific charter to Massachusetts.
Increase Mather, suspicions of privileges and liberties not
absolutely signed, sealed and delivered, remained at his post,
working continuously and sedulously to obtain that monarchical
support and confirmation of the colony’s prerogatives which his
many compatriots had sent him to secure.
Sir William Phipps, on the other hand, realized the busy state of
mind in which William and Mary had been so abruptly plunged, and
he therefore deferred further work with Mather for a time more
suitable. Then, when he learned that the French Catholics in
America had formed alliances with the Indians and were already
overrunning the Protestant territory and committing daily
depredations, he made up his mind once more to return to the field
of action, in which he might be able to render more effective service
than he could by remaining in England.
He arrived in the summer of that fateful year, ’89, and offered
himself to Bradstreet at once. The period of warfare in which he
thereupon engaged was one of great length and of much bitterness.
Alternating defeat and victory left the advantages with the French
and Indians, so far as hopes of ultimate success were concerned.
The colonists had to make such long, tedious marches that decisive
victories for their arms were almost impossible. The enemy gained in
confidence, audacity and numbers.
In despair the General Court finally offered two sloops of war, free,
together with all the profits of plunder which might result from the
enterprise, to any man who would undertake to reduce to ashes
Penobscot, St. John’s and Port Royal, the seats of the French and
Indian power. The offer attracted Phipps, who foresaw, in the
execution of the task, an infinite amount of adventure and action.
He enlisted men for the undertaking. Yet matters grew worse with
such alarming rapidity that before the enterprise could be placed in
readiness for work, it became necessary to raise a small fleet of
vessels prepared for war-like operations. Thus seven sloops and
seven hundred men, under command of Sir William, sailed away to
the North on their sinister errand.
Port Royal, secure and arrogant, in her fancied isolation from
attack, was surprised and taken. The French were routed with great
loss. The town was looted until hardly so much as a sauce-pan was
left by the thorough-going warriors of New England. The plunder,
while not enormously valuable, nevertheless was sufficient to help
materially in meeting the expenses of the venture. But its indirect
effect on the colonists was not so happy. Cupidity is so often the
jackal that follows righteous indignation.
The Puritans foresaw opportunities to punish the enemy, at the
enemy’s own expense. A second expedition, to go against Quebec,
was planned, the patriots expecting in confidence that, like the first, it
would surely succeed, if Phipps were at its head, and that the
plunder would more than repay the initial expenses of the expedition.
Sir William, having expressed his doubts of the wisdom of this
over-ambitious scheme, nevertheless commanded the fleet once
more as it sailed away, eager for further conquest.
The enterprise was doomed to failure from the first. It dragged out
interminably, it developed jealousies, it was ill-planned. Such a
bedraggled, failure-smitten lot of lame-duck sloops returned to
Boston that the council were simply appalled. They had expended so
much of their meager hoard of funds on the venture, that the
treasury was practically bankrupted.
Blame rained upon the head of Phipps, for not having succeeded
against impossible conditions. Driven to extremities, by the woeful
lack of plunder, the colony-fathers were obliged, for the first time in
their history, to issue paper currency. The notes ranged in value from
denominations of two shillings up to ten pounds.
Still an undimmed patriot, ready to serve his country in whatsoever
direction an opportunity was afforded, Williams Phipps gave his gold
for the colony’s bills, absorbing thus a very considerable sum. His
example induced investments in the paper from all directions.
Nevertheless the currency soon came tumbling down in value, till a
pound in paper was worth less than three-fourths of its face.
The sailors, and other working people, lost heavily, in these times
of trouble and weakened confidence. Yet eventually the money was
all redeemed at par by the Massachusetts government.
Sir William, weary of being reviled for his pains, returned to
England once again and resumed his labors with Increase Mather, to
secure to the colony a definite charter.
CHAPTER V.
OLD ACQUAINTANCES.
Adam Rust failed, even in the intricacies of collecting violins and

