Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Full Download Ip Routing Protocols Fundamentals and Distance Vector Routing Protocols 1St Edition James Aweya Ebook Online Full Chapter PDF
Full Download Ip Routing Protocols Fundamentals and Distance Vector Routing Protocols 1St Edition James Aweya Ebook Online Full Chapter PDF
https://ebookmeta.com/product/attacking-network-protocols-1st-
edition-james-forshaw-forshaw/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/designing-switch-routers-
architectures-and-applications-1st-edition-james-aweya/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/nsx-t-logical-routing-fortify-your-
understanding-to-amplify-your-success-shashank-mohan/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/plant-virology-methods-and-
protocols/
Circuits Packets and Protocols Entrepreneurs and
Computer Communications 1968 1988 1st Edition James L.
Pelkey
https://ebookmeta.com/product/circuits-packets-and-protocols-
entrepreneurs-and-computer-communications-1968-1988-1st-edition-
james-l-pelkey/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/nsx-t-logical-routing-fortify-your-
understanding-to-amplify-your-success-1st-edition-shashank-mohan/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cisco-networks-engineers-handbook-
of-routing-switching-and-security-with-ios-nx-os-and-asa-1st-
edition-chris-carthern/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/glycolipids-methods-and-
protocols-1st-edition-kazuya-kabayama/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/ccnp-enterprise-advanced-routing-
enarsi-300-410-official-cert-guide-2nd-edition-brad-edgeworth-
raymond-lacoste/
IP Routing Protocols
IP Routing Protocols
James Aweya
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
The right of James Aweya to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any
copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any
future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-
750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Typeset in Times
by SPi Global, India
Contents
Preface.....................................................................................................................xvii
Author......................................................................................................................xxi
v
viContents
xvii
xviiiPreface
shortest path to each known network destination, and enters these best paths in its IP
Routing Table (also referred to the IP Routing Information Base [RIB]).
The information in the IP Routing Table is the final routing information used for
forwarding IP packets. Typically, the information in the IP Routing Table is distilled
into a more compact database called the IP Forwarding Table (also referred to the IP
Forwarding Information Base [FIB]). This is because the information in the Routing
Table is very extensive and contains information that is not directly relevant for IP
packet forwarding. The IP Forwarding Table weeds out non-essential packet for-
warding information and allows for faster routing information lookups and packet
forwarding.
Link-state routers must know the detailed topology of their network in order to be
able to compute best routes to network destinations. The link-state message (LSA or
LSP) is the basic messaging unit for communicating routing information among
routers in a link-state network. LSAs/LSPs are used to describe the topology details
of a network and also form the building blocks of the LSDB a link-state router main-
tains. Each LSA/LSP serves as a database record that contains pieces of network
topology information (i.e., link-state information) about a portion of the network that
is described in the LSDB. The LSAs/LSPs in the LSDB, collectively, describe the
entire topology of the link-state network.
Implementing a link-state routing protocol in a large network exposes some seri-
ous issues particularly regarding the processing and memory requirements in the
routers. Therefore, partitioning a large network into areas is a way to address the
three concerns commonly expressed about link-state routing protocols, which are the
memory requirements for storing the LSDBs, CPU cycles (time) required to process
the relatively more complex link-state routing algorithms, and the effects of LSA
flooding on the available bandwidth in the network, particularly in unstable
networks.
An area is simply a partition of the network that contains a subset of the routers
that make up the entire network. The characteristics of an area include localizing the
impact of a network topology change within an area, preventing link-state messages
from being flooded beyond the boundary of an area, minimizing Routing Table
entries, and providing means for hierarchical network design. Both OSPF and IS-IS
support the grouping of routers in an Autonomous System into areas and hierarchical
routing. Both protocols use a two-tier hierarchical area structure.
BGP and its extension (Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP or simply Multiprotocol
BGP [MBGP]), is the only path-vector routing protocol in use today. BGP is used for
exchanging routing information between Autonomous Systems. BGP carries as part
of its routing information, the Autonomous System Numbers (ASNs) the routing
information has passed through (for a set of network destination address prefixes
sharing the same path attributes). This routing information (listing the Autonomous
System traversed) is used by the various routers along the path to the network desti-
nation, for preventing routing loops.
An Autonomous System is a group of interconnected routers and network address
prefixes owned or under the control of one or more network operators (e.g., organiza-
tions), but are managed by a single administrative entity (e.g., Internet Service
Provider [ISP]). Furthermore, these interconnections of network prefixes are
Preface xix
discussion aims to explain in simple language how routing protocols are designed
and work, and is not meant to replace the material presented in the various interna-
tional and proprietary standards accompanying each routing protocol.
