(Download PDF) Differential Calculus For Jee Main and Advanced 3Rd Edition Vinay Kumar Full Chapter PDF

Differential Calculus for JEE Main and
Advanced (3rd edition) Vinay Kumar

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/differential-calculus-for-jee-main-and-advanced-3rd-e
dition-vinay-kumar/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Integral Calculus for JEE Main and Advanced, 3e 3rd

Edition Vinay Kumar
https://ebookmass.com/product/integral-calculus-for-jee-main-and-
advanced-3e-3rd-edition-vinay-kumar/
Differential Calculus Booster with Problems and

Solutions for IIT JEE Main and Advanced Rejaul Makshud
McGraw Hill Rejaul Makshud
https://ebookmass.com/product/differential-calculus-booster-with-
problems-and-solutions-for-iit-jee-main-and-advanced-rejaul-
makshud-mcgraw-hill-rejaul-makshud/
Objective Physics for the JEE Main 2015 Sanjeev Kumar
https://ebookmass.com/product/objective-physics-for-the-jee-
main-2015-sanjeev-kumar/
Integral Calculus 3D Geometry and Vector Booster with

Problems and Solutions for JEE Main and Advanced Rejaul
Makshud
https://ebookmass.com/product/integral-calculus-3d-geometry-and-
vector-booster-with-problems-and-solutions-for-jee-main-and-
advanced-rejaul-makshud/
Comprehensive Trigonometry for IIT JEE, Main and
Advanced Rejaul Makshud
https://ebookmass.com/product/comprehensive-trigonometry-for-iit-
jee-main-and-advanced-rejaul-makshud/
Problems and Solutions in Organic Chemistry for JEE

(Main and Advanced) 3rd Edition Surendra K. Mishra
https://ebookmass.com/product/problems-and-solutions-in-organic-
chemistry-for-jee-main-and-advanced-3rd-edition-surendra-k-
mishra/
Solutions to Calculus for JEE (Advanced), 3rd edition

G. Tewani
https://ebookmass.com/product/solutions-to-calculus-for-jee-
advanced-3rd-edition-g-tewani/
Physics for JEE Main and Advanced Mechanics 2 1st

Edition Shashi Bhushan Tiwari
https://ebookmass.com/product/physics-for-jee-main-and-advanced-
mechanics-2-1st-edition-shashi-bhushan-tiwari/
Fundamentals of advanced mathematics. 3, Differential

calculus, tensor calculus, differential geometry,
global analysis Bourles
https://ebookmass.com/product/fundamentals-of-advanced-
mathematics-3-differential-calculus-tensor-calculus-differential-
geometry-global-analysis-bourles/
Telegram @unacademyplusdiscounts
FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)
About the Author
Vinay Kumar (VKR) graduated from IIT Delhi
in Mechanical Engineering.
Presently, he is Director of VKR Classes,
Kota, Rajasthan.
Third Edition
Vinay Kumar
B.Tech., IIT Delhi
Join @unacademyplusdiscounts on Telegram
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai - 600 116
Differential Calculus for JEE Main & Advanced, 3/e
Copyright © 2020, by the McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The pro-
gram listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers.

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7101775 23 22 21 20 19
Printed and bound in India
ISBN (13) : 978-93-5316-461-4

ISBN (10) : 93-5316-461-3
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be
reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any
errors, omissions,or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that
McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or
other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
Typeset at Transforma Pvt Ltd., Chennai and printed at XXXXXXXXX
Cover printed at:
Cover Design: Meenu Ragav

Image source: DAL
Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Write to us at: info.india@mheducation.com
CIN: U80302TN2010PTC111532
Toll Free Number: 1800 103 5875
PREFACE
T his book is meant for students who aspire to join the Indian Institute of Technologies (IITs) and various other engi-
neering institutes through the JEE Main and Advanced examinations. The content has been devised to cover the syllabi
of JEE and other engineering entrance examinations on the topic Differential Calculus. The book will serve as a text book
as well as practice problem book for these competitive examinations.
As a tutor with more than eighteen years of teaching this topic in the coaching institutes of Kota, I have realised
the need for a comprehensive textbook in this subject.
I am grateful to McGraw-Hill Education for providing me an opportunity to translate my years of teaching experience
into a comprehensive textbook on this subject.
This book will help to develop a deep understanding of Differential Calculus through graphs and problem solving.
The detailed table of contents will enable teachers and students to easily access their topics of interest.
Each chapter is divided into several segments. Each segment contains theory with illustrative examples. It is followed
by Concept Problems and Practice Problems, which will help students assess the basic concepts. At the end of the theory
portion, a collection of Target Problems have been given to develop mastery over the chapter.
The problems for JEE Advanced have been clearly indicated in each chapter.
The collection of objective type questions will help in a thorough revision of the chapter. The Review Exercises
contain problems of a moderate level while the Target Exercises will assess the students’ ability to solve tougher problems.
For teachers, this book could be quite helpful as it provides numerous problems graded by difficulty level which can be
given to students as assignments.
I am thankful to all teachers who have motivated me and have given their valuable recommendations. I thank my
family for their whole-hearted support in writing this book. I specially thank Mr. Devendra Kumar and Mr. S. Suman for
their co-operation in bringing this book.
Suggestions for improvement are always welcomed and shall be gratefully acknowledged.
Vinay Kumar
CONTENT
About the Author ii
Preface v
CHAPTER 1 LIMITS 1.1 – 1.178

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Concept of Infinity 1.7
1.3 Theorems on Limits 1.11
1.4 One-sided limits 1.14
1.5 Determinate and Indeterminate Forms 1.20
1.6 Factorisation and Cancellation of Common Factors 1.23
1.7 Rationalization 1.27
1.8 Limit Using Expansion Series of Functions 1.29
1.9 Standard Limits 1.33
1.10 Algebra of Limits 1.45
1.11 Limits when x → ∞ 1.48
1.12 Asymptotes 1.56
1.13 Limit of a Sequence 1.61
1.14 Limits of Forms (0 x ∞) and (∞ – ∞) 1.65
1.15 Limits of Forms 0 and ∞
0 0
1.71
∞
1.16 Limits of Form 1 1.73
1.17 Sandwich Theorem / Squeeze Play Theorem 1.77
1.18 L’ Hospital’s Rule 1.82
1.19 Geometrical Limits 1.96
1.20 Miscellaneous Limits 1.99
Target Problems for JEE Advanced 1.104

Things to Remember 1.114

Objective Exercises 1.116

Review Exercises for JEE Advanced 1.126

Target Exercises for JEE Advanced 1.127

Previous Year’s Questions (JEE Advanced) 1.129

Previous Year’s Questions (JEE Main Papers) 1.131

Answers 1.133

Hints & Solutions 1.140

viii | Content
CHAPTER 2 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 2.1 – 2.98

2.1 Definition of Continuity 2.1
2.2 Continuity in an Interval 2.10
2.3 Classification of Discontinuity 2.20
2.4 Algebra of Continuous Functions 2.27
2.5 Properties of Functions Continuous on a Closed Interval 2.33
2.6 Intermediate Value Theorem (I.V.T.) 2.37







Answers 2.70


CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIABILITY 3.1 – 3.116
3.2 Differentiability 3.6
3.3 Reasons of Non-differentiability 3.11
3.4 Relation between Continuity and Differentiability 3.13
3.5 Derivability at Endpoints 3.19
3.6 Differentiability over an interval 3.20
3.7 Alternative limit form of the Derivative 3.26
3.8 Derivatives of Higher Order 3.33
3.9 Algebra of Differentiable Functions 3.36
3.10 Functional Equations 3.40







Answers 3.74


CHAPTER 4 METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION 4.1 – 4.120
4.2 Derivative using First Principles (ab initio) Method 4.1
Content | ix
4.3 Derivative of Standard Functions 4.3

4.4 Rules of Differentiation 4.4
4.5 The Chain Rule 4.9
4.6 Logarithmic Differentiation 4.15
4.7 Derivative of Inverse Functions 4.19
4.8 Parametric Differentiation 4.24
4.9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 4.25
4.10 Differentiation by Trigonometric Substitution 4.33
4.11 Derivatives of Higher Order 4.37
4.12 Successive Differentiation 4.46
4.13 Derivative of a Determinant 4.48
4.14 Properties of Derivative 4.51
4.15 L’Hospital’s Rule 4.56







Answers 4.80


CHAPTER 5 TANGENT AND NORMAL 5.1 – 5.94
5.2 Rate Measurement 5.1
5.3 Approximation 5.7
5.4 Error 5.9
5.5 Tangent and Normal 5.11
5.6 Tangent to Parametric curves 5.20
5.7 Angle of Intersection 5.26
5.8 Common Tangents 5.30
5.9 Length of Tangent 5.35






Answers 5.55


x | Content
CHAPTER 6 MONOTONICITY 6.1 – 6.100

6.1 Definitions 6.1
6.2 Monotonicity over an Interval 6.4
6.3 Critical Point 6.15
6.4 Intervals of Monotonicity 6.17
6.5 Monotonicity in Parametric Functions 6.24
6.6 Algebra of Monotonous Functions 6.24
6.7 Proving Inequalities 6.27
6.8 Concavity and Point of Inflection 6.35







Answers 6.64


CHAPTER 7 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 7.1 – 7.200
7.2 Concept of Local Maxima and Local Minima 7.1
7.3 Fermat Theorem 7.4
7.4 The First Derivative Test 7.7
7.5 The First Derivative Procedure for Sketching the Graph of a Continuous Function 7.15
7.6 Second Derivative Test 7.18
7.7 Higher Order Derivative Test 7.23
7.8 Extrema of Parametric Functions 7.25
7.9 Operations on Functions having points of Extrema 7.26
7.10 Global Maximum and Minimum 7.28
7.11 Boundedness 7.40
7.12 Algebra of Global Extrema 7.42
7.13 Miscellaneous Methods 7.44
7.14 Optimisation Problems 7.49
7.15 Asymptotes 7.70
7.16 Points of Inflection 7.75
7.17 Curve Sketching 7.77
7.18 Isolation of Roots 7.85
7.19 Rolle’s Theorem 7.89
Content | xi
7.20 Deductions of Rolle’s Theorem 7.95

7.21 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 7.98
7.22 Corollaries of LMVT 7.104
7.23 Related Inequalities 7.106
7.24 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem 7.112







Answers 7.144


Telegram
@unacademyplusdiscounts
1
CHAPTER
Limits
We denote neighbourhoods by N(a), N1(a), N2(a), etc.

1.1 Introduction
Since a neighbourhood N(a) is an open interval symmetric
Let us introduce the notion of limit of a function which plays about a, it consists of all real x satisfying a – δ < x < a + δ for
an important role in mathematical analysis and the study some δ > 0. The positive number δ is called the radius of the
of calculus. The concept of limit of a function is one of the neighbourhood.
fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from algebra
We designate N(a) by N(a, δ) if we wish to specify its radius.
and trigonometry. The inequalities a – δ < x < a + δ are equivalent to –δ < x – a
We use limits to describe the way a function f varies. Some < δ, and to |x – a| < δ. Thus, N(a, δ) consists of all points x
functions vary continuously i.e. small changes in x produce whose distance from a is less than δ.
only small changes in f(x). Other functions can have values
that jump or vary erratically. Meaning of x → a
Sometimes we face with problems whose solutions involve the The symbol x → a is called as 'x tends to a' or 'x approaches a'.
use of limits. According to a formula of geometry, the area of It implies that x takes values closer and closer to 'a' but not 'a'.
a circle of radius r is πr2. How is such a formula derived? The
usual way is to inscribe regular polygons in the circle, find
the areas of these polygons, and then determine the “limiting
value” of these areas as the number of sides of the polygons Sometimes we need to consider values of x approaching 'a'
increase without bound. Thus, even such seemingly simple from only one side of 'a'.
formula as that for the area of a circle depends on the concept If x approaches 'a' from the left of 'a' then we use the symbol:
of limit for its derivation. x → a– or x → a – 0.
We also use limits to define tangent to graphs of functions. Similarly, if x approaches 'a' from the right of 'a' then we use
This geometrical application leads to the important concept of the symbol : x → a+ or x → a + 0.
derivative of a function, which quantifies the way a function's
value changes.
The need for evaluating the limit of a function arises in science
and engineering when we come across situations where a Limit of a Function
function (denoting a physical quantity) is not defined at x = a, Let us consider a function y = f(x) of a continuous variable x.
however the value of the function as x takes values very very Suppose that the independent variable x approaches a number
close to ‘a’ symbolize a useful physical quantity, for example 'a'. This means that x is made to assume values which become
instantaneous velocity, acceleration etc. arbitrarily close to 'a' but are not equal to 'a'. To describe such a
situation we say that x tends to 'a' or x approaches 'a' and write
Neighbourhood of a Point x → a. If there is a number  such that as x approaches 'a',
Any open interval containing a point a as its midpoint is called either from the right or from the left, f(x) approaches , then
a neighbourhood of a.  is called the limit of f(x) as x approaches 'a'.
1.2 Differential Calculus for JEE Main and Advanced
Informal Definition of Limit differing by little from zero. It is not a statement about the value
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about 'a', except possibly of f(x) when x = 0. When we make the statements we assert
at 'a' itself. If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to  for all x sufficiently that, when x is nearly equal to zero, f(x) is nearly equal to . We
close to 'a', we say that f approaches the limit  as x approaches assert nothing about what happens when x actually equal to 0.
'a', and we write
lim f ( x ) . Caution
x a
(the abbreviation "lim" means "limit")

A wrong statement about limits :
It is evident that if a function has a limit for x → a, this limit is The number  is the limit of f(x) as x approaches a if f(x) gets
unique, since the values of the function corresponding to the closer to  as x approaches a.
values of x approaching 'a' must become arbitrarily close to Consider f(x) = x + [x] +1 at x = 0.
a constant and hence cannot be simultaneously close to more As x approaches 0, the function f(x) gets closer to
than one constant number. 1/2, from both sides but 1/2 is not the limit because f(x) does
An alternative notation for lim f ( x )  is f(x) →  as x → a not get arbitrarily close to 1/2. For example the function cannot
x a
attain 0.4995 or 0.5002 by using x sufficiently close to 0.
which is usually read as "f(x) approaches  as x approaches a".
Suppose we are asked to sketch the graph of the function f
Study Tip x3 − 1
given by f(x) = , x ≠ 1.
x −1
1. A number  is said to be a limiting value only if it is finite
and real, otherwise we say that the limit does not exist or For all values other than x = 1, we can use standard curve-
dne (for brevity). sketching techniques. However, at x = 1, it is not clear what
to do. To get an idea of the behaviour of the graph of f near
2. Note that 'a' need not be in the domain of f.
x = 1, we can use two sets of x-values – one set that approaches
Even if 'a' happens to be in the domain of f, the 1 from the left and one set that approaches 1 from the right, as
value f(a) plays no role in determining whether shown in table.
lim f ( x ) . It is only the behaviour of f(x) for x
x a
near a that concerns us.
3. We also note that the three statements,
lim f(x) = , lim (f(x) – ) = 0, lim | f(x) –  | = 0, are all
x →a x →a x →a
equivalent.
x
Let us consider the function f(x) = .
x
This function is equal to 1 for all values of x except x = 0.
It is not equal to 1 when x = 0; it is in fact not defined at x = 0. When we plot these points, it appears that the graph of f is a
parabola that has a hole at point (1, 3), as shown in the figure.
For when we say that f(x) is defined for x = 0 we mean that we
Although x cannot equal 1, we can move sufficiently close to
can calculate its value for x = 0 by putting x = 0 in the formula
1, and as a result f(x) moves arbitrarily close to 3.
which defines f(x). In this case we cannot. When we put x = 0
in f(x) we get 0/0, which is meaningless. Using limit notation, we write lim f(x) = 3.
x→1
x
Thus f(x) = is a function which differs from y = 1 solely in It is read as "the limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 is 3."
x
that it is not defined for x = 0.
x
We have lim
x→0
= 1, since x/x is equal to 1 so long as x differs
x
from zero, however small the difference may be.
On the other hand there is of course nothing to prevent the
limit of f(x) as x tends to zero from being equal to f(0), the
value of f(x) for x = 0.
Thus if f(x) = x, then f(0) = 0 and lim
x →0
f ( x ) = 0.
Note: That the statement lim f ( x ) =  is a statement

x →0
about the values of f(x) when x has any value distinct from but
Limits 1.3
x 2 − 3x + 2 x3 − 1 ( x 2 + x + 1)( x − 1) x2 + x + 1
Example 1: Evaluate lim = = .
x→2 x−2 x2 −1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) x +1
Solution: Consider the function f defined by So the behaviour of (x3–1)/(x2–1) for x near 1, but not equal to
x 2 3x 2 x2 + x + 1
f(x) = ,x≠2 1, is the same as the behaviour of .
x +1
x2
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers except 2, which x3 − 1 x2 + x + 1 .
lim = lim
has been excluded because substitution of x = 2 in the expression x →1 x 2 −1 x →1 x +1
0
for f(x) yields the undefined term .
0 Now, as x approaches 1, x2 + x + 1 approaches 3 and x + 1
On the other hand, x 2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 1) (x – 2) and
( x − 1)( x − 2) x2 + x + 1 3
f(x) = = x – 1, provided x ≠ 2
approaches 2. Thus, lim = , from which it
x−2
x →1 x +1 2
....(1) x3 − 1 3
The graph of the function y = x – 1 is a straight line L; so the follows that lim = .
x →1 x 2 − 1 2
graph of f(x) is the line L with a hole at the point (2, 1).
We can also express this as follows:
x3 − 1 3
As x → 1, 2 → .
x −1 2
Example 3: Find the limit of the function
x + 1 , x < 0
f (x) =  as x→ 0.
2 − x , x ≥ 0
Solution: Using the graph of y = f(x), we see that the
function approaches 1 as x approaches 0 from the left of 0. Also
the function approaches 2 as x approaches 0 from the right of 0.
Although the function f is not defined at x = 2, we know its