the pursuit of health for the old beef-eaters, to find the depths of
forgetfulness she sought, but which could not come to a nature such
as his had always been. Indeed seclusion, away from the gaiety of
Court and his fellow-beings seemed rather to develop the old, half-
forgotten memories in his brain, whereon had once been shadowed
the sufferings of King Philip, his Indian foster-father, and all his race
of hunted people.
The beef-eaters, also, were not absolutely contented, away from
their own country and the haunts wherein they were wont to brag, to
drink and to swagger. Yielding at last to their importunities, Adam
returned with the pair to London.
Once in the foggy capital again, he was soon pounced upon, by
old associates, with whom he found it exhilarating once again to
consort. A treatise on rare violins and their makers, over which he
had labored and pondered for months, or even years, was now
neglected.
He sharpened his wits, had a look at his sword and brightened up
his disused tinsel of conversation. He soon began to believe the
greatest forgetfulness, after all, is where the Babel of tongues is
loudest, and that the most absolute solitude is to be found in the
midst of the largest throng.
The social functions of the new King were fewer, less brilliant and
not to be compared, in point of popularity, with those of James. The
Dukes, the Marchionesses and lesser lights were therefore
constrained to make the more of their private parties. There was, in
consequence, no stint of hunting, drinking and dancing—all as
condiments poured about the omniprevalent piece de resistance—
making love.
At the Duchess of Kindlen’s, Adam found the set he had known
particularly well. He was welcomed back to their circle as a long-lost
fixture without whose presence no one was at all able to explain how
they had managed to go on existing. They fitted him back in his
niche with a promptness which might have been flattering, had he
not been aware that they wished merely to feed upon him as a new
entertainer, or an old one refurbished.
He was not surprised to learn that Lady Violet had been married in
his absence. He was duly informed of this event, which he described
as an irreparable calamity in his life, by Lady Margaret, who was
more of a brilliant blossom of feminine charm and enticements than
even before.
“But you, my dear Lady Margaret,” he said, “you have been true to
my memory? You have never learned to love another?”
“I never learned to love you, Adam,” she said.
“Then it must have been a matter of spontaneous combustion,” he
concluded. “You always did manage your compliments adroitly.”
“Confirmed villain,” she answered, “a woman would be mad who
loved such a bubble of flattering reflections as you have always
been.”
“I was not accusing you of sanity,” he told her frankly. “I was
merely inquiring whether or not you have learned to love somebody
else, in my absence.”
“And if I had, what then?”
“I should wish to pause for reflection, before determining whether I
should be more sorry for the other fellow or for myself.”
“Fiend!” she said, mildly, “you shall never know.”
“Know what?—know where to place my sympathy?”
“You shall never know whether I have learned to love another, or
not.”
“Well, neither will you—that one’s consolation.”
“But at least I shall know how I feel toward you, Adam Rust.”
“So shall I,” said the cheerful Adam. “I have always known. If you
should say you were dying, I should know you were dying to run
away with me, forthwith. It’s not your fault, you can’t help it.”
“I never dreamed of such a thing in my life!” she said.
“Then you ought at once to consult a physician for a bad case of
insomnia. I thought your eyes looked a bit weary.”
“You vile thing!” she answered. “Ted never said such a thing as
that in his life.”
“Then you have been trying to learn to love Ted? I thought you had
a faithless look about you—all except about your eyes. Alas, from
the way you talk I know you must be married already to this Ted.”
“I’m not!” she said, unguardedly. “I refused only to-night to set the
day.”
“This was a thoughtfulness toward me I had not expected,” said
Rust, complacently. “But you are betrothed, and this was unkind.”
“Unkind to whom?” she demanded.
“To Ted—and to me.”
“You will like Ted,” she told him, more artfully.
“At the other end of a duel, yes—immensely.”
“He’s a terrible swordsman,” she said, to urge him on.
“Yet how poorly he fenced with you.”
“What do you mean?”
“You won. You got him—poor devil.”
“Wretch! Ted at least would never pick on a woman.”
“If it’s Ted Suffle,” said Rust, “I saw him pick on his teeth, to-night,
and that is worse——in company.”
“His tooth aches terribly!” said Lady Margaret, defending poor
Suffle gallantly.
“He indulges in too much sweets,” Adam remarked, unmoved.
“Treat him the way you do me and he’ll soon be better.”
“I wish Ted could hear the way you talk to me,” she said.
“If he could hear the things you say to me, he would demand that
duel quicker,” Rust responded. “Tell me something outrageous to say
to the fellow, so that he will be obliged to challenge.”
“Nonsense,” she said, looking at him slyly, “don’t be silly. You
wouldn’t fight a duel over me.”
“Ah, but think what a lot of ladies would think me a hero,” he
replied with enthusiasm. “And I might also be banished from the
country. You can never tell where luck and lightning will strike next.”
“Go away, Adam,” she said. “You are perfectly monstrous.”
“I’ll go and have a look at Ted,” he answered, calmly. “If he is a
gentleman he will probably insult me without delay.”
To Lady Margaret’s utter dismay and astonishment, he sauntered
off at once and actually went to where Suffle was standing, and had
himself presented.
“I have asked for this honor,” he said, “the sooner to offer my best
congratulations on your betrothal. Lady Margaret has told me a little
about it. She is the happiest girl I have ever seen in all my life.”
“You are a good chap to say so,” said Suffle. “Do you know, I
fancied I should like you, Mr. Rust, the moment I saw you.”
“I should like to give you my friendship as a wedding present,”
Adam told him, honestly, knowing at once that Suffle was a fellow he
could really somewhat like. Then he added, more equivocally: “I
have known Lady Margaret so long that I shall take great happiness
in seeing the consummation of this happy event.”
CHAPTER VI.
JUGGLING WITH FIRE.
Lady Margaret was a beautiful woman. The next time he met