Chapters 1–3 discuss the most common routing protocols OSPFv2, IS-IS, and
BGPv4, respectively. The discussion covers their most identifying characteristics,
operations, and the databases they maintain. Each routing protocol maintains a num-
ber of databases which hold information about the local router’s neighbor routers,
and the routing information it has learned from other routers in the network. Each
database type is used for specific operations as defined by the particular routing pro-
tocol. For each routing protocol, we discuss the main components which include data
structures, routing protocol messages, and best path computation algorithm. Each
chapter also covers a high-level router architecture, processes, and databases for the
particular routing protocol being discussed.
Chapter 1 begins with a review of the main concepts of link-state routing proto-
cols and a discussion on the main features of OSPFv2. The first part of the chapter
provides a detail description of the OSPF area types and hierarchical routing, and the
different types of routers used in an OSPF Autonomous System. The chapter then
describes in detail the different OSPF packet types, and inbound and outbound pro-
cessing of OSPF LSAs. The chapter also provides a detailed description of the differ-
ent OSPF network types, OSPF neighbor discovery and maintenance, LSDB
synchronization, OSPF routing metrics, OSPF route summarization, and OSPF
authentication. The discussion includes a high-level view of the OSPF router and
components, plus an overview of OSPF inbound and outbound message processing.
Chapter 2 starts by providing an overview of the main features of IS-IS. The dis-
cussion includes a review of the basic concepts underlying the design of IS-IS. The
chapter then continues to provide a detail description of IS-IS area types and hierar-
chical routing, and the different types of routers used by IS-IS. The chapter discusses
the two-level routing hierarchy for controlling the distribution of intradomain (Level
1) and interdomain (Level 2) routing information within an IS-IS routing domain.
The chapter then describes in detail IS-IS network address formats, IS-IS routing
metrics, IS-IS packet types, IS-IS network types and adjacency formation, IS-IS
LSDB and synchronization, and IS-IS authentication. The chapter includes a discus-
sion on the high-level architecture of the IS-IS router and components, and inbound
and outbound processing of messages.
Chapter 3 starts by reviewing the main concepts of path-vector routing protocols,
and a discussion on the main features of BGP; interior versus exterior routing, BGP
Autonomous System types, and BGP peering. The chapter then describes in detail
BGP packet types, BGP session states and Finite State Machine, BGP path attributes
types, and BGP ASNs. Other topics discussed include BGP route summarization,
alternative solutions to the iBGP full mesh requirement, BGP best path selection
process, and BGP authentication. The discussion in this chapter also includes a high-
level view of the typical BGP router and its components, and inbound and outbound
message processing.
Author
James Aweya, PhD, is a chief research scientist at the Etisalat British Telecom
Innovation Center (EBTIC), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, UAE. He was a techni-
cal lead and senior systems architect with Nortel, Ottawa, Canada, from 1996 to
2009. He was awarded the 2007 Nortel Technology Award of Excellence (TAE) for
his pioneering and innovative research on Timing and Synchronization across Packet
and TDM Networks. He has been granted 68 US patents and has published over 54
journal papers, 40 conference papers, and 43 technical reports. He has authored four
books including this book and is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
xxi
1 Open Shortest Path
Routing (OSPF) Protocol
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A router running a link-state routing protocol develops a complete map of the net-
work topology by exchanging link-state information with all other routers in the
network through a processed called flooding. All the routers then use the link-state
information they have gathered (in databases called Link-State Databases [LSDBs]
or Topology Tables) to construct identical topology maps of the entire network, and
from which they calculate the best paths to all known network destinations. Using the
same topology map, each router is able to independently calculate the shortest path
to every destination in the network.
OSPF [RFC2328] and IS-IS [ISO/IEC10589] both maintain routing information
in LSDBs. These protocols determine which adjacent neighbor routers are operational,
and exchange routing information in order to construct the network topology map.
Neighbor routers are any two routers that have interfaces connected to a common
network segment (which could be a simple point-to-point (P2P) link, a broadcast
segment, or non-broadcast segment). In OSPF, for example, neighbors are discovered
and maintained, usually dynamically, using OSPF’s Hello protocol. Both OSPF and
IS-IS use the Dijkstra algorithm to determine the best routes to network destinations,
and install these in the router’s IP Routing Table.
This chapter and the next, describe the most common link-state routing protocols
(OSPFv2 and IS-IS), their characteristics, operations, and the databases they support.
Both OSPF and IS-IS are relatively complex routing protocols compared to RIP, and
use more protocol packet types, perform protocol handshakes not seen in RIP, and
have relatively more routing information advertisement types. The characteristics of
OSPFv2 are discussed in greater detail in this chapter.