behaviour from values of x near 2. The graph makes it clear
that if x is close to 2, then f(x) is close to 1. In fact, the values of
f(x) can be brought arbitrarily close to 1 by taking x sufficiently
close to 2.
x 2 − 3x + 2
We express this fact by writing lim = 1, which
x→2 x−2
Since the function does not approach the same level from both
x 2 3x 2
means that the limit of is 1 as x approaches 2. sides of x = 0, lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x2 x →0
x3 −1
Example 2: Let f(x) = 2
x −1
. How does f(x) behave
Formal Definition of Limit
when x is near 1 but is not 1 itself ? The conceptual problems in trying to give an exact meaning
Solution: There are two influences acting on the fraction to the expression lim f(x) = b revolve around phrases such as
x →a
(x3 – 1)/(x2 – 1) when x is near 1. On the one hand, the numerator “arbitrarily close,” “sufficiently near,” and “arbitrarily small.”
x3 –1 approaches 0; thus there is an influence pushing the After all, there is a no such thing in any absolute sense as a small
fraction towards 0. On the other hand the denominator x2 –1 positive real number. The number 0.000001 is small in most
also approaches 0; division by a small number tends to make a contexts, but in comparison with 0.000000000001 it is huge.
fraction large. How do these two opposing influences balance However, we can assert that one number is smaller than another.
out?
Moreover, the actual closeness of one number x to another number
We rewrite the quotient (x3 – 1)/(x2 – 1) as follows: When x ≠ 1, a is just the distance between them : it is |x – a|. One way to say that
we have a function f takes on values arbitrarily close to a number  is to
1.4 Differential Calculus for JEE Main and AdvancedTelegram @unacademyplusdiscounts
state that, for any small positive real number ε, there are numbers In Figure 2 the vertical band shown is not narrow enough
x such that | f(x) –  | < ε. We are stating that no matter what to meet the challenge of the horizontal band shown. But the
positive number ε is selected, 10–7, or 10–17, or 10–127, there are vertical band shown in Figure 3 is sufficiently narrow.
numbers x so that the distance between f(x) and  is smaller
than ε.
ε − δ definition
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a
except possibly at a and let  be a real number. The statement
lim f(x) =  means that for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such
x →a
that if 0 < |x – a| < δ, then |f(x) – | < ε.
The inequality 0 < |x – a | that appears in the definition is just
a fancy way of saying “x is not a.” The inequality |x – a | < δ
asserts that x is within a distance δ of a. The two inequalities Figure 1
may be combined as the single statement 0 < |x – a| < δ,
which describes the open interval (a–δ, a + δ) from which a
is deleted.
Here we wish to say that f(x) is arbitrarily close to  whenever x
is sufficiently close, but not equal to a. What does “sufficiently
close” mean? “ The answer is this : If an arbitrary ε > 0 is
chosen with which to measure the distance between f(x) and ,
then it must be the case that there is a number δ > 0 such that
whenever x is in the domain of f and within a distance δ of
a, but not equal to a then the distance between f(x) and  is
less than ε. Figure 2
This is illustrated on the graph of the function y = f(x) as shown
in the figure. Since from the inequality |x – a| < δ there follows
the inequality |f(x) – l| < ε, this means that for all points x that
are not more distant from the point a than δ, the points M of
the graph of the function y = f(x) lie within a band of width 2ε
bounded by the lines y = –ε and y =  + ε.
Figure 3
Example 4: Prove that lim (3x + 1) = 7.

x→2
Solution: Let an arbitrary ε > 0 be given. For the
inequality |(3x + 1) – 7| < ε to be fulfilled it is necessary to
have the following inequalities fulfilled :
First ε > 0 is chosen arbitrarily. There must then exist a number ε ε ε
|3x – 6| < ε, |x – 2| < , – <x–2<
δ > 0 such that whenever x lies in the interval (a – δ, a + δ), 3 3 3
and x ≠ a then the point (x, f(x)) lies in the shaded rectangle. Thus, given any ε, for all values of x satisfying the
In other words, ε is the challenge. The response is δ. Usually, ε
inequality |x – 2| < = δ, the value of the function 3x + 1 will
the smaller ε is, the smaller δ will have to be. The geometric 3
significance of the definition is shown in the Figure 1. The differ from 7 by less than ε. And this means that 7 is the limit
narrow horizontal band of width 2ε is again the challenge. of the function as x → 2.
The response is a sufficiently narrow vertical band, of width
Example 5: Examine the limit of the function
2δ, such that the part of the graph within that vertical band
(except perhaps at x = a) also lies in the challenging horizontal x2 −1
y= as x tends to 1.
band of width 2ε. x −1
Limits 1.5
Solution: The function is defined for every value of x Example 6: Consider the function
x2 −1
other than 1 and y = = x + 1, when x≠1.  x 2 + 1,
 x≥0
x −1 g(x) =  lim g(x) ≠ 1.
. Prove that x→0
Firstly consider the behaviour of the values of y for values of 
 − ( x 2
+ 1), x < 0
x greater than 1. Clearly, y is greater than 2 when x is greater
Solution To do this, we must establish the negation of
than 1.
the limit condition. There is an ε > 0 such that, for any δ > 0,
If, x, while remaining greater than 1 takes up values whose there is a number x in the domain of a g such that 0 < |x| < δ
difference from 1 constantly diminishes, then y, while and |g(x) – 1| ≥ ε. There are many possible choices for ε. To be
remaining greater than 2, takes up values whose difference 1
from 2 constantly diminishes also. specific, take ε = . We must now show that for every positive
2
In fact, difference between y and 2 can be made as small as we number δ, there is a nonzero number x in the open interval
like by taking x sufficiently near 1. (–δ, δ), such that the distance between g(x) and 1 is greater
1 δ
For instance, consider the number .001. Then than or equal to . See figure. Take x = – . This number is
2 2
|y – 2| = y – 2 = x + 1 – 2 < .001 ⇔ x < 1.001.
nonzero, lies in (–δ, δ), and furthermore
Thus, for every value of x which is greater than 1 and less than
1.001, the absolute value of the difference between y and 2 is
 δ δ2
g(x) = g  −  = – – 1 < – 1.
less than the number .001 which we had arbitrarily selected.  2 4
Instead of the particular number .001, we now consider any 1
Hence |g(x) – 1| > 2 ≥ .
small positive number ε. Then 2
y – 2 = x – 1 < ε ⇔ x < 1 + ε.
Thus, there exists an interval (1, 1 + ε), such that the value of
y, for any value of x in this interval, differs from 2 numerically,
by a number which is smaller than the positive number ε,
selected arbitrarily.
Thus, the limit of y as x approaches 1 from the right is 2 and
we have lim y = 2.
x→1+
We now consider the behaviour of the values of y for values of
x less than 1. When x is less than 1, y is less than 2.
If, x, while remaining less than 1, takes up values whose
difference from 1 constantly diminishes, then y, while
remaining less than 2, takes up values whose difference from
2 constantly diminishes also. Notice in the definition that the hypothesis 0 < | x – a | simply
Let now, ε be any arbitrarily assigned positive number, however means x ≠ a. This condition releases the point of approach
small. We then have, a from the responsibility of having any image at all; and
even if there is an image f(a) the condition | f(a) –  | < ∈
|y – 2| = 2 – y = 2 – (x + 1) = 1 – x < ε is allowed to fail. Briefly, the idea of limit discounts what
so that for every value of x less than 1 but > 1 – ε, the happens precisely at a, but is vitally concerned with images of
absolute value of the difference between y and 2 is less than the "neighbours" of a.
the number ε. There is no practical need of applying ∈−δ definition
Thus, the limit of y, as x approaches 1, from the left is 2 and everywhere since it involves lengthy and complicated
lim y = 2.
we write x→ calculations. We shall later on derive some simple rules for
1 −
finding limits.
Combining the conclusions arrived at in the last two cases, we
see that corresponding to any arbitrarily assigned positive Example 7: Let the function f be defined as follows:
number ε, there exists an interval (1 – ε, 1 + ε) around 1, such  1
f   = 1 for every nonzero integer n,
that for every value of x in this interval, other than 1 where  n
the function is not defined, y differs from 2 numerically by a f(x) = x for every other real number x. Prove that
number which is less than ε, i.e., we have | y – 2 | < ε for lim f(x) does not exist.
any x, other than 1, such that |x – 1| < ε. x→0
Solution: The graph of f is the line y = x, with the There can, therefore, exist no number which differs from sin
exception that when x = 1/n, n a nonzero integer, y = 1. It is 1/x by a number less than an arbitrarily assigned positive
shown in the figure. number for values of x near 0. Hence lim (sin 1/x) does
x→0
Since f(0) = 0 and f(x) is close to 0 when x is close to 0, x ≠ not exist.
 2 1
1/n, we might suspect that lim f(x) = 0.  x sin , x ≠ 0
x→0 Example 9: f(x) =  x as x→ 0.

1 , x=0
Solution: The function oscillates between the graphs
of y = –x2 and y = x2. As x approaches closer and closer to
zero from either side, the two functions approach 0, and hence
f(x) → 0 as x→ 0.
Example 10: Find the limit of the function
x , x ∈Q
f (x) =  as x→ 2 and x→ 4.
 4 − x , x ∉Q
Solution: We draw the rough sketch of y = f(x).
However, this is not correct. For if we take the neighbourhood

N = (–1/2, 1/2) of 0, there is no deleted neighbourhood D = (-δ, 0)
∪ (0, δ) of 0 such that f(x) is in N for every x in D.
We can always find a positive integer n such that 1/n < δ and for
this number f(1/n) is not in N since f(1/n) = 1. In a similar way,
we can show that lim f(x) is not equal to any other number.
x→0 If x approaches 2 by taking rational values, then the function
Therefore, this limit does not exist. f(x) approaches 2 using y = x. And if x approaches 2 by taking
Example 8: Prove that lim (sin 1/x) does not exist. irrational values, then the function f(x) also approaches 2 using
x→0
y = 4 – x. Hence, the limit of f(x) as x→ 2 is 2.
Solution: The graph of y = sin 1/x is drawn below.
lim f ( x ) = 2
x →2
However, if x approaches 4 by taking rational values, then the

function f(x) approaches 4 using y = x. And if x approaches 4
by taking irrational values, then the function f(x) approaches 0
using y = 4 – x. Since the function does not approach the same
level, the limit lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x →4
There are many such interesting functions that have unusual
The function oscillates between –1 and 1 more and more limit behaviour. An often cited one is the Dirichlet function
rapidly as x approaches closer and closer to zero from either side.
0, if x is rational
If we take any interval containing 0, however small it may be, f(x) = 
then for an infinite number of points of this interval the function 1, if x is irrational.
assumes the values 1 and –1. This function has no limit at any real number.
Practice Problems A

1. For the function graphed here, find the following limits:
Limits 1.7
(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x) x if x is rational

x→2 x→1 5. Let f(x) = 
2. For the function graphed here, find the following limits: − x if x is not rational
(a) Does limx→1 f(x) exist ?
(b) Does limx→ f(x) exist ?
(c) Does limx→0 f(x) exist ?
(d) For which numbers a does limx→af(x) exist?
 x 2 if x is an irrational number
6. Let f(x) =  .
1 if x is an rational number
(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x) (iii) lim f(x)
x→−2 x→0 x→−1
Prove that f(x) has a limit at the points x = 1 and
3. If lim f(x) = 5 must f be defined at x = 1 ? x = –1 and does not have a limit at other points.
x→1
If it is, must f(1) = 5 ? Can we conclude anything about 7. Find lim cot −1 x 2 .
the values of f at x = 1 ? Explain. x→0
4. If f(1) = 5, must lim f(x) exist ? If it does, then must lim sin 2 x
x→1 x→1 8. Find lim .
x→0 cos x
f(x) = 5? Can we conclude anything about lim f(x)?
x→1 9. Find lim cos π/x.
x→0
the corresponding values yn of the function become arbitrarily

1.2 Concept of Infinity close to the number .
Suppose that n assumes successively the values 1, 2, 3,.... Then Let us consider a function of an integral argument. Usually
as n gets larger and larger and there is no limit to the extent such an argument is denoted by the letter n and the values of
of its increase. However, large a number we may think of, a the function by some other letter supplied with a subscript
time will come when n has become larger than this number. indicating the value of the integral argument. For instance, if
It is convenient to have a short phrase to express this unending y = f(n) is a function of the integral argument n we write yn =
growth of n and we shall say that n tends to infinity, or n → ∞, f(n). Given such a function, we say that the values
When we say that n ‘tends to ∞’ we mean simply that n is y1 = f(1), y2 = f(2), .... , yn = f(n), .....,
supposed to assume a series of values which increase beyond assumed by the function form a sequence.
all limit.
If there is a sequence y1, y2, y3, ...., this assigns, to every natural
There is no real number ‘infinity’. This implies that the equation
n = ∞ is meaningless. A number n cannot be equal to ∞, because number n, a value yn = f(n). For instance, the terms of the
‘equal to ∞’ means nothing. So far in fact the symbol ∞ means
1 1 1
nothing at all except in the one phrase ‘tends to ∞’, the meaning geometric progression , , .... are the subsequent values
2 4 8
of which we have explained above. Later on we shall learn how
1
to attach a meaning to other phrases involving the symbol ∞, of the function f(n) = .
but we bear in mind 2n
We now discuss the question ‘what properties has f(n) for
(i) that ∞, by itself means nothing, although phrases
sufficiently large values of n ?’ i.e. ‘how does f(n) behaves as
containing it sometimes mean something,
n tends to ∞ ?’
(ii) that in every case in which a phrase containing the symbol
It may occur that, as n increases, the values yn = f(n) become
∞ means something it will do so simply because we have
arbitrarily close to a number . Then we say that the number  is
previously attached a meaning to this particular phrase by
the limit of the function f(n) of the integral argument n or that the
means of a special definition.
sequence y1, y2, .... , yn, .... has the limit , as n → ∞, and write
Limit of a Sequence lim f (n )  or lim y n 
n n
Definition A number  is said to be the limit of the function
y = f(n) of the integral argument n or the limit of the sequence Consider the function 1/n for large values of n. Instead of
y1, y2, ...., yn, if for all sufficiently large integral values of n saying ‘1/n is small for large values of n’ we say ‘1/n tends
to 0 as n tends to ∞ . Similarly we say that ‘1– (1/n) tends to Note: The limit  may itself be one of the actual values
1 as n tends to ∞’. of f(n). Thus if f(n) = 0 for all values of n, it is obvious that
We shall say that ‘the limit of 1/n as n tends to ∞ is 0’, a lim f (n ) = 0.
n →∞
1
statement which we express as lim 0 . On the other hand the limit itself need not (and in general will
n n
not) be the value of the function for any value of n. This is
We shall also sometimes write ‘1/n → 0 as n → ∞’ which may sufficiently obvious in the case f(n) = 1/n. The limit is zero;
be read ‘1/n tends to 0 as n tends to ∞’. but the function is never equal to zero for any value of n.
In the same way we shall write A limit is not a value of the function. It is something quite
 1 distinct from these values.
lim 1 −  = 1 or , 1 – (1/n) → 1 as n → ∞. For the function f(n) = 1 the limit is equal to all the values of
n →∞  n
f(n).
Now let us consider f(n) = n2. Then ‘n2 is large when n is large’. For f(n) = 1+ (1/n), it is not equal to any value of f(n). For f(n)
And it is natural in this case to say that ‘n2 tends to ∞ as n tends = (sin 12 nπ)/n, (whose limits as n tends to ∞ is easily seen to be
to ∞’, and we write n2 → ∞. 0, since sin 12 nπ is never numerically greater than 1), the limit
Finally consider the function f(n) = – n2. In this case f(n) is is equal to the value which f(n) assumes for all even values of
large, but negative, when n is large and we say that ‘– n2 tends n, but the values assumed for odd values of n are all different
to – ∞ as n tends to ∞’ and write – n2 → − ∞ . from the limit and from one another.
Definition The function f(n) is said to tend to the limit  Definition The function f(n) is said to tend to ∞ (positive
as n tends to ∞ , if, however small be the positive number ε, infinity) with n if, when any number M, however large, is
f(n) differs from  by less than ε for sufficiently large values assigned, we can determine N so that f(n) > M when n ≥ N;
of n; that is to say if, however small be the positive number that is to say if, however large M may be, f(n) > M for sufficient
ε, we can determine a number N(ε) corresponding to ε, such large values of n.
that f(n) differs from  by less than ε for all values of n greater Another form of statement is, if we can make f(n) as large as
than or equal to N(ε). we please by sufficiently increasing n.
The definition may be stated more shortly as follows : if, given A function may be always numerically very large when n is
any positive number, ε, however small, we can find N(ε) so very large without tending either to ∞ or to –∞. A sufficient
that | f(n) –  | < ε when n ≥ N(ε), then we say that f(n) tends illustration of this is given by f(n) = (–1)nn.
to the limit  as n tends to ∞ , and write Example 1: Find lim sin nθπ, if θ is rational.
n→∞
lim f (n ) =  Solution: Let f(n) = sin nθπ and θ = p/q, where p and q
n →∞
are positive integers. Let n = aq + b, here a is the quotient and
The definition of a limit may be illustrated geometrically b the remainder when n is divided by q.
as follows. The graph of f(n) consists of a number of points Then sin(npπ/q) = (–)ap sin(bpπ/q).
corresponding to the values n = 1, 2, 3.... Suppose, for example, p even. Then, as n increases from 0 to
Draw the line y = , and the parallel lines y =  – ε, y =  + ε q – 1, f(n) takes the values
at distance ε from it. Assume that for each positive ε , a number
N can be found, depending on ε , such that the part of the graph pπ 2pπ (q −1)pπ
0, sin , sin ......., sin
to the right of n = N lies within the band. Then we say that ‘as q q q
x approaches ∞, f(n) approaches ’ and write
When n increases from q to 2q–1 these values are repeated and
lim f (n ) =  so also as n goes from 2q to 3q – 1, 3q to 4q–1, and so on. Thus
n →∞
the values of f(n) form a cyclic repetition of a finite series of
different values. It is evident that when this is the case f(n) cannot
tend to a limit, nor to ∞ , nor to –∞, as n tends to infinity. The
limit does not exist.
Oscillating Functions
When f(n) does not tend to a limit, nor to ∞ , nor to –∞, as n tends
to ∞, we say that f(n) oscillates as n tends to ∞.
The simplest example of an oscillatory function is given by f(n)
= (–1)n , which is equal to 1 when n is even and to –1 when n
is odd. In this case the values recur cyclically.
Limits 1.9
Now consider f(n) = (–1)n + n–1, the values of which are of an endless band of width 2ε. Assume that for each
–1 + 1, 1 + 12 , –1 + 13 , 1 + 14 , –1 + 15 , .... positive ε, a number D can be found, depending on
ε, such that the part of the graph to the right of x = D lies
When n is large every value is nearly equal to 1 or
within the band. Then we say that “as x approaches ∞, f(x)
–1, and obviously f(n) does not tend to a limit or to ∞ or to –∞
approaches ” and write as
and therefore it oscillates, but the values do not recur. It is to lim f(x) = 
be observed that in this case every value of f(n) is numerically x→∞
less than or equal to . We have a similar definition for lim f(x) = .