her, Adam realized that this was true. He stood looking down upon
her, where she sat on a low divan which was made to throw two
persons very close together, and into which he had avoided
squeezing. The young woman looked up at him winningly, a
slumberous passion in her garnet-brown eyes. Her creamy white
bosom rose and fell in a calm voluptuousness, the twin beauties of
which were more than suggested.
Rust could not recall that he had ever seen shoulders more
superb, nor a throat more delightfully round and built upward in
curves to the perfect chin at the top. In contrast with her lustrously
dark eyes and her almost black eyebrows, spanning her forehead
with their dainty arches, her old-gold hair was an amazing crown of
loveliness.
She had led him away from the company, “to look for Ted,” with an
art which had for once deceived the crafty rover completely. Now, as
he looked upon her, assuming a coldness it was utterly impossible to
feel, and be a man, he noted a beauty in her bare arms which made
him think of the perfect lines of a tiger’s paw. He could have
suggested nothing to make them more splendid.
Indeed she was well-nigh matchless as a creation of nature and
polite society. Her shimmering satin gown clung to her form as if
ardently. Her pretty gold-slippered feet and her slender ankles, in red
silk, open-work stockings, defied a glance to ignore them.
“Adam,” she said, smiling up at him archly, “I wish you were a girl
—just for a few moments, you know.”
“You would suffer by the contrast between us,” said Rust.
“You would know what a—what a bore he is,” she went on,
regardless of his comment. “And it would serve you right.”
“You doubtless mean the King,” he replied. “Your expedients are
cruel. Make anything out of me—a camel, if you like,—but not a girl.”
“I mean Ted,” she said, a little desperately. “You know I mean Ted.
You know what a bore he is.”
“Then you have spoiled him since morning.”
“You have no right to be the only man who isn’t a bore,” she went
on.
“You’ll be telling me I am the only man you ever loved, in a
moment,” he answered. “I can feel it coming.”
“And if I did,” she said with a passionate glance, “what then?”
Adam was frightened, as he had never been before in his life. He
took out his handkerchief and flecked a bit of dust from his boot,
nonchalantly.
“I should advise you to be bled for fever,” he said. “And I should
know the old affection you had for me once had departed forever.
Couldn’t you break my heart in some simpler way, dear Lady
Margaret?”
“It was all your fault for going away,” she told him. “You knew I
liked you before you went away.”
“Oh yes,” he responded gaily, “but I saw that your passionate love
for me was waning, so I went away to kindle it over again.”
“Do be serious for a moment,” she murmured, vexed with his
calmness and his raillery. “You know Ted is a dreadful bore.”
“Then since you have given him the love that once was mine, my
cue is to become a bore instanter.”
“You would never know it, if I loved you madly,” she said, looking
up into his face with her declaration centered in her eyes.
“Yes, I would,” he corrected, placidly. “If you loved me madly you
would tell me about it; you know you would.”
Her breath came fast. Her bosom rose and fell rapidly. “You
wouldn’t believe me if I did,” she said.
“If you told me you loved me madly,” said Adam, “I should know
you didn’t. So please let me go on with my fond delusions.”
She was silent a moment. He could feel her burning gaze on his
face. “Adam,” she said presently, “do sit down.” She moved to make
half room enough for him on the divan.
“What, and make you stand?” he replied. “Never!”
She placed her hand on the arm of the seat, where she knew his
fingers would return when he had finished scratching at a tiny white
speck on his coat-lappel. He observed her motion and thrust his fist
in his pocket.
“Oh, I am dying,” she presently whispered, after another silence.
“How interesting,” Adam cheerfully commented. “What are you
dying for, a glass of water, or a new set of diamonds?”
“You know what I am dying for,” she said, tremulously, in a voice
hardly above a whisper. “You said if I were dying, you—you would
know what for.”
“Oh, did I?” Adam mused. He was pale behind his calm. His hands
were perspiring, coldly. “Yes, of course. I said you would be dying to
run away with me. And now you would try to prove that this was all
wrong. My dear Lady Margaret, this is unkind.”
She arose from her seat. She was driven to her wits’ end for
anything to say.
“Silly boy,” she answered, as she came toward him, and then she
quickly added: “Oh, Adam, would you mind just clasping this strap?”
The strap was a narrow bit of finery which crossed her bare
shoulder. She had artfully loosened the golden clasp and now came
to present shoulder, strap, clasp and all for re-arrangement.
“There is nothing I can do with greater ease,” said Rust, “There
you are,—done already.” He had performed his office with amazing
dexterity and with a touch so fleeting that she would never have
known when it alighted.
“Oh, you haven’t done it right, my dear foolish Adam,” she said,
with a delicious little chuckle. “I’ll put my arm across your shoulder,
so. Now, make it right, do, Adam, please.”
She dropped her exquisite arm on his shoulder as she spoke and
edged closer. She turned so that her face was so near to his that he
could feel how glowing warm she was. Her breath fanned against his
cheek, hotly. The man felt a sense of intoxication stealing upon him.
Yet he was fixing the clasp as briefly as before, when she made a
movement with her slipper.
“Oh, I am falling,” she said in a little cry, and throwing both arms
about him, to support herself, she was clasped close to his breast,
for a moment, before he could seem to re-establish her balance. In
that brief time a mad horde of thoughts ran riotously through his
brain. She was beautiful; she loved him; she had fascinated
something in him always. Could he not be happy, loving her and
having her love in return? Why not run away with her—to the
Continent—anywhere—and fill the aching void in his nature with love
and caresses!
His heart was beating furiously. He trembled. A fever leaped into
his brain. Through his arms shot a galvanic contraction, as they
halted in the act of closing about the superb, slender figure he was
holding. It seemed as if he must kiss her, on her lips, her throat—her
shoulder!
“Adam, I am dying!” she whispered to him again, as he held her.
“Don’t die standing up,” he said, with a sudden recovery of the
mastery over himself. “Sit down and do it calmly.”
He swayed her aside, and there was nothing she could do but to
take the seat she had occupied before.
“How provoking of me to trip on my gown,” she said, looking up at
him sullenly. “Do you think we shall have snow to-morrow?”
“I shall pray against a precipitation of icebergs,” said Adam. “There
is nothing suggestive of love in ice.”
CHAPTER VII.
A BEEF-EATER PASSES.
The rigors of the London winter pursued the beef-eaters