1.2 OVERVIEW OF OSPF
OSPFv2 [MOYJT1998] [RFC2328] is routing protocol for IPv4 networks, while
OSPFv3 [RFC5340] provides enhancements for IPv6 routing. Henceforth, OSPF in
this chapter refers to OSPFv2 unless otherwise specified. OSPF is a link-state routing
protocol and an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) for distributing routing information
within an autonomous system. It is important to note that autonomous system as used
in the OSPF context here, means a collection of routers in a routing domain that
exchange OSPF routing information and under a common administrative control. In
addition, the autonomous system may be divided into smaller subrouting domains
called areas. The correct meaning of an autonomous system is the one used in
Chapter 1 of Volume 1 of this two-part book.
1
2 IP Routing Protocols
1.3 OSPF CONCEPTS
OSPF operates directly over IP (similar to EIGRP, IGMP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, etc.) and
uses Protocol Number 89 in the IP header. Unlike RIP and BGP, OSPF does not use
the services of Transport Layer protocols such as TCP or UDP. Also, OSPF messages
Open Shortest Path Routing (OSPF) Protocol 3
are sent as multicast and unicast transmissions (when required) rather than as broad-
casts. OSPF Hello messages, for example, are sent via multicast transmissions on a
network segment to the “All OSPF Routers” IPv4 multicast address 224.0.0.5, while
messages to Designated Routers (DRs) and Backup Designated Routers (BDRs) in a
network segment, are sent to the IPv4 multicast addresses 224.0.0.6 (i.e., the All
OSPF Designated Routers address).
The equivalent IPv6 multicast addresses are FF02::5 for the “All OSPFv3 Router”
multicast address, and FF02::6 for transmissions to a DR and BDR on a network
segment. If the underlying network does not support broadcast capabilities naturally
(e.g., using Ethernet technology), the OSPF neighbor relationship has to be
established using an IPv4 unicast address. For an IPv6 network, this configuration
will require a Link-Local IPv6 address. OSPF supports Variable-Length Subnet
Masks (VLSMs), and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) where the routing
updates carry network mask information.
The first time an OSPF router discovers a new neighbor router, it will transmit full
routing updates carrying all the link-state information it has learned. The ultimate
goal of the routing information exchange is to allow all routers in the OSPF area to
have identical and synchronized link-state information in their LSDBs. When the
OSPF network has converged and all routers have a consistent view of the network
topology, a router will send only a partial routing update to all its neighbors when a
new neighbor/link comes up or becomes unavailable. The routing update reflecting
the new change will then be flooded to all OSPF routers within the area.
The operation of OSPF is characterized by five main fundamental components:
neighbor router discovery and maintenance, exchange of router link-state information,
building of LSDBs, best route computations to network destinations, and building
and maintenance of the IP Routing Table. These components, which are discussed in
detail in this chapter, are summarized as follows:
• Construction and Maintenance of the LSDB (or Topology Table): After the
OSPF routers have received the LSAs, they each construct their LSDB (or
Topology Table) based on the link-state information contained in them. Each
piece of information in a router’s LSDB also includes its local state (e.g., the
router’s active interfaces, link costs, and the neighbors that are reachable over
these interfaces). In addition to LSAs flooded by other routers, the router also
propagates its local state to other routers in its area via LSAs. The LSDB of
each router, upon network convergence, eventually contains all the information
about the entire network topology. Most important, all routers in a particular
OSPF area converge to have the same view of the network topology (i.e., have
identical or synchronized LSDBs) – the same routing information in their
LSDBs.
• Execution of the SPF algorithm: After an OSPF router has built its LSDB, it
will then execute the SPF algorithm (a variant of the Dijkstra algorithm) on the
LSDB, with the result being a Shortest Path Tree (SPT) (with the router itself
as root) linking the router to all currently known network destinations.
• Construction and Maintenance of the IP Routing Table: Each router then
inserts the best paths to each network destination (derived from the SPF) into
its IP Routing Table. The router then makes forwarding decisions for each
packet it receives using the routes in the IP Routing Table. The flooding of
LSAs ensures that all routers can update their LSDBs, and Routing Tables to
reflect new network topology changes.
A link in an OSPF network is viewed as an interface on a router, and the state of the
link is a description of the properties and parameters associated with that interface
and its relationship with neighbor OSPF routers. Generally, interface and link are
used interchangeably and mean the same thing. Either of these terms means a
connection between a router and at least one of its neighbors over an attached network
segment.
A router interface (or link) has associated with it some state information (referred
to as link-states) which the router derives using the routing protocol itself, and the
underlying lower level protocols the interfaces uses (e.g., Ethernet, ATM, and PPP).
The link-states on an OSPF router are descriptions/indications of the state (including
parameters) of each interface on the router (belonging to a specific OSPF area) and
its associated adjacencies. Each router will generate a link-state for each of its
interfaces belonging to a particular area, and propagate these via various types of
LSAs to other routers.
A description of a router interface/link includes the IPv4 address assigned to the
interface, network mask, Area Identifier (ID), type of network connected to the
interface (e.g., P2P, broadcast multiaccess, and Virtual Link), the OSPF neighbor
routers connected to that network segment (or link), etc. An OSPF router gathers all
the link-states (carried via LSAs) from all routers in an OSPF area (including itself)
to form its LSDB. The OSPF router then determines the best paths to all known
network destinations based on the states of the links that connect the router and those
destinations.
Open Shortest Path Routing (OSPF) Protocol 5
After all the OSPF routers in an area have established adjacencies between them-
selves, each router will periodically send new instances of existing LSAs to refresh
its adjacencies, or LSA updates to report any changes in its link-state. When a router
detects a change in a link-state (such as interface failure), it will create an LSA
describing that change. By comparing the state of established adjacencies in its
LSDB with received LSAs, a router can determine changes in the area’s topology,
and then update its LSDB accordingly.
also reduces the frequency and processing time the SPF algorithm takes to complete
best path computations. Also, routing within an OSPF area (referred to as intra-area
routing) is based solely on the area’s own topology, thus, protecting the area from bad
out-of-area routing information.
All OSPF routers within an area exchange routing information with the goal of
maintaining identical LSDBs. Each router within the area maintains a separate but
identical LSDB whose routes may be summarized and advertised to the rest of the
OSPF autonomous system by the router that connects the area to the other parts of
the autonomous system. This structuring makes the routers outside the area unaware
of the topological details of the area.
The concepts of OSPF areas makes the topology details of an OSPF area not vis-
ible to the rest of the autonomous system – such details are visible only to routers
within that OSPF area. This results in a significant reduction in the routing traffic
exchanged between the various parts of the OSPF autonomous system. Routers in a
different area will populate their Routing Tables with summary routes rather than
with exact routes from the originating areas, which results in not only smaller Routing
Tables but also lower destination address lookup times during packet forwarding.
Thus, routers within an area exchange detailed link-state information in order to
build identical LSDBs for that area. However, the routing information that one area
exchanges with another contains only summary information (or summary LSAs) of
the originating area’s LSDB and not details of the network topology of that area.
Routers in the receiving area receive the summary LSAs, and inject the routing
information directly into their Routing Tables without having to rerun the SPF
algorithm.
Each area within an OSPF autonomous system must be uniquely identified by a
32-bit number. This number or Area ID is commonly written in the dot-decimal
notation used in IPv4 addressing. Area Identifiers (IDs) are not IP addresses, even if
written in the dot-decimal format, and may duplicate any existing IPv4 address in the
OSPF autonomous system without creating any addressing conflict. For example,
OSPF Area 3 written as a simple decimal value can be expressed in the dotted format
as Area 0.0.0.3 or as Area 3.0.0.0, as long as the numbering format of the OSPF areas
in the autonomous system is consistent. This is because Area IDs are not IP addresses
but simply a way of distinguishing different areas in an OSPF autonomous system.
OSPF networks use a hierarchical structure that is organized as a two-layer area
hierarchy consisting of a Backbone Area, and one or more Non-Backbone Areas. If
an OSPF network requires more than one area, then one of these areas must be the
Backbone Area. Generally, when designing an OSPF network, it is good practice to
design the Backbone Area first, and then expand this to include other Non-Backbone
Areas as needed. The Backbone Area is at the heart of the OSPF autonomous system,
and all Non-Backbone Areas have to be connected to this area (Figure 1.1). This is
because OSPF expects all Non-Backbone Areas to inject their routing information
into the Backbone Area, which in turn, will disseminate that information to other
Non-Backbone Areas.
The primary function of a Non-Backbone Area is to provide connectivity to end
users and resources. Typically, Non-Backbone Areas are set up or constructed
according to geographic or functional groupings of end users and resources. The key
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
—Je ne sais pas, mais ce que je sais, c’est que je monte très
bien. Voulez-vous le voir?
—Certainement, mon homme, et faisons un pari: si vous ne vous
cassez pas la tête, je paye la location du cheval.
—Et si vous ne vous rompez pas le cou avec votre machine ce
sera moi qui la payerai.
—Convenu. Et toi, Polidor?
—Moi, je vais prendre l’omnibus de San-Francisco. Rendez-vous
là-bas à trois heures. Vous nous payerez des escargots.
—Je vous invite à ce que vous voudrez, dit Frasquito en se
levant, et si nous arrivons sains et saufs jusqu’à Nina et à l’homme
du Riff, banquet général.
—Vous divaguez....»
XXXV