x→ −∞
If f(n) oscillates as n tends to ∞, then f(n) will be said to oscillate Note that the definition of the limit of a sequence can be
finitely or infinitely according as is or is not possible to assign regarded as a special case of the definition of the limit of a
a number K such that all the values of f(n) are numerically function, as its argument becomes infinitely large and assumes
less than K, only integral values.
i.e. | f(n) | < K for all values of n. Definition We assume that f(x) is defined for all x greater
For example, consider f(n) = n{1 + (–1)n}. than some number c. If for each number E there is a number
In this case the values of f(n) are D such that for all x > D it is true that f(x) > E, then we write
lim
0, 4, 0, 8, 0, 12, 0, 16,.... = ∞.
x→∞ f(x)

The odd terms are all zero and the even terms tend to ∞. Thus For each possible choice of a horizontal line, say, at height E,
f(n) oscillates infinitely. if we are far enough to the right of f, we stay above that line.
That is , there is a number D such that if x > D, then f(x) > E, as
But the function f(n) = sin nθπ, θ is rational, oscillates finitely.
illustrated in the figure.
Now consider the sequence
π 2π 3π nπ
sin , sin , sin , ...., sin , ....
2 2 2 2
nπ
It does not possess a limit since, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, y n = sin
2
consecutively takes on the values 1, 0, –1, 0 which then are
repeated indefinitely in the same order as n increases. Therefore
the number to which yn tends, as n → ∞, does not exist.
We have similar definitions for lim f(x) = − ∞,
Limit of a Function as x → ∞ x→∞
Definition Let f(x) be defined for all x beyond some lim f(x) = ∞ and lim f(x) = − ∞.
x → −∞ x → −∞
number c. If for each positive number ε, there is a number D
such that for all x > D it is true that For example, if a > 1, the function y = ax becomes infinite for
| f(x) –  | < ε , then we write x→∞
lim f(x) = . x → ∞ i.e. lim ax = ∞.
x →∞
If 0 < a < 1 we have lim ax = ∞.
The positive number ε is the challenge, and D is a response. x → −∞
The smaller ε is, the larger D usually must be chosen. The Further, lim log a x = ∞ , if a > 1
x →∞
geometric meaning of the precise definition of x→∞
lim f(x) = 
is shown in the figure. lim log a x = − ∞ , if 0 < a < 1

x →∞
Note: We say that a limit, such as xlim

→∞
f(x), exists when
the limit is a real number, but not when the limit is ∞ or –∞.
Bounded Function
The function f(x) in a given interval of x is said to have
(i) a lower bound if there exists a finite number A, such that
f(x) ≥ A, for all values of x in the given interval.
Draw two lines parallel to the x axis, one of height (ii) an upper bound if there exists a finite number B such that
 + ε and one of height  – ε . They are the two edges f(x) ≤ B, for all values of x in the given interval.
A function is said to be bounded in an interval if it has a lower Infinite Limits

bound as well as an upper bound. Suppose that when x → a the "limiting behaviour" of a function
Thus, a function is bounded if its values are contained between y = f(x) is such that its absolute value increases unlimitedly
two numbers A and B i.e. A ≤ f(x) ≤ B. then we say that the function f(x) approaches an infinitely large
Then, the graph of the function y = f(x) lies between the lines quantity as x → a.
y = A and y = B. Definition A function y = f(x) is said to approach infinity
Alternatively, a function f(x) is called bounded in a given as x → a if for all the values of x lying sufficiently close to a
interval of x if these exists a number M > 0 such that |f(x)| ≤ the corresponding values of the function f(x) become greater
M for all values of x in the given interval. If there is no such than any given arbitrarily large positive number.
number M, the function is called unbounded. If a function f(x) approaches infinity as x → a we write
The graph of a bounded function (considered within the given lim f ( x ) = ∞ .
interval) is completely contained between the straight lines y x→a
= –M and y = M. A function y = f(x) which approaches infinity as x → a does

For instance, the functions y = sin x and y = cos x are bounded not have a limit in the ordinary sense. To extend the ordinary
for all x while the function y = ax when considered on the terminology and to characterize the behaviour of the function
whole x–axis, is unbounded. whose absolute value |f(x)| increases indefinitely we say that
It should be stressed that when speaking of the boundedness the function y = f(x) tends to infinity or has an infinite limit.
of a function it is necessary to indicate the interval on which Suppose that a function y = f(x) tending to infinity as x → a
the function is considered. only assumed positive (negative) values in a neighbourhood
of the point c, then we say that the function f(x) approaches
1 plus (minus) infinity as x → a. In these cases we write,
For example, the function y = is bounded in the interval
x respectively,
(1, ∞) and unbounded in the interval (0, 1).
lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim f ( x ) = − ∞
 π x→a x→a
The function y = tanx is bounded in the interval  0,  and
 4
 π Consider the following examples:
unbounded in the interval  0,  .
 2
x +1
Definition The function f(x) is called bounded as x → a if (i) The function y = approaches infinity as x → 1, it
x −1
there exists a neighbourhood of the point a, in which the given
tends to – ∞ if x remains less than 1 and to ∞ if x remains
function is bounded. greater than 1.
Definition The function y = f(x) is called bounded as
x → ∞ if there exists a number N > 0 such that for all values of 1
(ii) The function y = has the limit ∞ as x → 0.
x satisfying the inequality x > N, the function f(x) is bounded. x2
From the definition of a bounded function f(x) it follows that −1
(iii) lim = − ∞.
if xlim f ( x ) = ∞ or lim f ( x ) = ∞ that is, if f(x) is an infinitely x →1 ( x − 1) 2
→a x →∞
large function, it is unbounded. The converse is not true: an
unbounded function may not be infinitely large. Note: In what follows, when speaking about a limit, we
For example, the function y = x sin x as x → ∞ is unbounded shall mean that the limit is finite unless it is stipulated that it
because, for any M > 0, values of x can be found such that |x is infinite.
sin x|>M. But the function y = x sin x is not infinitely large x2 − 4 x2 − 4
because it becomes zero when x = 0, π, 2π, .... For example, since lim = 4, we say that lim
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x − 2
Note: 1
exists. However, although lim 2 = ∞ , we do not say that
x→0 x
1. If a function f(x) increases as x → ∞ and remains bounded 1
then it possesses a limit. lim 2 exists.
x→0 x
2. The product of a bounded function by an infinitesimally Consider some more examples :
small quantity is an infinitesimally small quantity.
Let f(x) be an infinitesimally small quantity and g(x) a bounded lim cot −1 x = π , lim x 2 = ∞ , lim sin x dne.
x →∞ x →−∞ x →∞
function in a neighbourhood of the point a to which x tends i.e.
|g(x)| ≤ M. Then we have lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = 0 . Example 2: Show that lim e − x sin x = 0.
x→a x →∞
Limits 1.11
Solution: –e–x ≤ e–x sin x ≤ e–x The function oscillates between –∞ and ∞.
Hence the limit does not exist.
2x 2
Example 4: Evaluate lim .
x →∞ x2 + 1
Solution: We have
2x 2 2( x 2 + 1) − 2 2
= = 2−
x +1
2
x +1
2
x +1
2
We can see from the graph that lim e − x sin x = 0. 2

x →∞ and as x → ∞, →0.
x –1 x +1
2
Example 3: Evaluate lim 2 sin sin(x).
x→∞
π x π 2x 2
Solution: − .2 ≤ 2 sin–1sin(x) ≤ 2 x
x
Hence, xlim = 2.
2 2 →∞ x 2 + 1
Concept Problems A

1. Find the following limits for the function shown in the Find (i) lim f(x), (ii) lim f(x), (iii) lim f(x).
figure: x2 x→0 x→3
Y
3. Find lim [αn], where α is any positive number and [.]
n→∞
denotes G.I.F.
1
0 1 2 X
4. Find lim {n –(–1)n} + n{1–(–1)n}
n→∞
5. Find lim (sin nθπ)/{n(n–(–1)n)}, where θ is any real

n→∞
(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x)
number.

x3 x→3
lim f(x) lim f(x) 6. Find lim sin nθπ, if θ is integral.

(iii) x
(iv) x→∞ n→∞

1
1 7. Find lim .
x 2 , x 2 n →∞
cos 2
1 1
nπ + n sin 2 nπ
2 2
2. Let f(x) = x 2 5 2 x 3
1
lim
x 13 x 3 8. Find n →∞  21 1  .
n  cos nπ + n sin 2 nπ
 2 2 
(v) Sum rule

1.3 Theorems on Limits lim (f + g) (x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x →a x →a
Let a and b be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
(i) lim b = b (ii) lim x = a (iii) lim xn = an = xlim
→a
f(x) + xlim
→a
g(x) =  + m,
x→a x→a x→a
Let f and g be two functions such that i.e., the limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the
lim f(x) = , lim g(x) = m. sum of their limits.
x →a x →a (vi) Difference rule
Then lim (f – g) (x) = lim [f(x) – g(x)]
x →a x →a
(iv) Constant Multiple rule
lim k(f(x)) = k. lim f(x) = k., = xlim
→a
f(x) – xlim
→a
g(x) =  – m,
x →a x →a
where k is independent of x. i.e., the limit of the difference of two functions is equal to
A constant factor may be taken outside the limit sign. the difference of their limits.
The limit of an algebraic sum of two, three or, in general, (a) if q(a) ≠ 0, then lim f(x) = f(a).
any definite number of functions is equal to the algebraic x →a
sum of the limits of these functions. (b) if q(a) = 0 but p(a) ≠ 0, then lim f(x) does not exist.
x →a
(vii) Product rule
lim (fg) (x) = lim [f(x). g(x)] (c) if q(a) = 0 and p(a) = 0, then lim f(x) may or may not
exist. This will be dealt later on in detail.
= xlim
→a
f(x). xlim
→a
g(x) = m,
i.e., the limit of the product of two functions is equal to Example 1: Evaluate
the product of their limits. lim (x + 2)
(i) x→2 (ii) lim x(x – 1)
x→2
The limit of a product of two, three or, in general, any
lim x + 4
2
definite number of functions is equal to the product of the (iii) x→2 (iv) lim cos (sin x)
limits of these functions. x+2 x→0
(viii) Quotient rule x 2 + 3x + 2

lim (f / g) (x) = lim [f(x) / g(x)] (v) lim
x →a x →a x→1
x2 −1
= xlim
→a
f(x) / xlim
→a
g(x) =  / m, (m ≠ 0) Solution:
(i) x + 2 being a polynomial in x, its limit as x → 2 is given
i.e., the limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
by x→2
the quotient of their limits provided the limit of the divisor
is not zero. (ii) Again x(x – 1) being a polynomial in x, its limit as x → 2
(ix) Power rule is given by
n lim x(x – 1) = 2 (2 – 1) = 2.
For any positive integer n, lim f ( x ) = n lim f ( x ),
x →a x →a
x→2
(iii) We have lim x + 4 = (2) + 4 = 2.

2 2
provided xlim f ( x ) > 0 when n is even.
x→2 x + 2
→c 2+2
( ) ( )
m/n
Also lim (f ( x ) )
m/n
= lim f ( x ) where m/n is a rational (iv) lim cos (sin x) = cos lim sin x = cos 0 = 1.
x →a x →a x→0 x →0
number and the limit on the right exists. (v) Note that for x = 1, the numerator of the given expression is a
The limit of a power is the power of the limit. nonzero constant 6 and the denominator is zero. Therefore,
(x) Composition rule 6
the given limit is of the form . Hence, we conclude that
If f is continuous* at x = , then 0
lim x + 3x + 2 does not exist.
2
lim g(f(x)) = g  lim f ( x ) = g () . x→1

x2 −1
x→ a  x → a 
Example 2: Evaluate the following limits:
 
Specially, xlim n (f(x) = n  lim f ( x ) = n 
→a
x→a  (i) lim (2x2 – 3x + 4) (ii) x 3 + 2x 2 − 1
provided  > 0. x→5 lim
x→−2 5 − 3x
*
We shall learn about continuity in the next chapter. Solution:
A function is f(x) said to be continuous at x = a if xlim
→a
lim (2x2 – 3x + 4)
(i) x→5
f(x) = f(a).
lim (2x2) – lim (3x) + lim 4
= x→5
These results are of fundamental importance but their x→5 x→5
formal proofs will not be given in this book.
lim x2 – 3 lim x + lim 4
= 2 x→5 x→5 x→5
Note:
= 2(52) – 3(5) + 4 = 39
(i) For any polynomial p(x) = c0 + c1x + .... + cnxn and any
(ii) We start by using laws of limit, but their use is fully jus-
real number a,
tified only at the final stage when we see that the limits of
lim p(x) = c + c a + .... = c an = p(a). the numerator and denominator exist and the limit of the
x →a 0 1 n
denominator is not 0.
(ii) Consider the rational function
p( x ) x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1 xlim ( x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1)
f(x) = where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. For any →−2
q( x ) lim =
x →−2 5 − 3x lim (5 − 3x )
real number a, x →−2
Limits 1.13
vanish at x = 0, we obtain the limit by substituting x = 0 in
lim x 3 + lim 2 x 2 − lim 1
= x →−2 x →−2 x →−2 the function.
lim 5 − 3 lim x
x →−2 x →−2
03 3.02 0 3 3 1
lim x + 3x − x − 3 =
3 2

( −2) + 2( −2) − 1
3 2 1 x→0
x2 + x − 6 02 0 6 6 2
= =– .
5 − 3( −2) 11
Study Tip
Example 3: Find lim
3
2 x 2 − 10 .
x→3 Although such substitution produces the correct answer in
2
Solution: Because lim (2x – 10) = 2(3 ) – 10 = 8 and 2 this particular case, in many limits involving non-elementary
x→3 functions, it produces either an incorrect answer or no answer
lim 3 x = 2 we can write lim 3
2 x 2 − 10 = 2. at all.
x →8 x→3
Also do not assume from these problems that lim f(x) is
x→a
Direct Substitution invariably f(a).
We learned that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a does not n (1 + x ) − x 2 + 2
To evaluate the lim , we notice that the
depend on the value of f at x = a. It may happen, however, that x →0 cos(sin x ) + 1 + sin −1 x
the limit is precisely f(a). In such cases, we say that the limit
can be evaluated by direct substitution. That is n (1 + x ) − x 2 + 2
function is elementary and x = 0 lies in
cos(sin x ) + 1 + sin −1 x
lim f(x) = f(a). (substitute a for x)
x →a the domain. Hence, limit is equal to the function's value at x = 0,
Such well behaved functions are continuous at a – we will
examine this concept more closely in the next chapter. Here we n (1 + x ) − x 2 + 2 0−0+2
i.e. lim −1
= =1.
discuss some limits that can be evaluated by direct substitution. x →0 cos(sin x ) + 1 + sin x 1+1+ 0
In the next section, we will discuss techniques for evaluating
limits for which direct substitution fails. To evaluate lim [ x ] we cannot use direct substitution property
x →2
Basic Elementary Functions as lim [ x ] = [2] = 2, since [x] is a non-elementary function. We
x →2
The following functions are called basic elementary functions : know that this limit does not exist.
(i) y = xp (ii) y = ax Sometimes, using direct substitution property on non-elementary
(iii) y = logax (iv) y = trigo x functions may give correct results as in lim [ x 2 ] = [0]2 = 0, but
–1
(v) y = trigo x. it is not advisable to use in general. x →0
Elementary Functions x can be treated as an elementary function since we can

write x = x 2 .
Elementary function is one which may be represented by
a single formula y = f(x), where f(x) is made up of basic
elementary functions and constants by means of finite number Thus, lim x x − 2 = 2 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
of operations of addition, substraction, multiplication, division
and composition. x2 − 4
Note that piecewise defined functions are non-elementary. For Example 5: Find lim π .
x→1 cos x
example, [x], {x}, sgn x are non-elementary functions. 4
Solution: The given function is an elementary function
Limit of Elementary Functions and the point x = 1 lies in the domain, and thus
Theorem For all elementary functions, limit at any point in
the domain is equal to the function's value at that point. x2 − 4 12 − 4
lim π = π =–3 2 .
x→1 cos x cos ·1
lim x + 3x − x − 3 .
3 2
4 4
Example 4: Find x→0
x +x−6
2
But the limit of this function as x → 2 can not be found by
Solution: Since the given function is an elementary means of the direct substitution since the denominator turns
function and the polynomial in the denominator does not into zero at the point x = 2.
Concept Problems B

1. Show that lim
1
= 10. 5. Show that lim cos x 4 tan x 1 .
2 x 2x 4
x →0.01 x→0
x 2
2
2. lim 3x .
Evaluate x→−1 1
2x − 1 6. Why doesn't the limit lim x sin 0 follow from
x 0 x
3. lim cos x .
Evaluate x the product law of limits with f(x) = x and g(x) =
sin x − π sin(1/x) ?
x
4. Evaluate lim .
x0 cos 1 x
exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such that for all x

1.4 One-Sided Limits satisfying a – δ < x < a ⇒ |f(x) – | < ε and we call it the
For functions that are defined piecewise, a two-sided limit at some left hand limit.
x, where the formula changes, is best obtained by first finding x
For instance, we see that lim 1 because |x|/x is equal
the one-sided limits at the number. x 0
x
Consider the behaviour of the function to –1 for all x to the left of zero.
x 1 if x 0 Right Hand Limit (R.H.L.)
f (x)
| x | 1 if x 0
Suppose that f is defined on the interval (a, c) immediately to
The graph of y = f(x) is shown below : the right of a. Then we say that the number  is the right hand
Y limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right, and we write
1 f(a+) = xlim f (x)  ...(2)
a

0 X provided that we can make the number f(x) as close to  as we
–1 please merely by choosing the point x in (a, c) sufficiently
close to a.
As x → 0, f(x) does not approach a specific number. However, Formally, lim f ( x )  , if for every number ε > 0 there exists
x a
as x approaches 0 through positive numbers, f(x) → 1. Also, a corresponding number δ > 0 such that for all x satisfying a <
as x approaches 0 through negative numbers, f(x) → –1. This x < a + δ ⇒ |f(x) – | < ε and we call it the right hand limit.
behaviour illustrates the idea of one-sided limits, which will x
now be defined. For instance, we see that lim 1 because |x|/x is equal to
x 0 x
Left Hand Limit ( L.H.L.) 1 for all x to the right of zero.

Suppose that f is defined on the interval (c, a) immediately to
One-Sided Limits and Two-Sided Limits
the left of a. Then we say that the number  is the left hand limit
of f(x) as x approaches a from the left, and we write Suppose that the function f is defined for x ≠ a in a
neighbourhood of the point a. Then the two-sided limit
f(a–) = lim f ( x )  ...(1) lim f ( x ) exists and is equal to the number  if and
x a

x →a
provided that we can make the number f(x) as close only if the one-sided limits lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) both exist
x a
x a

to  as we please merely by choosing the point x in and are equal to .

(c, a) sufficiently close to a. This theorem is useful in showing that certain limits
We may describe the left hand limit in (1) by saying that f(x) →  do not exist, frequently by showing that the left hand
as x → a–, that is, as x approaches a from the left. The symbol and right hand limits are not equal to each other.
a– denotes the left hand side of a. And conversely, if there exists a limit  of a function at the point
Formally, lim f ( x )  , if for every number ε > 0 there a, then there exist limits of the function at the point a both on
x a the right and on the left and they are equal.
Limits 1.15
Since the one-sided limits are not equal, the corresponding Study Tip
two-sided limit
x 1. When a function is defined only on one side of a point a, then
lim does not exist.
x →0 x lim f(x) is identical with the one-sided limit, if it exists.
x →a
Let f(x) =
x
3
x 1 For example, if f(x) = x , then f is defined only at and
2 x,
x1 to the right of zero. Hence, xlim
→0
lim
x = x 0 x = 0. Of
The given function is defined on the entire number line. Let us course, lim x does not exist, since x is not defined
x 0
compute the one-sided limits of this function at the point x = 1.
when x < 0.
f(1– ) = lim ( x ) 1
3
x 1 0
2. A function cannot have an ordinary limit at an endpoint of
its domain. It can have a one-sided limit.
f(1+) = x lim (2 x ) 3 The function f(x) = 9 − x 2 has the interval –3 ≤ x ≤ 3 as
1 0
its domain. If a is any number on the open interval (–3, 3),
Thus, f(1–) ≠ f(1+). Hence, the given function has no limit at
then lim 9 − x 2 exists and is equal to 9 − a 2 .
the point x = 1. x →a
Now consider a = 3. Let x approach 3 from the left; then
Example 1: The graph of a function g is shown in the lim 9 − x 2 = 0. For x > 3, 9 − x 2 is not defined.
x 3
figure. Use it to state the values (if they exist) of the following
limits: Hence, lim 9 − x2 = lim 9 − x 2 = 0.
lim g(x) x →3 x 3
(a) x 2
(b) x lim g(x)
2
Similarly, lim 9 − x 2 = lim 9 − x 2 = 0.

(c) lim g(x) (d) lim g(x)
x 3 x 3
x→2 x5
1 |x|
lim g(x) lim g(x) Consider the limit lim sin (e ) .
(e)
(f) x 0
x5 x→5
Even if f(0) = π/2 , the function is undefined on both sides
Y of x = 0. Hence there is no question of limit at x = 0.
4 [ x 2 ] 2[ x ] 3
In the limit lim 2 , the function is
3 x 3 [ x ] 4[ x ] 3
y = g(x)
undefined in the right neighbourhood of x = 3. Hence
R.H.L. cannot be discussed. However, the limit is 1/3 since
1 L.H.L. can be evaluated as 1/3.
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 X
3. There is no shorthand for the two-sided limit of lim
x →0 x
1 1
even though we write lim and lim . We
Solution: From the graph we see that the values of g(x) x 0 x
x 0 x
approach 3 as x approaches 2 from the left, but they approach may only say that the limit does not exist.
1 as x approaches 2 from the right. Therefore, 2x 1
Note that we do not write lim . However, it
(a) lim g(x) = 3 and x 1 x 1
x 2
(b) lim g(x) = 1 2x 1

x 2 would be correct to write lim .
(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude
x 1 x 1
that lim g(x) does not exist. x 3
x→2 Example 2: Find lim and
The graph also show that
x 1 x 3 3x 2
x 3
(d) lim g(x) = 2 and lim .
x5 x 2 ( x 1) 2 ( x 2)
(e) lim g(x) = 2 x 3
x5
Solution: lim
(f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so, we x 1 x 3 3x 2
lim g(x) = 2
have x→5 x 3
= lim
x 1 ( x 1) 2 ( x 2)
Despite this fact, notice that g(5) ≠ 2.
x 3 The right and left hand limits are equal. Thus, the limit exists
Now, lim lim f(x) = 0.
and x→4
x 2 x 3x 2
3
x 3 The graph of f is shown in the figure.

lim 3
x 2 x 3x 2

Y

x 3
∴ lim does note exist
x 2 ( x 1) 2 ( x 2)

4. In some cases a function is defined at x = a however limit
does not exist at x = a and in some cases limit x → a exists but 0 4 X
f(a) is not defined. Note these situations in the graph of the
following function y = f(x) :
sin[ x ]
Y , for [ x ] 0
Example 4: If f(x) = [ x ] ,
0 , for [ x ] 0
2

then find lim f ( x ) where [.] denotes the greatest integer
1 function. x →0
0 1 2 3 4 4 X Solution:
At x = 0 , f (0 ) = 1 +
sin[ x ] sin (1)
At x = 1 , f (1–) = 0 ; f (1+) = 1 lim f ( x ) lim sin 1 .
x 0 x 0 [x] (1)
At x = 2 , f (2+) = f (2–) = 1 ≠ f(2)
At x = 3 , f (3+) = f (3–) = 2 = f(3) lim f(x) = 0 as it is given that f(x) = 0 for [x] = 0.
and x
0
At x = 4 , f (4+) = f (4–) = 1 ≠ f(4)
At x = 5 , f (5–) → ∞ (limit dne). So, x→0
lim f(x) does not exist.
5. In functions involving the greatest integer function,

fractional part function and signum function the following Substitution for One-sided Limits
points must be noted : L.H.L. = xlim f ( x ) lim f (a h )
a
h 0
(i) f (x) = [ x ] and f (x) = {x} has no limit at all integers.
(ii) y = [f(x)] and y = {f(x)} may not have limit at points Substitute x = a – h, assuming h as a small positive quantity.
where f(x) is an integer. Note that as x → a–, h → 0+. But we often write h → 0.
|x| f ( x ) lim f (a h )
(iii) f (x) = has no limit at x = 0. R.H.L. = xlim
a
h 0
x
(iv) y = sgn(f(x)) may not have limit at points where Substitute x = a + h, assuming h as a small positive
f(x) = 0. quantity. As x → a+ , h → 0+.
Non-Existence of Limit x.sgn( x 1)
Example 5: Find lim
x 1
Three of the most common types of behaviour associated with
the non-existence of a limit.
1. f(x) approaches a different number from the right side of Solution: L.H.L. = lim x.sgn( x 1) Put x = 1 – h
x 1
a than it approaches from the left side. = hlim(1 h ) sgn(1 h 1)
0
2. f(x) increase or decreases without bound as x approaches
a. = hlim(1 h ) sgn( h )
0
3. f(x) oscillates too much as x approaches a.
= hlim(1 h )(1) 1 .
x4 x4 0
if
Example 3: If f(x) = determine
whether lim f(x) exists. 8 2x
if x4 R.H.L.= lim x. sgn( x 1) Put x = 1 + h
x→4 x 1
lim
Solution: Since f(x) = x − 4 for x > 4, we have x 4 = hlim(1 h ) sgn(1 h 1)
0
lim
f(x) = x 4 x − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0.

1 h ) sgn h = lim(1 h ) .1 = 1
Since f(x) = 8 – 2x for x < 4, we have = hlim(
0 h 0
lim f(x) = lim (8 – 2x) = 8 – 2.4 = 0. Since, L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L., lim x sgn( x 1) does not exist.
x 4 x 4
x 1
Limits 1.17
Example 6: Find xlim[ x] lim 2 cos(h) = – 2

0
→2 = h
Solution: L.H.L. = lim[2 h ] = lim 1 1 .

R.H.L. = lim 2 sin h
5
h 0 h0 h 0 4 4
R.H.L. = hlim[ 2 h ] lim 2 2 .
0 h 0 lim 2 cos(h) = –2
= h 0
Since, L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L., lim[ x ] does not exist.
x →2 Since, L.H.L. = R.H.L., the required limit is –2.
Example 7: Evaluate lim{x} .
x →2 Example 10: Evaluate the left hand and right hand limits
of the function
Y
( x 2 6 x 9)
, x3
1
2
1
f(x) = ( x 3) at x = 3.
–
–
+
x
x
Solution:
–1 –h 0 1 2–h 2 X 0 , x3
Solution: The given function can be written as
{2–h} = 2 – h – 1 = 1 – h
| x 3 |
, x3
f(x) = ( x 3)
We have {2 – h} = 2 – h – 1 = 1 – h
L.H.L. = lim{2 h} lim(1 h ) 1 .
h 2 h 0

0 , x3

R.H.L. = hlim{2 h} lim h 0 ∴ L.H.L. = x
lim f(x) = lim (3 – h)
0 h 0 3 h→0
Note that if h as a small positive quantity{–h} = 1 – h | 3 h 3| | h | h
1 = lim = lim = lim = –1
Example 8: Find lim x {x 2 } h 0 (3 h 3) h 0 ( h ) h 0 h
x 2 2
and R.H.L. = x
lim f(x) = lim (3 + h)
3
Solution: L.H.L. =
h→0
| 3 h 3| |h| h
= lim = lim = lim = 1
= lim 2 {4 4h h }
2 (3 h 3)
h 0 h →0 h h →0 h
h 0
Hence the left hand limit and right hand limit of f(x) at
= hlim 2 {4h h 2 } = lim 2 + {– h (4 – h)} x = 3 are –1 and 1 respectively.
0 h→0
2 1 (4h h 2 ) , since 4h – h2 is a small positive cos[ x ], x 0

= hlim
0 Example 11: Let f(x) =
| x | a , x 0

quantity.
=3 Find the value of a, given that x→0 lim f(x) exists, where
1 [ . ] denotes the greatest integer function.
R.H.L. = lim 2 h {(2 h ) 2 }
h 0 2 lim f(x) exists
Solution: Since x→0
= hlim 2 {4 h 4h} 2
lim f(x) = lim f(x).
0 x0 x0
⇒ lim f(0 – h) = lim f(0 + h)

= hlim 2 {4h h 2 } h→0 h→0
0
⇒ lim |0 – h| + a = lim cos [0 + h]
lim 2 + 4h + h2 = 2 h→0 h→0
= h→0
⇒ a = cos 0 = 1
Since, L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L., the limit does not exist. ∴ a=1
Example 9: Find lim5 [sin x + cos x]
x
4 Study Tip
If f(x) is an even function, then
Solution: L.H.L. = lim5 2 sin x 4
x
4 (i) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
x 0 x 0
5
L.H.L. = hlim 2 sin h lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
0 4 4 (ii) x a x a
If f(x) is an odd function then

sin −1 x
(i) xlim0
f ( x ) lim f ( x ) .
x 0
For x < 0, >1
x
lim f(x) exists, then lim f(x) = 0.
Further if x→0 sin 1 x
x→0
∴ L.H.L.= lim = 1. Hence P = 1.
x 0
(ii) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) x
x a x a
1 1
Example 13: Find lim tan 1 cot 1 2
sin 1 x x 0 x x
Example 12: Evaluate lim where [ . ] denotes
x 0
x 1 1
Solution: lim tan 1 cot 1 2
the greatest integer function. x 0 x x
1 1
sin 1 x = lim tan 1 lim cot 1 2
Solution: Let P = lim x 0 x x 0 x
x 0
x
1 1
= lim tan 1 0 = lim tan 1
sin −1 x x 0 x x 0 x
For x > 0, sin–1 x > x ⇒ >1
x Now we evaluate the one sided limits :
sin 1
x 1 1
∴ R.H.L. = lim =1 L.H.L. = lim tan
x 0 x 0
x 2
x
1
R.H.L. = lim tan 1 .
sin −1 x x 0 x 2
The function is even.
x Finally, the limit does not exist.
Concept Problems C

Y
1. Find lim f(x) f(x)
x / 2 2
Y
f(x) 1
2
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 X
1
4. The following figure shows the graph of a function f.
Decide which of the given limits exist and evaluate those
0 π/2 π X which do.
2. Find lim f(x) (a) lim f ( x ) (b) lim f ( x )
x 0 x →1

x →1
(c) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x )
Y

x 2 x 2
f(x) Y
2
3
1
2
0 1 2 X
1
3. Find (i) lim f(x), (ii) lim f(x), (iii) lim f(x)
x→0 x→1 x→3 0 1 2 3 4 X
Limits 1.19
5. The following figure shows the graph of a function f.

x2
Decide which of the given limits exist and evaluate those 10. Given that f(x) = , show that
which do. ( x − 1)( x − 2)
(a) lim f ( x ) (b) lim f ( x ) (i) lim f(x) = ∞, lim f(x) = –∞,

x →1 x →2 x1 x1
(c) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x ) (ii) lim f(x) = –∞, lim f(x) = ∞,
x →3 x 4

x 2 x 2
Y
(iii) lim f(x) = 1 = lim f(x).
3 x x
11. Find the left and right hand limits of the function
2
ψ(x) = x 1 for x 1, at the point x = 1.

2 x 1 for x 1
1
0 1 2 3 4 X 2 x 3, x 2

12. Find the limit of f (x) = at x = 2.
4 x , x 2
2
6. Use the graph of f and g to find the limits that exist.
Y
y = g(x) 2( x 1) if x 3
Y y = f(x) 2
13. Find lim f ( x ) where f(x) = 4 if x 3
1 x →3 2
1 x 1 if x 3
0 1 2 X –1 0 1 2 X 14. Using graphs find the limit (if it exists):
–2 x 2 2 ,
x 1
(a) (x) = , lim f ( x )
1 ,
x 1 x →1
(i) lim f(x) + g(x), a = 0, 2 | x 5|
x →a (b) lim
x 5 x 5
(ii) lim f (x)
x→2 1+ g ( x ) (c) lim tan 2 x .
x / 2
7. Evaluate the following limits : 15. Suppose that f is an odd function of x.
1/( x 5) x Does knowing that lim f(x) = 3 tell you anything about
(i) lim 10 (ii) lim sin –1
log 3 3 x 0
x 5

x1
lim f(x) ?
( x 1) −1 1 x 0
(iii) lim (iv) lim tan
x 1 ( x 1) 2 x→0 x 16. Suppose that f is an odd function of x. Does knowing that
lim f(x) = 7 tell you anything about either lim f(x) or
8. Evaluate lim sin–1 (sec x). x 2 x 2
x→0
9. Evaluate lim cos–1(1 + tan x). lim f(x)?

x0 x 2
Practice Problems B

19. Evaluate the limits
17. Evaluate (i) lim f ( x ) (ii) lim f ( x ) sin[cos x ]
x →1 x 1 (i) lim sin–1 [sec x] (ii) lim

x→0 1+ [cos x ]
x→0
x | x 3|
where f ( x ) . where [.] denotes the greatest integer function.
( x x 6) | x |
2
2 1
x sin , x0
18. Evaluate the following limits : 20. If f(x) = x , find lim f ( x )
(i) lim x sgn( x 1) x 2
, x 0
x →0
x1

tan 2 x 21. Evaluate lim 1 – x + [x] – [1 – x],
(ii) lim tan x x1

8
x where [.] denotes the greatest integer function.
4
2 n 1
x2 −1
[x r ] n 1 (i) lim
x→1 | x −1 |
r 1
22. Evaluate lim
1 [ x ] | x | 2 x
x →0 ¯ 2{x} − 4
(ii) lim
where [.] denotes the greatest integer function. x→2 [x] − 3
sin{x 10} | x3 | x 3
23. Find lim , (iii) lim , a > 0
x8 {10 x}
x →a a a
where {.} denotes the fractional part function. x 1 0 x 1
(iv) lim f(x) where f(x) =
24. Find the left and right hand limits of the function x→1 3x 2 1 x 3
1
φ(x) = 1
at the point x = 2. 27. In each of the following functions :
x 2 x 2 (a) Sketch the graph of the function f.
(b) For each integer n, evaluate the one-sided limits
25. Evaluate the one-sided limits (where [.] denotes the
greatest integer function): lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) in terms of n.
x n x n
1 [x 2 ] − 1 (c) Determine those values of a for which lim f ( x )
(i) lim (ii) lim x →a
x→1 ( x − 1) 2 x2 −1 exists.

x→1

(i) f (x)
2 if x is not an integer,
1
(iii) lim (iv) lim x(–1)[1/x]
2 (1) if x is an integer,
x
2 − 21/ x
x→0 x→0
26. Evaluate the one-sided limits (where [.] denotes the (ii) f(x) = [10x]
greatest integer function) : 1
(iii) f(x) = x – [x] – .
2
1.5 Determinate and Indeterminate (ii) lim(f ( x ) g ( x ))

x a
Forms (iii) lim f ( x )g ( x ) (for b 0)
x a
Until now we have found limits using graphs or the direct
substitution property. We shall now classify the problems of (iv) lim
g( x )
(for b 0)
limit in two ways: x a f (x)
(i) Determinate form: In which the limit can be predicted f (x)
(v) lim 0.
apriori without resorting to special methods. This is so x a g( x )
named because two problems having the same form have Here we give a list of determinate forms. One should try to
equal limits. understand the meaning of these forms :
2x cos x
For example, lim and lim are in the same (i) 0 + c = c (ii) 0 + 0 = 0
x 1 x x →0 ln | x |
(iii) c + ∞ = ∞ (iv) ∞ – c = ∞
tan
2 (v) c – ∞ = – ∞ (vi) 0 + ∞ = ∞
form
1
and we see that both of them have the limit 0. (vii) 0 – ∞ = – ∞ (viii) ∞ + ∞ = ∞
∞ (ix) 0 × c = 0 (x) ∞ × c = ∞ , c > 0
Hence we call
1
as a determinate form and we are sure (xi) ∞ × ∞ = ∞ (xii) 0 × 0 = 0
∞ c 0
1 (xiii) , c > 0 (xiv) =0, c ≠ 0
that any problem in form will have limit 0. 0 c
∞
f (x) 0
If lim f(x) = b and lim g(x) = 0 then lim is said (xv)
(xvi) 0
x →a x →a x →a g ( x ) 0
b (xvii) ∞∞ = ∞ (xviii) 0∞ = 0
to be of the form . If b > 0 and g(x) → 0+ then the Consider some examples of determinate form :
limit is ∞. 0
1
(i) lim 2 = ∞
Note: Let lim f ( x ) b, lim g ( x ) , then we have x →0 x
x a x a
1
(i) lim (f(x) + g(x)) (ii) lim 4 = ∞,
x a x →0 x
Limits 1.21
1 1 x2 −1 Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit lim [f(x)]g(x)

(iii) lim 2 4 = lim = –∞, x →a
x→0 x x x→0 x4 1. lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 type 00
x →a x →a
1
(iv) lim 2 2 = ∞, 2. lim f(x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = 0 type ∞0
x→0 x x →a x →a
1 3. lim f(x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ± ∞ type 1∞

(v) lim 1 x = ∞, x →a x →a
x 0 x2
Each of these three cases can be treated either by taking the
1 1 natural logarithm:
(vi) lim 2 2 1 x 2 = lim (1 – x) = 1,
x 0 x x x→0 let y = [f(x)]g(x),
x x
x 1 1 then n y = g(x) n f(x)
(vii) lim xlim
x 1 2 x
0,
2 1 / x or by writing the function as an exponential
2
(viii) lim (1 cos x )( x 2) lim (1 1) 2 4 . [f(x)]g(x) = eg(x) n f(x)
x 0 x 0 In either method we are led to the indeterminate product g(x)
(ii) Indeterminate form: In which the limit cannot be n f(x), which is of type 0 · ∞.
predicted apriori. Here special methods are required to The reason why these forms carry the label "indeterminate" is not
find the limit. In this case two problems having the same that they cannot be resolved, but rather that there is no predicting
form may not have equal limits. what the limit of the given function will be, or indeed whether it will
For example, the limit of a quotient, exist at all, until the given function receives a thorough investigation.
It is tempting to argue that an indeterminate form of type 0 .
f (x)
lim where lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, is ∞ has value 0 since “zero times anything is zero.” However,
x →a g ( x ) x →a x →a
this is fallacious since 0 . ∞ is not a product of numbers, but
called an indeterminate form of type 0/0. Consider the rather a statement about limits.
following limits in 0/0 form: The form (∞ + ∞), on the other hand, is determinate in the sense
x x2 x that unfailingly the sum function has limit ∞ if both summand
lim 1 , lim 0 , lim 3 functions have limit ∞ at the prescribed point of approach.
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x
The following examples show how easy it is to construct
We notice that the result varies quite significantly even if they are in the quotient functions and sum functions with indeterminate
same indeterminate form. The word “indeterminate” here refers forms having an arbitrary real number C as a limit, or having
to the fact that the limiting behaviour of the quotient cannot be no limit whatever.
determined without further study. The expression “0/0” is just a
The form 0/0.
device to describe the circumstance of a limit of a quotient in
C sin x x sin(1 / x )
which both the numerator and denominator approach 0. lim C while lim does not exist.
x 0 x →0 x
The important indeterminate forms are : x
0 , ∞ , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0º, ∞º and 1∞ The form (∞/∞).
0 ∞ Cx x (sin x 2)
lim C while xlim does not exist.

Note that ‘0’ doesn’t mean exact zero but it represents a value x x x
approaching towards zero. The form (∞ – ∞).

The behaviour of ‘1’ and ‘∞’ are similar. lim (x – (x – C)) = C while lim (x2 – x) does not exist.
x x
Indeterminate Products
The above examples were artificially framed to point that
If lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ∞ (or – ∞), then it isn't clear
x →a x →a "indeterminate" means "unpredictable without special attention
what the value of lim f(x)g(x), if any, will be. There is a to the functions involved".
x →a There is a myth that circulates among students which states
struggle between f and g. If f wins, the answer will be 0; that all indeterminate forms of types 0º, ∞º, and 1∞ have value
if g wins, the answer will be ∞ (or – ∞). Or there may be a 1 because “anything to the zero power is 1” and “1 to any
compromise where the answer is a finite nonzero number. This power is 1.” The fallacy is that 0º, ∞º, and 1∞ are not powers
kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞. of numbers, but rather descriptions of limits. The following
We can deal with it by writing the product fg as a quotient : examples show that such indeterminate forms can have any
f g
fg = or fg = positive real value :
1/ g 1/ f
(a) lim [x(ln a)/(1 + ln x)] = a (form 0º)

This converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of x0
0
the type or ∞/∞ . (b) lim [x(ln a)/(1 + ln x)] = a (form ∞º)

0 x
(c) lim [x(ln a)/(1 + ln x)] = 1 (form 1∞) (ii) ∞ ∞ ∞

∞

x→1 (iii) 0 indeterminate
We can easily verify these results. lim f(x) lim g(x) lim [f(x)/g(x)]

Find whether the following limits are in determinate /
indeterminate form. Also evaluate the limit in case of (i) ≠0 0 ∞
determinate form. (ii)  ∞ 0
2 (iii) ∞  ∞
(i) lim 0 (iv) 0 0 indeterminate
x 0 1 21/ x
2
(v) ∞ ∞ indeterminate
1 2 2
These results are valid even when x tends to
as x → 0, → 0, 21/ x → ∞ , → 0.
∞ a–. a+, ∞ or – ∞.

x
f (x) 5
sin 1 x /2 Example 1: If lim = 3 then find lim f ( x ) .
(ii) lim 0 , since →0 x 2 x 2 x→2
x 1
Solution: Since the denominator is approaching 0, we
tan x
2 can have limit only through 0 form.
(iii) lim (e x ) , since ∞ + ∞ = ∞.
x
0
x Hence lim f ( x ) must be 5.
x→2
lim(1 sin x )1/ x
2
(iv) (1∞ indeterminate form)

x 0 f (x) 5
Note that if lim = 4 then also lim f(x) is 5.
1
x2
x 2 x→2
(v) [cos
lim(1  x ]) x2 is not in 1∞ indeterminate form
f (x) 0
x 0
exact 1 Also if lim 2 = 2 then using form we have
0
since (exact 1)∞ = 1 (determinate form),
x→0 x
1 f (x)
(vi) [cos
lim(1 x ]) x = 1. lim f ( x ) 0 and further lim = 0.
x 0   x0 x→0 x
exact 1
1 1 Example 2: Find the left hand and right hand limits of
(vii) lim
x 0 x 2
(∞–∞ indeterminate form) 1
sin 2 x the function f ( x ) as x → 3.
[x 2 ] 1 exact 0 x 21/( x 3)
(viii) lim 0 0 = 0
x 1 x 1 Solution: If x → 3–, then

Let us try to deduce conclusion about the limits: 1/(x – 3) → –∞ and 21/(x–3) →0.
lim [f(x) + g(x)] , lim [f(x).g(x)] and lim [f(x)/g(x)] based Consequently, lim f ( x ) 1 / 3 .
x →a x →a x →a x 3
upon the individual behaviours of f(x) and g(x). Now if x → 3 , lim f ( x ) 0 .
+
Assume that  is a positive real number. x 3
lim f(x) lim g(x) lim [f(x) + g(x)] Example 3: Does the function

1 1
(i)  ∞ ∞ y = sin sin tend to a limit as x tends to 0?
(ii)  –∞ –∞ x x
(iii) ∞ ∞ ∞ Solution: The function is equal to 1 except when
(iv) –∞ –∞ –∞ sin(1/x) = 0; i.e. when x = 1/π, 1/2π,.... For these values the
(v) ∞ –∞ indeterminate formula for y assumes the meaningless expression 0/0, and
lim f(x) lim g(x) lim [f(x).g(x)] y is therefore not defined for an infinitely many values of x

near x = 0. Note that this is not the indeterminate form 0/0.
(i) ≠0 ∞ ∞ Hence the limit does not exist.
Concept Problems D

1. Find whether the following limits are in indeterminate (iii) lim x n x
form. Also indicate the form. x→0
1 1− x 1 1
(i) lim (ii) lim (iv) lim 2
x→0 x x→1 1 − x 2 x→0 x x
Limits 1.23
(v) lim (sin x)x (vi) lim (n x)x lim e tan x 1 1
x→0 x→0 (iii) (iv) lim tan–1
x x→0
1
1 tan x x
2 e
lim 1 sin x
(vii) x→0
x
lim (1)1/x
(viii) x→0 5. Evaluate the following limits:
2. Suppose that limx → a f(x) = ∞ and limx → a g(x) = c, where sin 1 x 1
(i) lim lim
(ii) x→0
c is a real number. Prove each statement. x→1 x ln | x |
(a) lim [f(x) + g(x)] = ∞
tan
x →a 2
e x ln 2  − 
1
(b) lim [f(x) g(x)] = ∞ if c > 0 (iii) lim (iv) lim x 2 1 − e x  2
x →a x
ex x →0
 
(c) lim [f(x) g(x)] = – ∞ if c < 0
x →a x
6. Show that lim x .
Let lim f ( x ) 0 with f(x) ≠ 0 for x ≠ a, lim g ( x ) b ≠ 0.

3.
x a
x e
x a
g( x ) f (x) − 5
Prove that lim 7. If xlim
→4
= 1, find xlim
→4
f(x).
x a f (x) x−2
f (x)
4. Prove that the following limits donot exist : 8. If lim 2 = 1, find
x 2 x
1
lim tan x f (x)
(i) (ii) lim (2) x (i) lim f(x) and (ii) lim
x
tan 2 x x→0 x 2 x 2 x
2
Concept Problems C

9. Find xlim
x
1
(e) lim ln x
→a2 |x − a| x
x 0
10. Find the following limits by inspection.
(f) lim (x + x3)
x x
(a) lim
x 0 ln x x3
3x 2
1 1
x
x3 11. Evaluate lim 2
(b) lim x 2 x 1
x e x
(c) lim (cos x)tan x 12. If f(x) = [x2 + 1][x + 1], where [.] denotes the greatest integer
x( / 2)
(d) lim (ln x) cot x
x0
function, find lim
x→1
f(x).
METHODS OF EVALUATING LIMITS of the given expression otherwise we repeat the process till
we get rid of the indeterminate form (0/0).
x3
1.6 Factorisation and Cancellation of Example 1: Find lim .
x2 9 x 3

Common Factors Solution: Here, the denominator tends to zero as
If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials such that f(a) = g(a) = 0, then x → 3 and the numerator also tends to zero. But since x2 – 9
= (x – 3) (x + 3), we have
f (x)
(x – a) is a factor of both f(x) and g(x). Now to solve lim ,
x →a g ( x ) x 3 x 3 1 1
lim lim lim
we cancel the common factor (x – a) from both the numerator x 2 9 x 3 ( x 3)( x 3) x 3 x 3 6
x 3
and denominator, and again put x = a in the given expression. In the solution of this problem we cancel x – 3, and one may
If we get a meaningful number, then the number is the limit think that this is illegitimate since x → 3, and the division by
zero is not allowed. But this is not the case here : the functions x2 4
x 3 Example 4: Find lim .
y 2 and y 1 coincide identically for all x ≠ 3, and x→2 cos x
x 9 x 3 4
Solution: We put x – 2 = z, i.e. x = z + 2, and as
the definition of a limit of a function for x → a, does not involve x → 2 we have z → 0.
the value of that function at the point x = a itself, and therefore z(z 4) z ( z + 4)
lim x 4
2
the limits of the above functions as x → 3 are equal to each lim lim
x→2 = z 0 = z→0 π
other. The essence of this transformation is that the limit of the cos x cos (z 2) − sin z
4 4 4
new function is found easier than that of the original function. π
x2 + x − 6 z ( z + 4)
z
Example 2: Evaluate lim π lim 4 16
x →−3 x+3 lim
= z→0 π = – 4 z→0
lim
π . z→0 (z + 4) = – π .
Solution: We cannot apply direct substitution because − sin z sin z
the limit of the denominator is 0. 4 4
x2 x 6 x →−3
(
lim x 2 + x − 3 = 0) 1.
Note:
xn – an = (x – a)(xn–1 + xn–2a + xn–3a2 + xn–4a3 +...
x 3 lim ( x + 3) = 0

+ xan–2 + an–1)

x →−3
( )
where n is even or odd positive integer.
lim x 2 + x − 6 = 0
x x x →−3 2. xn + an = (x + a)(xn–1–xn–2a + xn–3a2 – xn–4a3 + ...
x lim ( x + 3) = 0 + (–1)n–1an–1)

x →−3 where n is odd positive integer. This formula is not applicable
Direct substitution fails here. when n is even.
Because the limit of the numerator is also 0, the numerator 5
(1 x )3 1
Example 5: Find lim .
and denominator have a common factor of (x + 3). Thus, for x0 x
all x ≠ – 3, we can cancel this factor to obtain Solution: Let us put 1 + x = y5. As x → 0, y → 1.
x x ( x 3)( x 2) Then we have
= = x – 2, x ≠ – 3
x x 3 5
(1 x )3 1 = lim y 1
3
It follows that lim y 1 y 1

5
x0 x
x2 + x − 6
lim = xlim ( x − 2) = −5. y2 + y + 1 3
x →−3 x+3 →−3 lim =
Although correct, the second equality in the preceding
y →1 y + y3 + y 2 + y + 1
4
5
computation needs some justification, since cancelling the factor x3 x 2 x 1
x + 3 alters the function by expanding its domain. However, Example 6: Find lim
x 1 x 3 x 2 x 1
the two functions are identical, except at x = – 3. From our previous Solution: Here we have an indeterminacy of the form
discussions, we know that this difference has no effect on the 0/0. Let us factorize the numerator and the denominator of
limit as x approaches – 3. the function
x 6 24 x 16
Example 3: Find lim x3 x 2 x 1 x 2 ( x 1) ( x 1)
x→2
x 3 2 x 12 lim lim
x 1 x 3 x2 x 1 x 1 x 2 ( x 1) ( x 1)
lim x 24 x 16
6
Solution: x→2
x 3 2 x 12 ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) lim x 1 0 0
lim x 1 x 1
.
x 1 ( x 1) ( x 1) 2 2
lim ( x 2)( x 2 x 4 x 8x 16 x 8)
5 4 3 2
= x→2 2
( x 2 x 6)( x 2) x 3 1000
Example 7: Find lim
=
168
= 12 x 3 20 x 2 100 x
x 10
14 Solution: This is also an indeterminacy of the form 0/0.

Substitution for Limits x → a We have
Suppose that lim f(x) =  x 3 1000
x →a lim 3
Let x = a + t, then f(x) = f(a + t). x 10 x 20 x 2 100 x
If x → a then t → 0 and f(a + t) → , and we write
( x − 10)( x 2 + 10 x + 100)
lim f (a t ) = . = lim
x a x →10 x (x − 10) 2
Telegram @unacademyplusdiscounts Limits 1.25
x 2 10 x 100 1 1
= lim = – lim =– 2
x 10 x ( x 10) y 2x ( x y 2) x
Here, y is a variable, so that it might be thought that we are
The numerator of the fraction tends to 300 and the denominator
dealing with functions of two variables. However, the fact that
tends to zero. Consequently, the fraction in question is an
x as a variable plays no role in this problem; for the moment, x
infinitely large quantity and
can be considered a constant.
x 3 1000
lim does not exist. 2 x 23 x 6
x 10 x 2 x 2 100 x
3 Example 11: Evaluate lim
x 2 2 x / 2 21 x
lim
x 3 3x 2 x 3 2 x 23 x 6 0
Example 8: Find x→−3 Solution: lim x /2 1 x form 0
x x 6
2
x 2 2 2
Solution: At the point x = – 3 both the numerator and 2 2x
8 6.2 x
= lim
the denominator turn into zero. x 2 2x / 2 2
We have x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3) (x – 2) and
(2 x 2)(2 x 4)
x3 + 3x2 – x – 3 = (x + 3) (x2 – 1), and hence, on cancelling = lim
the factor (x + 3), we obtain
x 2 2x / 2 2
(2 x 2)(2 x / 2 2)(2 x / 2 2)
lim x 3x x 3 = lim x − 1 = ( −3) − 1 = – 8
3 2 2 2
= lim
x→−3
x2 x 6 x→−3
x−2 −3 − 2 5 x 2 2x / 2 2
In the same manner we can find = 2 × 4 = 8.
x 3 x 2 log x log x 1
lim x 3x x 3 dne, lim x 3x x 3 = 0.
3 2 3 2
Example 12: Evaluate lim
x 1 x2 1
x→2 2
x x 6 x→1 2
x x 6
Solution: The given limit = lim
x 1 x 1 log x
3 2
Example 9: Evaluate x 1 x2 1
lim 1 2 (2 x 3)
x→2 x 2 x 3 3x 2 2 x = lim
( x − 1) ( x 2
)
+ x +1 − ( x − 1)( x +1) logx
x→1 ( x − 1)( x +1)
Solution: We have
x 1 x 2
+ x +1 x +1 logx

lim 1 2 (2 x 3) = lim
x→2 x1 x 1 x +1
x 2 x 3 3x 2 2 x
12 +1+1 1+1 log1
lim 1 2 (2 x 3)
3
= = .
= x→2
x 2 x ( x 1)( x 2) 1+1 2
3x 2 ax a 3
lim x ( x 1) 2(2 x 3)
= x→2 Example 13: If the limit lim exists,
x ( x 1)( x 2)
find a and the limit. x 2 x2 x 2
Solution: We see that the denominator → 0. For
lim x 5x 6
2
= x→2 0
x ( x 1)( x 2) the limit to exist, we must have the form. Hence the
0
numerator must → 0, i.e.
lim ( x 2)( x 3) lim 3x2 + ax + a + 3 = 0
= x→2 x2
x ( x 1)( x 2)
⇒ 12 – 2a + a + 3 = 0 ⇒ a = 15.
lim x 3 = – 1 3x 2 ax a 3 2 x 2 15x 18
= x→2 Now lim = lim
x ( x 1) 2 x 2 x2 x 2 x 2 x2 x 2
1
3( x 2)( x 3)
1 1 = lim 1 .
Example 10: Find lim x 2 ( x 2)( x 1)
y 2 y 2 x y 2 x
f (x)
xx2y 1 Example 14: If lim 2 then evaluate the
lim
Solution: y · x2 x0
2 x ( x y 2) y 2 following limits, giving explicit reasoning.
f (x)
(i) lim f ( x ) , (ii) lim ⇒ lim [A] = 0 and lim [A] = – 1
where [ . ] x0
x0 x
−
x→ 0
x0
⇒ The given limit does not exist.
denotes the greatest integer function.
f (x) Example 15: Discuss the behaviour of
Solution: (i) Let l = lim f x = lim 2 · x 2
x0 x
x0
a 0 x m + a1x m +1 + .....a k x m + k
φ(x) =
Now argument of G.I.F is tending towards zero and b0 x n + b1x n +1 + .... + b x n + 
f (x)
from positive side as lim 2 and x2 → 0+ where a0 ≠ 0, b0 ≠ 0 as x tends to 0 by positive or negative
x0 x 2
f (x) 2 values.
we have · x → 0+ ⇒ l = 0.
x2 lim φ(x) = 0.
Solution: If m > n, x→0
f (x) f (x) lim φ(x) = a /b .
If m = n, x→0
(ii) We write lim = lim 2 · x 0 0
x0 x x0 x
If m < n and n – m is even, φ(x) → ∞ or φ(x) → –∞ according
and assume A = f ( x ) · x as a0/b0 > 0 or a0/b0 < 0.
x2 If m < n and n – m is odd, then φ(x) → ∞ as x → 0+ and φ(x)
Now x → 0 ⇒ A → 0+
+ → –∞ as x → 0–, or φ(x) → –∞ as x → 0 and φ(x) → ∞ as
and x → 0– ⇒ A → 0– x → 0–, according as a0/b0 > 0 or a0/b0 < 0.
Concept Problems E

1. Evaluate the following limits:
(c) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x )
x →−3 x →0
lim x 3x 9 x 2 ( x 1) 2
3 2
(i) (ii) lim
x→2
x3 x 6 ( x 1) 2 1 [x ] 1
2

x 0
4. Evaluate limit where [.] denotes the greatest
(x h )2 x 2 x1 x2 1
1 t
(iii) lim (iv) lim integer function.
h 0 1 t5

h t1

lim
x 2 9 x 20
5. Evaluate x→ where [.] denotes
(i) | y 1 | y 1 5 x [ x ]
l im
y 1
| y 1 | y 1 the greatest integer function.
x 3 27 6. Evaluate the following limits where [.] denotes the greatest

(ii) lim integer function :
x 3 | x 3 | ( x 3)
x [x] x [x]
(i) lim (ii) lim
Let f(x) = x + x − 2 find
2
3. x 2
x2 x 2
x2
x 2 + 2x − 3
(iii) lim
[ x 2 ] [ x ]2 (iv) [x3 ] x3
(a) lim f ( x ) (b) lim f (x) lim
x →−2 x →1 x 1 x2 1 x 10 [x] x
Practice Problems D

x 7 − 2x 5 + 1
(i) lim x − 3x + 2
4 (iii) lim
x →1 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2
x→1 x 5 − 4 x + 3
(iv) lim x − 6 x − 27
4 2
x 3 − 4 x 2 + 5x − 2
(ii) lim
x →1 ( x 2 − 1) 2 x →−3 x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 3
Limits 1.27
8. Evaluate the following limits :

x 3 + cx 2 + 5x + 12
lim exists. Also find the corresponding
t t −t 2
x →3 x 2 − 7 x + 12
(i) lim − 4
t →1 t + 1 t −1 limit.
10. Evaluate the one-sided limits in the following :
(ii) 2 sin 2 x + sin x − 1
lim
x →π / 6 2 sin 2 x − 3 sin x + 1 lim x 2[x 2 ]
(i) x→ 2
(1+ | x − 2 |)
1 − cot 3 x
(iii) lim
x →π / 4 2 − cot x − cot 3 x lim x (e[ x ]+|x| − 2)
(ii) x→0
[ x ]+ | x |
9. Find a number c so that where [.] denotes the greatest integer function.

1.7 Rationalization  2  2
= lim   = = 1.
x→0  1 + x + 1 − x  2
If in any limit, the denominator or numerator involves the
radical sign then we can rationalize the irrational expression by
multiplying with their conjugates to remove the indeterminacy. (ii) We have lim
 (2 x − 3) x − 1

( ) 
x→1  
2x 2 + x − 3
4 − 15x + 1  
Example 1: Evaluate lim .
2 − 3x + 1
( ) 
x→1
 (2 x − 3) x − 1
= lim 
lim 4 − 15x + 1 x→1 
(2 x + 3)( x − 1) 

Solution: x→1
2 − 3x + 1  
= lim
(4 − 15x + 1)(2 + 3x + 1)(4 + 15x + 1)
= lim


(2 x − 3) x − 1 ( 

)
(2 − 3x + 1)(4 + 15x + 1)(2 + 3x + 1)
( )( )
x→1
x→1 
(2 x + 3) x − 1 x +1 

15 − 5x )  
× 2 + 3x + 1 =
( 5
= lim
x→1
(3 − 3x )  
4 + 15x + 1 6
 2x − 3 
= lim
x→1 
(
(2 x + 3) x + 1  )

Example 2: Evaluate the following limits:
 
lim 1+ x − 1− x
(i) x→0 −1 −1
x = = .

(5)(2) 10
(ii) lim
(2 x − 3) ( x −1 ) 1− x 
Example 3: Evaluate lim sin −1  
2x + x − 3  1− x 
x→1 2
x →1
0
Solution: (i) The given limit takes the form when
0 
−1 1 − x

x → 0. Rationalizing the numerator, we get
Solution: lim sin  
1+ x − 1− x x →1  1− x 
lim
x→0
x  1− x 
  = sin–1  lim 
x →1 1 − x 
lim  1 + x − 1 − x × 1 + x + 1 − x 
= x→0
 x 1 + x + 1 − x 
 1− x 
  = sin–1  lim 
 x →1 (1 − x )(1 + x ) 
lim  (1 + x ) − (1 − x )
= x→0 
 (
 x 1+ x + 1− x ) 


= sin–1  lim
1  1 π
= sin–1 = .
 x →1 1 + x  2 6
  x−2
lim  2x  Example 4: Evaluate xlim
( )
= x→0
x 1+ x + 1− x 
→2 +
x2 − 4 + x − 2
 
x−2 1 1
Solution: xlim = = – .
→2 +
x2 − 4 − x − 2 4+4+4 12
3
x2 − 23 x +1
x−2 . ( x − 4 + x − 2)
2 Example 6: Calculate lim
= lim x →1 ( x − 1) 2
x → 2+
x − 4 − x − 2 ( x − 4 + x − 2)
2 2
3
Solution: We substitute x = t
( x − 2)( x − 4 + x − 2 )
2 Then, for the variable t, the expression under the limit sign
lim can be written in the form
=
x → 2+ ( x 2 − 4) − ( x − 2)
t 2 − 2t + 1
= lim ( x − 2)( x − 4 + x − 2 ) ( t 3 − 1) 2
2
x→2 +
x2 − x − 2 The number to which the new variable t tends, as
x → 1, can be found as the limit of the function
= lim ( x − 2)( x − 4 + x − 2 )
2
x→2 +
( x − 2)( x + 1) t(x) = 3 x as x → 1,
i.e. lim t ( x ) = lim 3 x = 1
= lim x 2 − 4 + x − 2 = 0. x →1 x →1
x → 2+ x +1 Thus we have
t 2 − 2t + 1 ( t − 1) 2
Note: lim = lim
t →1 ( t 3 − 1) 2 t →1 ( t − 1) 2 ( t 2 + t + 1) 2
1 1 n −1 n −2 1 n −3 2 n −1
(x n − a n )( x n + x n an + x n an + ..... + a n ) = ( x − a) = lim
1
=
1
t →1 ( t 2
+ t + 1) 2
9
1 1 n −1 n −2 1 n −3 2 .
(x n + a )( x n
n − x n an + x n an − ...) = ( x + a ) if n is odd x − 2a + x − 2 a
Example 7: Evaluate x lim
→ 2a +
3 (7 − x ) − 2 x 2 − 4a 2
Example 5: Evaluate lim x − 2a + x − 2a 
x →−1 ( x + 1) 0
Solution: lim  form 
x → 2a +
x − 4a
2 2 0
Solution:
3 (7 − x ) – 2
x − 2a x − 2a
(7 − x ) − 8 = lim + lim
x → 2a + x → 2a +
= x − 4a
2 2
x 2 − 4a 2
(7 − x ) + (7 − x )1/3 .2 + 4
2/3
( x − 2a )( x + 2a )
= lim
( x + 1) x → 2a +
= ...(1) x 2 − 4a 2 ( x + 2a )
( x + 1) 2/3 + ( x + 1)1/3 .2 + 4

( x − 2a )
+ lim
3 (7 − x ) − 2 ( x − 2a )( x + 2a )

x → 2a +
lim
∴
x →−1 ( x + 1) x − 2a 1
= x lim +
( x + 1) → 2a +
( x − 2a )( x + 2a ).2 2a 4a
= – lim
x →−1 ( x + 1)(7 − x ) 2/3
+ (7 − x ) .2 + 4
1/ 3
x − 2a 1
= lim +
[from (1)] x → 2a +
x + 2a 2 2a 2 a
1 1 1
= lim
=0+ = .
x →−1 (7 − x ) 2 / 3 2 a 2 a
+ (7 − x )1/ 3 .2 + 4
Concept Problems F

1. Calculate the value of the function at several points near x = 0 and hence estimate the limit
x of f(x) as x → 0.
f(x) =
x +1 −1
Limits 1.29

x 4 + x + x2 − 2
(i) lim 3. Evaluate lim
x→0
5− x − 5+ x x →−1 x +1
3− x 4. Evaluate lim x +1
(ii) lim x→ −1
x→9
4 − 2x − 2 6 x + 3 + 3x
2
3
x2 − 3 x 5. Find numbers a and b so that
(iii) lim
x→1 ( x − 1) ax + b − 1
lim = 1.
x →0 x
(iv) lim 5−x − 2
x→1
2−x −1
Practice Problems E

 x −3  x 2 − 2x + 6 − x 2 + 2x − 6
6. Evaluate lim log a  8. Evaluate lim .
x →3  x + 6 − 3 x →3 x 2 − 4x + 3
9. Evaluate lim x + 7 − 3 2x − 3
1 + x + x − 7 + 2x − x
2 2 x→ 2 3
x + 6 − 2 3 3x − 5
(i) lim
x→2 x 2 − 2x 10. Evaluate the following limits :
(ii) lim 1+ 2 + x − 3 x 2 + 8 − 10 − x 2
(i) lim
x→ 2
x−2 x →1
x2 + 3 − 5 − x2
(iii) lim x +1
x→ −1 4 x + 17 − 2
3 8 + 3x − 2
(ii) lim
x → 0 4 16 + 5x − 2
1+ x − 1− x
(iv) lim
x →0 3 1 + x − 1− x 5
1 + x )3 − 1
(iii) lim .
x→0
(1 + x ) 3 (1 + x ) 2 − 1
1.8 Limit Using Expansion Series of x 3 2x 5

(vi) tan x = x + + + ........

Functions 3 15
x3 x5 x7
In this method basically we use the series expansion of sin (vii) tan–1x = x − + − + .......
x, cos x, tan x, log(1+x), ax, ex, etc. to evaluate the limit. 3 5 7
Following are some of the frequently used series expansions: 12 3 12.32 5 12.32.52 7
(viii) sin-1x = x + x + x + x + .......
3! 5! 7!
x 1n a x 2 1n 2a x 3 1n 3a
(i) ax = 1+ + + + .........a > 0 x 2 5x 4 61x 6
1! 2! 3! (ix) sec x = 1 + + + + ......
2! 4! 6!
x x 2 x3
(ii) ex = 1 + + + + ............ nx x2
1! 2! 3! (x) (1 + x)n = 1 + + n (n − 1) +.... for –1< x< 1, n ∈ Q.
1 2
x 2 x3 x 4  1 11 2 
(iii) ln (1+x) = x − + − + .........for − 1 < x ≤ 1 (xi) (1 + x)1/x = e 1 − x+ x + .....
2 3 4  2 24 
x3 x5 x7 Note: Using the above expansions, we can find other
(iv) sin x = x − + − + ....... expansion series. For example to find the expansion series of
3! 5! 7!
1 − cos 2 x
x2 x4 x6 sin2x, we write, sin2x = and use the expansion series
(v) cos x = 1 − + − + ...... 2
2! 4! 6! of cos x with x replaced by 2x.
Maclaurin's Theorem  x3   x3 
 x + 3 ........ −  x − 3 ! .......
x2 x3    
f(x) = f(0) + xf'(0) + f "(0) + f '" (0) + ... = xlim
→0
2! 3! x3
xn n 1 1 3
........ + f (0) + ........  +  x + ........
n! lim  3 3! =
1
+
1 1
= .
x→0 x3

3 6 2
Example 1: Expand sin x in powers of x.
1 − x
e x + ln 
 e 
Solution: Here f(x) = sin x, Hence f(0) = 0,
f'(x) = cos x, f'(0) = 1, Example 5: Evaluate lim
tan x − x

f"(x) = – sin x, f"(0)= 0, x→0

f'"(x) = – cos x, f"'(0) = – 1 1 − x
e x + ln 
 e 
.............

 nπ  Solution: lim
fn(x) = sin  x +  fn(0) = sin nπ x→0 tan x − x
 2 2
e x + ln(1 − x ) − ln e
nπ n = lim [form 0/0]
x3 x5
x sin x→0 tan x − x
Thus sin x = x – + − .... + 2 + ...
3! 5! n! x 2 x3  x 2 x3 
1+ x + + + ... +  − x − − − ... −1
Example 2: Expand ln(cos x) in powers of x. 2! 3!  2 3 
= lim
Solution: Here f(x) = ln(cos x), x→0  x 3
2x 5
f'(x) = – tan x = – t, say,  x + 3 + 15  − x

 
f"(x) = – sec2 x = – (1 + t2),
1
f'"(x) = – 2 tan x sec2 x = – 2t (1 + t2), − x 3 (1+ terms containing x and its higher powers)
f(4)(x) = – 2 (1 + 3t2) (1 + t2) = – 2 (1 + 4t2 + 3t4), 6
= xlim
→0 1 3
f(5)(x) = – 2 (8t + 12t3) (1 + t2) x (1+ terms containing x and its higher powers)
= – 2(8t + 20t3 + 12t5), 3

f(6)(x) = – 2 (8 + 60t2 + 60t4) (1 + t2) 1
=– .
= – 2(8 + 68t2 + 120t4 + 60t6) 2

Hence, 5 sin x − 7 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x
f(0) = 0, and x →0 x 2 sin x
f'(0) = f(3)(0) = f(5)(0) = ...= 0, also
5 sin x − 7 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x
f"(0) = – 1, f(4)(0) = –2, f(6)(0) = – 16. Solution: lim
x →0 x 2 sin x
x2 x4 x6
Hence ln(cos x) = – −2 − 16 .............  x3   ( 2 x )3   (3x )3 
2! 4! 6! 5 x − + .... − 7  2 x − + .... + 3  3x − + ....
 3!   3!   3!! 
= lim
ex − 1 − x x →0 
x2  x −
x 3
+ ....

x→0 x2  3! 
e −1− x x 5x 3 56 x 3 81x 3
Solution: lim − + −
x→0 x2 3! 3! 3!
= lim
 
x →0  x 3 
x2 x 3 1 − + ...
 1 + x + 2 ! ....... − 1 − x  3! 
 
= lim
x→0 x2 −5 + 56 − 81
= = −5 .
1 x x 2
1 3!
= xlim + +
→ 0 2! 3!
............ = . x2
4! 2 n (1 + x ) − sin x +
Example 7: Evaluate lim 2
Example 4: Evaluate tan x − sin x x→0 x tan x sin x
x3 x2
tan x − sin x n (1 + x ) − sin x +
Solution: lim Solution: lim 2
x→0 x3 x→0 x tan x sin x
Limits 1.31
 x 2 x3   x3 x5  x2 x 7 − 2x 5 + 1
 x − 2 + 3 ..... −  x + 3! + 5! + ..... + 2 Example 11: Find lim
x→1 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2
.
   
= xlim
→0
3 tan x siin x 0
x . . Solution: This is of the form if we put x = 1.
x x 0
1 1 1 Therefore we put x = 1 + h and expand.
= + = .
3 6 2 x 7 − 2x 5 + 1 (1 + h )7 − 2(1 + h )5 + 1
lim = lim
cos x 3 − 1 + n (1 + x 6 ) x→1 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 h→0 (1 + h )3 − 3(1 + h ) 2 + 2
x 2 (e x − 1 − x 2 )
2
x →0 (1 + 7 h + 21h 2 + ...) − 2(1 + 5h + 19h 2 + ...) + 1
= lim
cos x 3 − 1 + n (1 + x 6 ) h→0 (1 + 3h + 3h 2 + ...) − 3(1 + 2h + h 2 ) + 2
Solution: lim
x 2 (e x − 1 − x 2 ) −3h + h 2 + ...
2
x →0
= lim
x6 x12 h→0 −3h + ....
1− + ........ − 1 + x 6 −
2 2 −3 + h + ...
= lim = lim = 1.
x →0  x2 x4  h→0 −3 + ....
x 2 1 + + ....... − 1 − x 2 
 1 2  a cos x + bx sin x − 5
Example 12: If lim exists, find a,
1 b and the limit.
x →0 x4
+ .....  0
2 Solution: As x → 0, x4 → 0 the limit must be in  
= lim =1.  0
x→0  1  form. Hence lim acos x + bx sin x – 5 = 0.
 2 + ....... x→0
⇒ a – 5 = 0 ⇒ a = 5.
esin x − sin x − 1  x2 x4   x3 
Example 9: Find lim 5 1 − + ....... + bx  x − ...... − 5
x →0 x2  2 2   3 
Limit = lim
x →0 x4
e sin x
− sin x − 1
Solution: lim  5 2  5 b 4
x →0 x2  b −  x +  −  x + ....
2 24 6 
 sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x  = lim
1 + 1 + + + ..... − sin x − 1 x →0 x4
 2 3  4
For limit to exist, x must cancell from the numerator. Hence
lim
= x→ 0 x2 we assume the coefficients of all powers of x
 sin x   1 sin x 
2
1 1 5 5
= lim   + + ... = = . less than 4 to be zero ⇒ b − = 0 ⇒ b = .
x→0  x   2  3  2 2 2 2
 5 b 4
(7 + x )1/3 − 2  −  x + ........
Example 10: Evaluate lim 24 6  5 b
x →1 x −1 Now the limit = lim 4
= −
x →0 x 24 6
Solution: Put x → 1 + h
5 5 −5
(8 + h )1/3 − 2 ∴ Limit = − = .
lim 24 12 24
h→0 h
Ae x − B cos x + Ce − x
 h
1/ 3 Example 13: If lim = 2 , find A,
x →0
2 . 1 +  −2 B and C. x sin x
 8
= lim Solution: The given limit is equal to
h→0 h
 x2   x2   x2 
 1 1   h  2 A 1 + x + ....... − B  1 − + ....... + C  1 − x + .......
 − 1     2   2   2 

 1 h 3 3   8  lim
x →0  3 
2 1 + . + + ....... − 1 xx −
x
.......
 3 8 1 . 2   3 

 

= lim  A + B + C 2
( A − B + C) + ( A − C) x +   x
h→0 h  2
= lim
1 1 x →0  x2 
= lim 2 × = . x 2 1 − ......
h→0 24 12  3 
For limit to exist, x2 must cancel from the numerator. Hence

 1 11 
we assume A – B + C = 0 ...(1) = e 1 − x + x 2 + .....
 

and A – C = 0 ...(2) 2 24

A+ B+C 1
∴ Limit = = 2. ...(3) (1 + x )1/ x − e + ex
2

2 Now lim
On solving these three equations, we get A = 1, B = 2, C = 1. x →0 x2
1 11 2 1
Example 14: Show that e(1 −
x+ x + ....) − e + ex
2 24 2 11e
1
(1 + x )1/ x − e + ex 11e = lim = .
2 x →0 x2 24
lim = .
x →0 x2 24 f (x)
Example 15: Let f(x) be a function such that lim = 1.
x →0 x
Solution: Let y = (1 + x)1/x Find the values of a and b such that
1 x (1 + a cos x ) − b sin x
∴ ln y = ln(1 + x ) lim =1.
x x →0 {f ( x )}3
1 1 2 1 3 
=  x − x + x − ... x (1 + a cos x ) − b sin x
x 2 3 Solution: Since, lim =1
x →0 {f ( x )}3
1 1
= 1− x + x 2 − ..... ,   x2 x4    x3 x5 
2 3 x 1 + a 1 + +  − b x − + − ....
1 1   2! 4!    3! 5! 
1− x + x 2 −...... ⇒ lim =1
Now y = e 2 2 x →0 {f ( x )}3
1 1
1− x + x 2 −......  a b  a b
x (1 + a − b) + x 3  +  + x 5  −  + ...
= e. e 2 2  2! 3!  4! 5!
⇒ lim =1
  1 1 2  x →0 {f ( x )}3
= e 1 +  − x + x − ...... + .....
  2 3  (1 + a − b)  a b   a b
+  +  + x 2  −  + ...

2  2 ! 3!  4! 5!
 x
2
1 1 1 2  ⇒ lim =1
+  − x + x − ...... + .... x →0  f (x) 
3
2 2 3 
  
 x 
 1  1 1 2 
= e 1 − x +  +  x + ..... Since the limit exists we must have 1 + a –b = 0 and –
a b
+
 2  3 8   =1 ⇒ –3a + b = 6 2 ! 3!
Solving these, we get a = –5/2 and b = –3/2.
Concept Problems G

e x sin x − x (1 + x )
1 (iii) lim
3
1+ x −1− x x→0 x3
(i) lim 3
x →0 x2 3
1 + 3x − 1 + 2 x
e sin x − x − x
x 2 (iv) lim
(ii) lim 2 x→0 x2
x →0 x + x ln(1 − x )
3 tan x − 3x − x 3
x2 3. Evaluate lim
cos x − 1 + x →0 x5
(iii) lim 2
x →0 x3
sin −1 x − tan −1 x
2 x − ln(1 + 2 x ) 4. Evaluate lim
(iv) lim x→ 0 x3
x →0 x2
2. Evaluate the following limits : (2 − x )(e x − x − 2)
5. Evaluate lim
2 x - sin -1 x x →0 x3
(i) lim
2 x + tan -1 x
x →0 6. For what values of constants C and D is it true that
3 sin x − sin 3x lim( x −3 sin 7 x + Cx −2 + D) = −2
(ii) lim x →0
x→0 x − sin x
Limits 1.33
Practice Problems F

sin x − x + x 3 / 6 − x 5 / 120
(1 + x ) − (1 − x )
2 (ii) lim
(i) lim x →0 (sin x )7
x→0 (1 + x 3 ) − (1 + x )
e x cos x − 1 − x
(iii) lim
3
1+ x2 − 4 1 − x2 x→0 sin( x 2 )
(ii) lim
x→0 x + x2 x2
x cos3 x − ln(1 + x ) − sin −1
31+ 3x − 1 2
(iii) lim (iv) lim
x→0 (1 + x ) 50
− 1 − 50 x
x →0 x3
1 1+ x
ln 2 (1 + x ) − x 2 2 sin x + ln − 3x
(iv) lim 10. Evaluate lim 2 1− x
x →0 x3 x →0 x5
8. Evaluate the following limits : x4 3
m
1 + ax − 1 + bx
n x 3
e4 − sin 2 x 2
(i) lim (m, n ∈ N) 11. Evaluate lim
x →0 x x →0 x7
12. Find the values of a and b so that
m
1 + ax n 1 + bx − 1
(ii) lim (m, n ∈ N) (1 + ax sin x ) − b cos x
x →0 x lim
x→0 x4
3
1 + 2x − 4 1 + 9x may tend to a definite limit and also find limit.
(iii) lim
x →0 x 13. For what values of the constants a, b is ,
1− 1−
2  sin 3x a 
lim  + 2 + b = 0 ?
x→0  x 3 x 
4 4 1 − x 2 − 4e x
2
(iv) lim
x →0 tan −1 x − x 1  1 1 + ax 
3
−
+ bx 
14. If lim exists and has the value
9. Evaluate the following limits : x→0 x  1+ x 1
x3 x5 1 2 3
sin x (1 − cos x ) − + equal to , then find the value of − + .
(i) lim 2 8 a  b
x →0 x7
1.9 Standard Limits e x −1

In particular lim =1
Following are some basic limits which are used frequently x→0 x
in solving the limits. ln(1+ x )
sin x tan x (iii) lim =1
(i) lim = 1 = lim x→0 x
x→0 x x→0 x
log a (1+ x )
−1 −1 lim = loga e, ( a > 0, a ≠ 1)
lim tan x = lim sin x
= x→0 x→0 x
x→0 x
x
(1 + x ) n − 1
[ where x is measured in radians ] (iv) lim =n
x →0 x
1 − cos x (1 − cos x )(1 + cos x )
Also, lim = lim
2
x 2 (1 + cos x ) xn − an
x = n a n −1 .
x→0 x→0
lim
2 x →a x−a
(sin 2 x )  sin x  1
= lim 2 = lim  
x→0 x (1 + cos x ) x→0  x  (1 + cos x )
Study Tip
1
= . (i) These limits help in finding limits in 0/0 form and most of
2
them are based on x approaching 0. In case, if x approaches
a x −1 a, we use the substitution x = a + t so that t approaches 0
(ii) lim = ln a (a > 0).
x→0 x when x approaches a.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and
I in him.
The words which I speak unto you are spirit and life.
C H A P T E R I.
With how great reverence Christ ought to be received.
The voice of the disciple.
T HESE are thy words, O Christ, the everlasting truth.
Because therefore they are thine, and true, they are all
thankfully and faithfully to be received by me.
They are thine, and thou hast spoken them; and they are mine
also, because thou hast spoken them for my salvation.
I willingly receive them from thy mouth, that they may be the
deeper imprinted in my heart.
These gracious words, so full of sweetness and love, encourage

me; but mine own offences drive me back from receiving so great
mysteries.
2. Thou commandest me to come confidently unto thee, if I will

have part with thee; to receive the food of immortality, if I desire to
obtain everlasting glory.
Thou sayest, Come unto me, all ye that travail and are heavy
laden, and I will refresh you.
O sweet and friendly words in the ear of sinners, that thou, my Lord
God, shouldst invite the poor and needy to the participation of thy most
holy body?
*But who am I, Lord, that I should presume to approach unto thee?
*Behold, the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee, and thou

sayest come ye all unto me!
3. What meaneth this so gracious condescension, this so friendly

invitation?
How shall I dare to come, that know no good in myself?
How shall I bring thee into my house, that have so often offended
thy most gracious countenance?
*The angels and archangels revere thee, and the saints and just
men fear thee, and thou sayest, come ye all unto me.
Unless thou, O Lord, didst say it, who would believe it to be true?
And unless thou didst command it, who would dare to come unto
thee?
*Behold, Noah, a just man, laboured an hundred years in making of

the ark, that he might be saved with a few; and how can I in one hour
prepare myself to receive, with reverence the maker of the world?
4. Moses, thy great servant, and thy special friend, made an ark of
incorruptible wood, which also he covered with most pure gold, to put
the tables of the law therein; and I a corruptible creature, how shall I
dare lightly to receive the maker of the law, and the giver of life?
Solomon, the wisest of the kings of Israel, bestowed seven years in

building a magnificent temple to the praise of thy name.
He celebrated the feast of the dedication thereof eight days

together; he offered a thousand peace-offerings, and he solemnly set
the ark on the place prepared for it, with the sound of trumpets and joy.
*And I the most miserable and poorest of men, how shall I bring
thee into my house, that can scarce spend one half hour devoutly?
Yea would I could once spend near half an hour in a due manner!
5. O my God, how much did they do out of an endeavour to please

thee! And, alas, how little is that which I do! How little time do I spend
to prepare myself to receive!
I am very seldom wholly recollected, very seldom free from all

distraction;
And yet surely no unbecoming thought ought to appear in the

presence of the Deity, nor any creature find any place in me, for I am
not to harbour an angel, but the Lord of angels.
6. And yet there is great difference between the ark of the

covenant, and thy most pure body! Between those legal sacrifices,
figures of future things, and the completion of all antient sacrifices.
Why therefore am I not more inflamed at thy venerable presence?
7. The devout King David danced before the ark of God with all his
might, calling to mind the benefits bestowed upon his fore-fathers.
He often sung to the harp, being inspired with the grace of the Holy
Ghost.
He taught the people of Israel to praise God with their whole heart,
and with joint voices every day to bless and praise him.
If so great devotion was then shewn, and there was such

celebrating of the divine praise before the ark of the testament; what
reverence is now to be performed in receiving the most precious body
and blood of Christ?
8. O God, the invisible creator of the world, how wonderfully dost

thou deal with us!
How sweetly and graciously dost thou dispose of all things for thine
elect, to whom thou offerest thyself to be received in this sacrament!
This exceedeth all understanding! This strongly draweth the hearts
of the devout, and inflameth their affections.
9. O the admirable and hidden grace of this sacrament, which only

the faithful ones of Christ know: but the unbelieving, and such as are
slaves unto sin, cannot experience;
In this sacrament spiritual grace is given, and strength which was

lost restored in the soul, and the beauty disfigured by sin returns
again.
This grace is sometimes so great, that not only the mind, but the
weak body also, feeleth great increase of strength.
10. Our coldness and negligence is much to be bewailed, that we

are not drawn with greater affection to receive Christ, in whom all the
hope and merit of those that are to be saved consists.
For he is our sanctification and redemption: he is the comforter of

us travellers, and the everlasting fruition of saints.
O the blindness and hardness of man’s heart, that doth not more
deeply weigh so unspeakable a gift!
11. If the most holy sacrament was celebrated in one place only,
and consecrated by one only person in the world, with how great
desire would men be affected to that place, and to such a priest, that
they might enjoy these divine mysteries!
But now there are many priests, and Christ is offered in many
places; that so the grace and love of God to men may appear greater,
the more this sacred communion is spread through the world.
Thanks be unto thee gracious Jesus, the everlasting shepherd,

who hast vouchsafed to refresh us poor exiles with thy precious body
and blood, and to invite us to the receiving of these mysteries with the
words of thine own mouth, saying, Come unto me all ye that travail
and are heavy laden, and I will refresh you.
C H A P T E R II.
That the great goodness and love of God is exhibited to man
in this sacrament.
* N confidence of thy goodness and mercy, I come, O Lord, a sick

I man unto my Saviour, hungry and thirsty to the fountain of life,
needy to the king of heaven, a servant unto my Lord, a creature
to my Creator, disconsolate to thee my merciful comforter.
But whence is this to me, that thou vouchsafest to come unto me?
Who am I, that thou shouldst give thyself unto me?
How dare a sinner appear before thee? And how is it that thou dost
vouchsafe to come unto a sinner?
Thou knowest thy servant, and seest that he hath no good thing in
him, for which thou shouldst bestow this favour upon him.
I confess my unworthiness; I acknowledge thy goodness; I praise

thy mercy, and give thee thanks for thy transcendent love.
For thou dost this for thine own sake, not for any merits of mine:
that thy goodness may be better known unto me, thy love more
abundantly shewn, and thy gracious condescension the more
eminently displayed.
Since therefore it is thy pleasure, and thou hast commanded that it

should be so, this thy favour is also pleasing to me, and may my sins
be no hindrance.
2. O most sweet and benign Jesu, how great reverence and thanks
♦ are due unto thee for the receiving of thy sacred body, whose
preciousness no man is able to express!
♦ “is” replaced with “are” per Errata
But what shall I think, now I am to approach unto my Lord, whom I

am not able duly to honour, and yet I desire to receive him with
devotion?
What can I think better and more profitable, than to humble myself
wholly before thee, and to exalt thine infinite goodness over me?
I praise thee, my God, and will exalt thee for ever. I despise and
submit myself unto thee, in a deep sense of my own unworthiness.
3. Behold thou art the holy of holies, and I the vilest of sinners!
Behold thou inclinest unto me, who am not worthy so much as to

look up unto thee.
Behold thou comest unto me, it is thy will to be with me, thou
invitest me to thy banquet.
Thou wilt give me the food of heaven, and bread of angels to eat,
which is no other indeed than thyself, the living bread, that descended
from heaven and giveth life unto the world.
4. From whence doth this love proceed! What a gracious

condescension appeareth herein! How great thanks and praises are
due unto thee for these benefits!
O how good and profitable was thy counsel, when thou ordainedst
it! How sweet and pleasant the banquet when thou gavest thyself to be
our food!
How wonderful is thy operation, O Lord, how mighty is thy power,

how unspeakable is thy truth!
For thou saidst the word, and all things were made; and this was
done which thou commandedst.
5. A thing of great admiration, that thou my Lord God, shouldst be

exhibited unto us by the elements of bread and wine.
Thou who art the Lord of all things, and standest in need of none,
hast pleased to dwell in us by means of this thy sacrament.
*Preserve my heart and body undefiled, that, with a chearful and

pure conscience, I may celebrate thy mysteries, and receive them to
my everlasting health: which thou hast ordained and instituted for thy
honour and for a perpetual memorial.
6. Rejoice O my soul, and give thanks unto God for so excellent a

gift, so singular a comfort left unto me in this vale of tears.
For as often as thou receivest, so often art thou made partaker of

all the merits of Christ.
For the love of Christ is never diminished, and the greatness of his
propitiation is never exhausted.
Therefore thou oughtest always to weigh with attentive

consideration, this great mystery of thy salvation.
*So great, new, and joyful it ought to seem unto thee, when thou
comest to these holy mysteries; as if the same day Christ first
descending into the womb of the virgin, was become man; or hanging
on the cross, did suffer and die for the salvation of mankind.
C H A P T E R III.
That it is profitable to communicate often.
* EHOLD, O Lord, I come unto thee, that I may be comforted by thy

B gift, and delighted in thy holy banquet, which thou, O God, hast
prepared in thy goodness for the poor.
Behold in thee is all I can or ought to desire; thou art my salvation,

and my redemption, my hope and my strength, my honour and my
glory!
*Make joyful, therefore, this day, the soul of thy servant, for I have
lifted it up unto thee, O Lord Jesus.
*I desire to receive thee now with devotion and reverence. I long to

bring thee into my house; that with Zaccheus I may be blessed by
thee, and numbered among the children of Abraham.
My soul thirsteth to receive thy body and blood, my heart desireth

to be united with thee.
*2. Give me thyself, and it sufficeth; for, besides thee, no comfort is

available.
I cannot be without thee, nor live without thy visitation;
And therefore I must often come unto thee, and receive thee for the
welfare of my soul, lest haply I faint in the way, if I be deprived of thy
heavenly food.
For so most merciful Jesu, thou once didst say, preaching to the
people, and curing sundry diseases, I will not send them home fasting,
lest they faint in the way.
Deal thou therefore in like manner now with me, who hast
vouchsafed to leave thyself in the sacrament for the comfort of the
faithful.
For thou art the sweet refection of the soul; and he that eateth thee
worthily, shall be partaker of everlasting glory.
3. O the wonderful condescension of thy mercy towards us, that
thou, O Lord God, the Creator and giver of life to all spirits, dost
vouchsafe to come unto a poor soul, and with thy whole deity to
replenish her hunger!
O happy mind and blessed soul, that receives thee, her Lord God,
with devout affection, and in receiving of thee is filled with spiritual joy!
O how great a Lord doth she entertain! How beloved a guest doth
she harbour! How pleasant a companion doth she receive! How faithful
a friend doth she take in! How lovely and glorious a spouse doth she
embrace!
She embraceth him, who is to be loved above all that is beloved,

and above all things that may be desired.
*Let heaven and earth, and all the hosts of them, be silent in thy
presence; for what praise and beauty soever they have, it is received
from thy bounty, and cannot equal the beauty of thy name, of whose
wisdom there is no number.
C H A P T E R IV.
That many gifts are bestowed upon them that communicate
devoutly.
* Y Lord God, prevent thy servant with the blessings of thy

M sweetness, that I may approach worthily and devoutly to thy
glorious sacrament.
*Stir up my heart unto thee, and deliver me from a heavy

numbness of mind.
*Visit me with thy salvation, that I may taste in spirit thy sweetness,
which plentifully lieth hid in this sacrament as in a fountain.
Enlighten also my eyes to behold so great a mystery, and

strengthen me to believe it with steady faith.
For it is thy work, and not man’s power; thy sacred institution, not
man’s invention.
For no man is of himself able to comprehend these things, which

surpass the understanding even of angels.
What therefore shall I, unworthy sinner, dust and ashes, be able to

comprehend of so high and sacred a mystery?
2. O Lord, in the simplicity of my heart, at thy commandment I

come unto thee, with hope and reverence, and believe thou art present
in this sacrament.
Thy will is, that I receive thee, and that by love I unite myself unto
thee.
*Wherefore I implore thy mercy, and crave thy special grace, that I
may wholly melt and overflow with love unto thee, and hereafter never
seek any comfort out of thee.
For this sacrament is the remedy of all spiritual weakness: hereby

my vices are cured, my passions bridled, temptations overcome, grace
infused, virtue begun increased, faith confirmed, hope strengthened,
and love inflamed.
3. For thou dost bestow many benefits in the sacrament upon thy
beloved ones that communicate devoutly. O my God the protector of
my soul, the repairer of human frailty, and the giver of inward comfort.
Thou impartest unto them much comfort against sundry

tribulations.
For who is there, that approaching humbly unto the fountain of
sweetness, doth not carry away from thence at least some little
sweetness?
Or who, standing by a great fire, receiveth not some heat thereby?
Thou art a fountain always full and overflowing, a fire ever burning
and never decaying.
4. Wherefore, if I cannot draw out of the full fountain itself, nor drink
my fill; I will, notwithstanding, set my lips to the mouth of this heavenly
conduit, that I may draw from thence at least some drop to refresh my
thirst; and not be wholly dried up.
And though I be not altogether heavenly; nor so inflamed as the

cherubim and seraphim; I will endeavour after some spark of divine
fire, by humbly receiving of this enlivening sacrament.
And whatsoever is wanting in me, O merciful Jesu, most holy

Saviour, do thou bountifully and graciously supply, who hast
vouchsafed to call all unto thee, Come unto me, all ye that travail and
are ♦heavy laden, and I will refresh you.
♦ “heaven” replaced with “heavy” per Errata
5. I indeed labour in the sweat of my brow, I am vexed with grief of

heart, I am burthened with sin, I am troubled with temptations, I am
entangled and oppressed with many evil passions; and there is none
to help me, none to deliver and save me, but thou O Lord, my Saviour,
to whom I commit myself, and all that is mine, that thou mayst keep
me, and bring me to life everlasting.
C H A P T E R V.
Of the examining our conscience, and purpose of
amendment.
The voice of the Beloved.
A BOVE all things, the minister of God ought to come to celebrate

and receive this sacrament with great humility of heart, and
lowly reverence, and a pious intending the honour of God.
Examine diligently thy conscience; so that there be nothing that

may breed in thee remorse of conscience, and hinder thy free access.
And, if thou hast time, confess unto God in the secret of thy heart,
all the miseries of thy disordered passions.
2. Lament and grieve, that thou art yet so worldly, so unmortified as

to thy passions;
So unwatchful over thy outward senses, so often entangled with

vain imaginations;
So negligent and cold in prayer, so undevout in celebrating, so dry

in receiving;
So quickly distracted, so seldom wholly recollected;
So suddenly moved to anger, so apt to take displeasure against

another;
So prone to judge, so severe to reprehend;
*So often purposing much good, and yet performing little.
3. These and other thy defects being confessed, with full

resignation, and with thy whole will, offer up thyself a perpetual
sacrifice to the honour of my name, on the altar of thy heart, faithfully
committing thy body and soul unto me;
That so thou mayst come worthily to celebrate this sacrifice, and to

receive profitably the sacrament of my body.
4. For a man hath no other oblation than to offer himself unto God
in the holy communion.
And whensoever he shall come to Me for pardon and grace, as I

live, saith the Lord, who willeth not the death of a sinner, but rather that
he be converted and live, I will not remember his sins any more, but
they shall all be forgiven him.
C H A P T E R VI.
Of the oblation of Christ on the cross, and resignation of
ourselves.
* S I willingly offered up myself unto God my Father for thy sins, my

A hands being stretched forth on the cross, so that nothing
remained in Me that was not wholly turned into a sacrifice, for
the appeasing the Divine Majesty;
So oughtest thou also to offer up thyself willingly unto me every

day, as a pure and holy oblation, with all thy might and affection, in as
hearty a manner as thou canst.
What do I require of thee more than that thou entirely resign thyself
unto me?
Whatsoever thou givest besides thyself is of no account in my

sight; for I seek not thy gifts but thyself.
2. As it would not suffice thee to have all things besides me; so

neither can it please me, whatsoever thou givest, if thou offerest not
thyself.
Offer up thyself unto me, and give thyself wholly to God, and thy
offering shall be accepted.
Behold I offered up myself wholly unto my Father for thee, that I

might be wholly thine, and thou remain mine.
But if thou dost not offer thyself up freely unto my will, thy oblation
is not entire, neither will the union between us be perfect.
Therefore a free offering up of thyself into the hands of God, ought

to go before all thy actions, if thou wilt obtain freedom and grace.
For this cause so few become inwardly free, because they cannot
wholly deny themselves.
My saying is unalterable, unless a man forsake all, he cannot be

my disciple.
Therefore, if thou desirest to be my disciple, offer up thyself unto

me with thy whole affections.
C H A P T E R VII.
That we ought to offer up ourselves, and all that is ours unto
God, and to pray for all.
T HINE, O Lord, are all things that are in heaven, and in earth.
I desire to offer up myself unto thee, as a free oblation, and

to remain always thine.
O Lord, in the simplicity of my heart I offer myself unto thee this

day, for a sacrifice of perpetual praise, to be thy servant for ever.
2. I offer unto thee, O Lord, all my sins and offences, which I have
committed before thee and thy holy angels, from the day wherein I first
could sin, to this hour, upon thy merciful altar.
Consume and burn them all with the fire of thy love, and wash out
all the stains of my sins.
O cleanse my conscience from all offences, and restore to me

again thy grace, which I lost by sin, fully forgiving me all my offences,
and receiving me mercifully to the kiss of peace!
3. What can I do for my sins, but humbly confess and bewail them,
and incessantly intreat thy favour?
I beseech thee, hear me graciously, when I stand before thee, O

my God!
All my sins are very displeasing unto me. I will never commit them
any more; but I bewail and will bewail them as long as I live, and am
purposed to repent, and according to the utmost of my power to please
thee.
Forgive me, O God, forgive me my sins for thy holy name’s sake.
Save my soul, which thou hast redeemed with thy most precious
blood.
Behold, I commit myself to thy mercy, I resign myself over into thy
hands.
Do with me according to thy goodness, not according to my

wickedness and iniquity.
4. I offer up also unto thee all that is good in me, although it be very
little and imperfect, that thou mayst amend and sanctify it:
That thou mayst make it grateful and acceptable unto thee, and
always perfect it more and more.
And bring me also, who am a slothful and unprofitable creature, to
a good and blessed end.
5. I offer up also unto thee all the pious desires of devout persons,
the necessities of my parents, friends, brethren, sisters; and of all
those that are dear unto me, and that have done good either to myself
or others:
And that have desired me to pray for them and theirs; that they all
may receive the help of thy grace and comfort, protection from
dangers, deliverance from pain; and being freed from all evils, may
joyfully give worthy thanks unto thee.
6. I offer up also unto thee my prayers, especially for them who

have in any thing wronged, grieved, or slandered me, or have done me
any damage or displeasure:
And for all those also, whom I have at any time troubled, grieved or
scandalized by words or deeds, wittingly or unawares; that it may
please thee to forgive us all our sins and offences, one against
another.
Take, O Lord, from our hearts all jealousy, indignation, wrath, and
contention, and whatsoever may lessen brotherly love.
Have mercy, O Lord, have mercy on those that crave thy mercy:
give grace unto them that stand in need thereof; and grant that we
may be counted worthy to enjoy thy grace, and so attain life
everlasting. Amen.
C H A P T E R IX.
That the body of Christ, and the holy scripture, are most
necessary unto a faithful soul.
O LORD Jesus, how great sweetness hath an holy soul that

feasteth with thee in thy banquet, where there is set no other
food to be eaten but thyself, her only beloved, and the most to be
desired above all desires of her heart!
And verily it would be a sweet thing unto me to pour out tears

from the very bottom of my heart in thy presence: and with holy
Magdalene to wash thy feet with my tears.
But where is this devotion? Where is this plentiful shedding of

holy tears?
Surely in the sight of thee and thy holy angels my whole heart
should be inflamed, and even weep for joy.
2. For to behold thee in thine own divine brightness, mine eyes

would not be able to endure it.
Neither could the whole world stand in the brightness of the glory
of thy majesty.
I really enjoy and adore him whom the angels adore in heaven.
But I, as yet, by faith; they by sight, ♦and without a veil.

♦ duplicate word “and” removed
I ought to be content with the light of true faith, and to walk

therein until the day of everlasting brightness break forth, and the
shadows of figures pass away.
But when that which is perfect shall come, the use of the
sacraments shall cease.
For the blessed in heavenly glory need not any sacramental

remedy, but rejoice without end in the presence of God.
Beholding his glory face to face, and being transformed from

glory to glory into the image of the incomprehensible Deity, they
taste the word of God made flesh, as he was from the beginning,
and as he remaineth for ever.
3. Thou art my witness, O God, that nothing can comfort me, no

creature can give me rest, but thou my God, whom I desire to behold
everlastingly.
But this is not possible while I remain in this mortal life:
Therefore I must frame myself to much patience, and submit

myself to thee in all my desires.
For thy saints also, O Lord, who now rejoice with thee while they
lived, expected in faith and great patience the coming of thy glory.
What they believed, I believe: what they hoped for, I also hope for:
whither they are come, I trust I shall come by thy grace.
In the mean time I will go forward in faith, strengthened by their

examples.
I have also thy holy book for my comfort and guide, and, above
all these, thy spiritual body for a remedy and refuge.
4. I perceive two things to be especially necessary for me in this
life, without which it would be insupportable, food and light.
Thou hast therefore given unto me a weak creature, thy sacred

body and blood for the nourishment of my soul and body; and thou
hast set thy word as a light unto my feet:
Without these two I could not well live.
For the word of God is the light of the soul, and thy sacrament the
bread of life.
These also may be called the two tables, set on the one side and
on the other, in the store-house of the holy church.
One is the holy altar, having the holy bread, that is the sign of the
precious body of Christ.
The other is of the divine law, containing holy doctrine, teaching

the true faith, and certainly leading to that within the veil, where is
the holy of holies.
Thanks be unto ♦thee, O Lord Jesus, the light of everlasting light,

for the table of holy doctrine, which thou hast offered us by thy
servants the prophets, and apostles, and other teachers.
♦ “tbee” replaced with “thee”
5. Thanks be unto thee, O thou Creator and Redeemer of man,

who to manifest thy love to the whole world, hast prepared a great
supper wherein thou hast set before us to be eaten (not the typical
lamb, but) thy most sacred body and blood.
Rejoicing all the faithful with thy holy banquet, and replenishing
them with the cup of salvation, in which are all the delights of
paradise: and the holy angels feast with us, but yet with a more
happy sweetness.
Nothing but what is holy, no word but what is good and profitable
ought to proceed from his mouth, who receiveth the sacrament of
Christ.
7. Simple and chaste ought to be the eyes that behold the body
of Christ.
8. Assist us, Almighty God, with thy grace, that we who have
undertaken the office of priesthood, may serve thee worthily and
devoutly, in all purity and good conscience.
And, if we cannot live in so great innocency as we ought, grant us

at least duly to bewail the sins which we have committed; and in the
spirit of humility, and with full purpose of heart, to serve thee
hereafter more fervently.
♦C H A P T E R IX.
How he who is to communicate, ought to prepare himself.
♦ Chapter number duplicated in text
I AM the lover of purity, and the giver of all holiness.
I seek a pure heart, and there is the place of my rest.
Make ready and adorn for me the great chamber, and I will keep
with thee the passover among my disciples.

(Download PDF) Differential Calculus For Jee Main and Advanced 3Rd Edition Vinay Kumar Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Download PDF) Differential Calculus For Jee Main and Advanced 3Rd Edition Vinay Kumar Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Differential Calculus for JEE Main and

Advanced (3rd edition) Vinay Kumar

Integral Calculus for JEE Main and Advanced, 3e 3rd

Differential Calculus Booster with Problems and

Objective Physics for the JEE Main 2015 Sanjeev Kumar

Integral Calculus 3D Geometry and Vector Booster with

Problems and Solutions in Organic Chemistry for JEE

Solutions to Calculus for JEE (Advanced), 3rd edition

Physics for JEE Main and Advanced Mechanics 2 1st

Fundamentals of advanced mathematics. 3, Differential

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

Join @unacademyplusdiscounts on Telegram

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Differential Calculus for JEE Main & Advanced, 3/e

Copyright © 2020, by the McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers.

Printed and bound in India

ISBN (13) : 978-93-5316-461-4

Typeset at Transforma Pvt Ltd., Chennai and printed at XXXXXXXXX

Cover printed at:

Cover Design: Meenu Ragav

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

CHAPTER 1 LIMITS 1.1 – 1.178

CHAPTER 2 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 2.1 – 2.98

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

4.3 Derivative of Standard Functions 4.3

CHAPTER 6 MONOTONICITY 6.1 – 6.100

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

7.20 Deductions of Rolle’s Theorem 7.95

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

We denote neighbourhoods by N(a), N1(a), N2(a), etc.

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

(the abbreviation "lim" means "limit")

Note: That the statement lim f ( x ) =  is a statement

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

Although the function f is not defined at x = 2, we know its

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

Example 4: Prove that lim (3x + 1) = 7.

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

However, this is not correct. For if we take the neighbourhood

However, if x approaches 4 by taking rational values, then the

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x) x if x is rational

the corresponding values yn of the function become arbitrarily

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

less than or equal to . We have a similar definition for lim f(x) = .

Note: We say that a limit, such as xlim

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

A function is said to be bounded in an interval if it has a lower Infinite Limits

= –M and y = M. A function y = f(x) which approaches infinity as x → a does

FREE BOOKS FOR JEE & NEET =>(@iitjeeadv)

We can see from the graph that lim e − x sin x = 0. 2

5. Find lim (sin nθπ)/{n(n–(–1)n)}, where θ is any real

lim f(x) lim f(x) 6. Find lim sin nθπ, if θ is integral.

(v) Sum rule

(b) lim g(x) = 1 2x 1

x 3 The graph of f is shown in the figure.

Example 6: Find xlim[ x] lim 2 cos(h) = – 2

Solution: L.H.L. = lim[2 h ] = lim 1 1 .

2 1 (4h h 2 ) , since 4h – h2 is a small positive cos[ x ], x 0

1.5 Determinate and Indeterminate (ii) lim(f ( x ) g ( x ))

1 1 x2 −1 Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit lim [f(x)]g(x)

1 3. lim f(x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ± ∞ type 1∞

Assume that  is a positive real number. x 3

It follows that lim y 1 y 1

x 3 27 6. Evaluate the following limits where [.] denotes the greatest