relentlessly, tapping them remindfully on the shoulder, now and
again, with a cold, or a spell of bronchitis, and then, under cover of a
fog, some deadly affliction fastened upon the pair all at once. The
rover found them, after an absence from their quarters of two days,
so ill that first one and then the other was crawling from his bed to
minister to his comrade, so that both grew rapidly worse.
Adam looked at the two of them ruefully, when at length he came
to where they were. He had never known them ill in this manner
before. They cared nothing for eating; they slept but little. Their eyes
were bright. They were perfectly cheerful, in a feeble sort of way.
After the Sachem had come they declared they wanted for nothing,
provided he would talk to them, sing a little and let them lie there and
see him, or hear him play on his favorite violin.
He brought them every comfort which money could buy. He
cooked for them, served them and ate at their board—which was a
board indeed, reaching from one bed to the other, where they could
easily get at what he spread on its surface for their pleasure. But the
choice wines he fetched, and the fruits and the delicate bits of game
and fish, remained almost wholly untasted.
Adam was soon at a loss to know what to do. He tried to get at
their symptoms.
“Pike, you rogue,” he said, “I want to know where you feel bad.
You are ill, you know; now where is the pain?”
“By my sword-stroke,” said Pike, in a worn-down voice, “I have no
pain. I may be tired, to-day, but to-morrow, bring me a pirate and I
shall eat him without the trouble of slicing him first.”
“Tired, that’s it,” agreed Halberd. “I’m a bit tired myself, this
afternoon, but by cock’s crow to-morrow I could enjoy pulling the tail
out of a lion and beating the beast to death with the bloody end of it.”
“Well, doesn’t your stomach ache, or your head hurt you?” insisted
Adam. “When you cough like that, doesn’t it hurt your chest?”
“No, I like it, for the tickling,” said Halberd.
The two old scamps were afraid of being taken across the channel
to Spain again, or down into France, or perhaps across to Morocco.
After three days of his “tinkering” unsuccessfully, with his faithful
companions, Adam called in a doctor.
The worthy physician promptly bled the two patients. Little Pike
became quieter, if possible, than before. Halberd, on the contrary,
was somewhat wrought up in his feelings.
“By my steel!” said he, when the doctor had departed, “this puny
Sir Nostrum has let more of my juice with his nonsense than ever
was taken by swordsman out of my carcass. Faith! I’ll pulp the fellow,
and he comes again!”
Adam laughed, for Halberd suddenly got back a monstrous
appetite. He likewise abounded in pains, which he permitted the
Sachem to soothe; and he otherwise improved past all belief. He had
been a little ill, and his sympathy with Pike had made his ailment
mischievous.
Pike, however, had no such rally in him. He put in his time
smoothing the coverlet with slow, feeble movements, while he lay
there looking at Adam with dumb affection until one could almost
fancy he was wagging a tail, with weak, joyful jerks.
He got the Sachem to sing him the love song of the many seas, for
Pike had once had a heart full of love for a maiden himself, and while
the experience was nothing jollier than a funeral on the day set for
the wedding, nevertheless he liked the lively song, with all its various
maids and misses mentioned, for he conceived them all to be the
self-same girl, after all, simply transported to different climes.
While Adam was singing and playing, with the merriest spirit he
could conjure, the wistful old Pike had the impudence to close his
eyes and die.
A faint smile lingered on his face; whether as a result of his joke
on Adam and Halberd, or his pleasure derived from the song, could
never be known.

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Organization of the Book

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Organization of Each Chapter

How Best to Use the Practice Problems

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WileyPLUS Learning Space

• Assign activities and add your own materials.

• Guide your students through what’s important in the interactive e-textbook by

• Set up and monitor group learning.

• Assess student engagement.

• Gain immediate insights to help inform teaching.

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• Identify the place value • Solve fraction a decimal or fraction to

• Convert a mixed number • Convert a percent to a

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Trillions Billions Millions Thousands Units

• A part of a whole number: 3 out of 5 slices of pie could be presented as 5. In

this example, 3 is the part and 5 is the whole.

• An expression of a relationship between two numbers:

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CONVERTING WHOLE NUMBERS TO FRACTIONS

To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, Numerator ÷ Denominator

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Convert 235 to a mixed number.

Convert 239 43 to a mixed number.

CONVERTING MIXED NUMBERS TO IMPROPER FRACTIONS

STEP 1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator.

STEP 2. Add the result to the numerator.

STEP 3. Place the resulting number over the original denominator.

STEP 3. Use 14 from step 2 as the numerator and 3 as the denominator.

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7 is the common denominator.

To solve this example, you must find a common denominator.

There are two ways to do this:

1. MULTIPLY THE TWO DENOMINATORS TOGETHER: To find the common denomi-

2. DETERMINE IF ONE DENOMINATOR IS THE FACTOR OF THE OTHER: Especially in

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EXAM PLE 1. 11:

EXAM PLE 1. 12: