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Table of Contents

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Highlights of the Fifteenth Edition xvii
Online Resource Materials xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii
Case Citation Guide xxv
Sample Case Citations xxvii
Table of Cases xxix

PART I

Chapter 1
Constitutional History and Content 3
Section
1.1 History of the United States Constitution 5
1.2 —Early Steps Toward National Unity 5
1.3 —Articles of Confederation 6
1.4 —Drafting the United States Constitution 6
1.5 —Ratification by the States 6
1.6 Structure and Content of the Constitution 7
1.7 —Separation of the Powers of the Federal Government 9
1.8 —Division of Power between the Federal Government and the States 10
1.9 —Powers Granted to the Federal Government 12
1.10 —Powers the States Are Forbidden to Exercise 17
1.11 —Sovereign Powers Retained by the States 18
1.12 The Bill of Rights 21
1.13 —Applying the Bill of Rights to the States Through the Fourteenth
Amendment 23
1.14 The Fourteenth Amendment as a Limitation on State Power 24
1.15 —Due Process of Law 25
1.16 —Equal Protection of the Laws 28
1.17 Adjudication of Constitutional Questions 32
1.18 Federal Remedies for Constitutional Abuses 34
1.19 Summary 34
Notes 35

vii
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 2
Freedom of Speech 43
Section
2.1 Historical Background 45
2.2 Overview of Constitutional Protection for Speech and Expressive Conduct 46
2.3 Is Speech Involved? 47
2.4 First Amendment Distinction Between a Speaker’s Message and the
Conduct Associated With Communicating It 49
2.5 Punishing Speech Because of the Message 51
2.6 —Obscenity and Child Pornography 53
2.7 —Fighting Words 56
2.8 —Speech Integral to Criminal Conduct 57
2.9 —Incitement to Immediate Illegal Action 58
2.10 —Hate Speech 63
2.11 —Crude and Vulgar Speech 64
2.12 —Commercial Speech 65
2.13 Restraints on Speech Based on Considerations Other Than the Message 66
2.14 Free Speech Access to Government Property: Public Forums and
Nonpublic Forums 66
2.15 —Validity of Particular Restrictions 70
2.16 —Free Speech Access to Private Property 73
2.17 —Need for Precision in Regulating Speech 73
2.18 Summary 76
Notes 78

Chapter 3
Authority to Detain and Arrest 93
Section
3.1 Introduction 95
3.2 Overview of the Fourth Amendment 96
3.3 Crossing the Boundary of the Fourth Amendment 99
3.4 —“Free Zone” for Investigative Work 100
3.5 —“Seizure” Defined 100
3.6 —Fourth Amendment Grounds for a Lawful Seizure 104
3.7 Investigatory Stops 107
3.8 —Reasonable Suspicion 111
3.9 —Scope and Duration of Investigatory Stops 118
3.10 Traffic and Vehicle Stops 122
3.11 —Pretextual Traffic Stops 124
3.12 Requirements for a Constitutional Arrest 129
3.13 —Probable Cause 132
3.14 —Requirements for a Valid Arrest Warrant 134
3.15 —Arrests Inside a Private Residence 139
3.16 Use of Force in Making an Arrest or Other Seizure 143
 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

3.17 State Arrest Laws 146

3.18 —Territorial Limits on a Police Officer’s Arrest Authority 148
3.19 Summary and Practical Suggestions 150
Notes 152

Chapter 4
Search and Seizure 173
Section
4.1 Overview of the Law of Search and Seizure 175
4.2 —Definition of a Search 180
4.3 —Sources of Search Authority 186
4.4 —Fourth Amendment Requirements for Seizing Property 192
4.5 —The Fourth Amendment Search Warrant 201
4.6 Searches Involving People and Personal Effects 205
4.7 —The Terry Search Revisited 207
4.8 —Search Following a Custodial Arrest 209
4.9 Vehicle Searches 215
4.10 —Search of Vehicles Pursuant to a Detention or Arrest 217
4.11 —Search of Vehicles Based on Probable Cause (“Automobile
Exception”) 222
4.12 —Inventory Searches of Impounded Vehicles 224
4.13 Search of Protected Premises 226
4.14 —Premises Protected by the Fourth Amendment 227
4.15 —Entry and Search of Premises Under a Warrant 230
4.16 —Entry and Search of Premises Without a Warrant 234
4.17 The Exclusionary Rule 239
4.18 Summary and Practical Suggestions 246
Notes 247

Chapter 5
Laws Governing Police Surveillance 275
Section
5.1 Introduction to the Laws Governing Police Surveillance 277
5.2 Fourth Amendment Foundation of Police Surveillance Law 278
5.3 Application of the Fourth Amendment to Nonassisted Surveillance 280
5.4 Application of the Fourth Amendment to Technologically Assisted
Surveillance: An Overview 284
5.5 —Beeper, GPS, and Cell Phone Tracking 287
5.6 —Video Surveillance 291
5.7 —Detection Devices 294
5.8 The Wiretap Act 298
5.9 —Scope of the Wiretap Act 299
5.10 —Procedural Requirements for Intercepting Protected Communications 301
5.11 Communication Surveillance Not Regulated by the Wiretap Act 306
x TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.12 —Listening with the Unaided Ear 306

5.13 —Interception of an Oral Communication Where the Target Lacks a
Reasonable Expectation of Freedom from Interception 307
5.14 —Interception Conducted with the Consent of a Party 308
5.15 —Email, Voice Mail, and Text Messages 309
5.16 —Pen Registers and Trap-and-Trace Devices 310
5.17 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act 311
5.18 Summary and Practical Suggestions 313
Notes 314

Chapter 6
Interrogations and Confessions 333
Section
6.1 Introduction 335
6.2 The Free and Voluntary Rule 338
6.3 The Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule 342
6.4 Overview of the Rules Governing Custodial Interrogation 344
6.5 The McNabb-Mallory Delay in Arraignment Rule 345
6.6 Protection for the Fifth Amendment Privilege Against Self-Incrimination
During Police Interrogations: The Miranda Rule 348
6.7 —Custodial Interrogation Defined 349
6.8 —Procedural Requirements for Custodial Interrogations: Miranda
Warnings and Waivers 356
6.9 The Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel During Interrogations
Conducted After the Commencement of Adversary Judicial Proceedings 363
6.10 Use of Inadmissible Confession for Impeachment 366
6.11 Restrictions on the Use of Derivative Evidence 368
6.12 Restrictions on the Use of Confessions Given by Accomplices 369
6.13 The Requirement of Corroboration of Valid Confessions 370
6.14 Summary and Practical Suggestions 371
Notes 372

Chapter 7
Compulsory Self-Incrimination 385
Section
7.1 Introduction 387
7.2 Fifth Amendment Protection Against Testimonial Self-Incrimination 389
7.3 —Prerequisites for Application of the Fifth Amendment 391
7.4 —Rules for Invoking and Waiving Fifth Amendment Protection 393
7.5 —Protection Against Adverse Consequences from Exercising the
Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 395
7.6 —Self-Reporting Laws and the Fifth Amendment 395
7.7 Fourth Amendment Protection Against Bodily Self-Incrimination 396
7.8 —Requirements for Appearance Evidence 397
7.9 —Requirements for Bodily Evidence 399
 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

7.10 —Necessity of a Search Warrant to Explore for Bodily Evidence 401

7.11 —Strip Searches and Manual Body Cavity Searches 404
7.12 Summary and Practical Suggestions 407
Notes 408

Chapter 8
Right to Counsel 417
Section
8.1 —Overview of the Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel 419
8.2 —The Indigent Person’s Right to Appointed Counsel 420
8.3 —The Right to Assistance of Counsel in Pre- and Post-Trial Proceedings:
Critical Stages of the Prosecution and Criminal Appeals 422
8.4 —The Defendant’s Right to Self-Representation 423
8.5 —Ineffective Assistance of Counsel 424
8.6 Sixth Amendment Restrictions on the Conduct of the Police 425
8.7 Pretrial Identification Procedures 427
8.8 —Fourth Amendment Limitations on Admission of Pretrial Identification
Testimony 429
8.9 —Due Process Requirements for Pretrial Identification Procedures 430
8.10 —Right to Counsel During Pretrial Identification Procedures 434
8.11 Summary and Practical Suggestions 435
Notes 436

Chapter 9
Trial and Punishment 445
Section
9.1 Overview of Constitutional Safeguards During the Trial and Punishment
Phases of a Criminal Case 447
9.2 The Fifth Amendment Double Jeopardy Prohibition 448
9.3 —Prohibition of Multiple Prosecutions for the Same Offense 449
9.4 —Prohibition of Multiple Punishments for the Same Offense 453
9.5 Sixth Amendment and Due Process Requirements for Fair Trials 454
9.6 —Speedy Trial 455
9.7 —Public Trial 458
9.8 —Confrontation of Adverse Witnesses 459
9.9 —Fair and Impartial Tribunal 460
9.10 —Pretrial Publicity 462
9.11 —Trial by Jury 468
9.12 —Preservation and Disclosure of Evidence Favorable to the Defense 473
9.13 Eighth Amendment Requirements for Punishment 476
9.14 —Constitutionally Acceptable Punishments 477
9.15 —The Death Penalty 478
9.16 —Eighth Amendment Protection Inside Prison Walls 483
9.17 Summary and Practical Suggestions 485
Notes 487
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 10
Rights and Liabilities in the Workplace 501
Section
10.1 Introduction 503
10.2 First Amendment Protection for Work-Related Speech 503
10.3 Fourth Amendment Protection Against Workplace Searches 511
10.4 Fifth Amendment Protection Against Self-Incrimination 515
10.5 Fourteenth Amendment Protection for a Police Officer’s Personal Liberty 516
10.6 Procedural Due Process in Police Disciplinary Actions 519
10.7 Employment Discrimination Based on Race, Color, Religion, Gender, or
National Origin 520
10.8 Equal Protection in the Police Workplace 525
10.9 Constitutional Accountability Under Federal Law 527
10.10 Summary 530
Notes 531

PART II

Judicial Decisions and Statutes Relating to Part I 551

Glossary 773

Appendix: The Constitution of the United States of America 783

Index of Cases 801

Index 845
Foreword

We lost my mother, Professor Jacqueline Kanovitz, last year after her brief bout
with cancer ended a lifetime full of labor and love. She left behind an adoring family,
saddened friends, a cadre of grateful former students, and the book you are about to
study. This book was a constant presence in her life as she wrote and rewrote it through
fourteen editions over the course of five decades. Her consistent goal was to provide
students a clear and up-to-date explanation of the ever-developing rules for policing in
the United States, all without “dumbing down” the complicated topic of Constitutional
Law. She succeeded by creating a book both scholarly and accessible.
The origins of both this book and Professor Kanovitz’s career trace back to the
1960s, during a time of rapid societal change and resistance to change. The Supreme
Court spent much of the decade pushing reforms and constitutionalizing the procedures
expected of police. Those reforms often met with resistance in the nation’s police forces
but ultimately gave rise to modern policing as a recognized profession. Simultaneously,
the role of women in society was changing. In keeping with the advancements of the
time, the future Professor Kanovitz set out to become an attorney and enrolled at the
University of Louisville Law School. But it was still rare for a woman to enter the legal
profession. She met with discrimination that intensified the difficulties which always
accompany studying the law.
Despite the unfairness she encountered, or, perhaps, because of it, she dug in and
excelled by attaining one of the highest academic standings in the history of the school.
She was awarded a J.D. degree summa cum laude, rather than the L.L.B. degree that was
standard at the time, in recognition of her academic achievements. She was hired as a
professor at the law school two years later and, thereafter, went on to teach several
generations of lawyers for over 30 years. As a professor she was both feared and loved,
demanding intellectual rigor of her students but always making herself available to
them for emotional and academic support. Her memory of the biases she experienced
in her time as a student gave her a constant source of empathy for all she taught. She
knew that everyone can feel like an outsider when exposed to new pursuits.
The book was born shortly before Jackie’s graduation in 1967. The law school
received an inquiry from John Klotter, Dean of the Southern Police Institute. He pro-
posed an idea to write a textbook on constitutional law specifically for police. It was a
juicy topic for an academic in light of the Supreme Court’s surging involvement in
criminal procedure cases and because Congress, in turn, had begun a push to

xiii
xiv FOREWORD

professionalize the nation’s police forces through formal education. As a testament to

Jackie’s scholarship, the law school recommended to Dean Klotter that he team up with
her, even though she was as yet only a student. Dean Klotter agreed, proving far more
progressive in his thinking than the legal profession generally, which was still unwill-
ing to employ a female attorney, even one who graduated at the top of her class. A
federal judge at the time, for example, simply said, “Send me a boy,” despite the law
school’s highest recommendation for a clerkship. The big law firms in town would only
interview men from her class, despite her superior ranking.
Thus, the opportunity to work on this textbook came at an important time for her
in her new career. She joined Professor Klotter as a full co-author and, together, they
published the first edition of the book in 1968. The book went on to great success and
is still today the most widely used textbook of its kind. Through each subsequent edi-
tion, Professor Kanovitz worked tirelessly while excelling as a law professor, writing
law review articles, and somehow still managing to make dinner from scratch for our
family every night. The book was a perpetual work in progress because the courts were
always issuing new cases. So, she would often labor into the night writing about the
new cases for the next edition, the sounds of her IBM Selectric typewriter ringing like
a machine gun from her basement office.
Over the course of her career, Professor Kanovitz’s scholarship extended past the
U.S. Constitution to many other areas of the law. She taught contract law, the UCC,
property, remedies and insurance, among other courses. In this way she developed an
increasingly holistic view of the law which she brought to the book. As a result, the
book fits the developing law into themes and trends rather than merely presenting a set
of rules for police to follow. This approach also enabled her to foresee developments
in the law, which predictions she would incorporate into the footnotes for each
chapter.
When Professor Klotter retired in the late 1990s, I was fortunate to join her as a
co-author for several editions. It was one of the great learning experiences of my life.
I credit working with her for my subsequent career as a civil rights lawyer and with
helping me make a difference for thousands of clients in the justice system.
This 15th edition of the book will be the first without Professor Kanovitz, but it is
certain not to be the last. The framework established by Dean Klotter and Professor
Kanovitz, and carried on by Professors Ingram and Devine, will continue to provide
students with a genuine understanding of our nation’s Constitution, as well as a practi-
cal mastery of the procedures police can and must employ when enforcing the law in
our constitutional system. Communicating the law to students, lawyers, and police was
a lifetime’s work for Professor Kanovitz. Cultivating a deeper level of understanding
of these things for you in your career was of paramount importance to her.
She will be sorely missed.

Michael Kanovitz, J.D.

March 2018
Preface

Criminal justice arrived as a learned profession in the late 1960s when Congress
recognized that better-educated police officers were needed to implement the Warren
Court’s constitutional reforms and appropriated funds to establish programs for their
higher education. This marked the beginning of criminal justice as a degree program.
Professor Kanovitz was then in her final year at the University of Louisville School of
Law and had the unparalleled good fortune of having been selected by the late John
Klotter, Dean of the University of Louisville School of Justice Administration (then
known as the Southern Police Institute), to co-author the first title in Anderson Publish-
ing Company’s Criminal Justice Series. Dean Klotter was a trailblazer and dominant
figure in criminal justice scholarship for many decades. He remained as Jacqueline
Kanovitz’s co-author of Constitutional Law for the first seven editions. Professor Klot-
ter was succeeded by Michael Kanovitz, a successful trial lawyer and Cornell Law
School graduate, who served as co-author of the eighth through eleventh editions. He
brought both fresh ideas and new perspectives to the book that were invaluable in
making the transition from a traditional textbook to a modern one. With the passing
of Jacqueline Kanovitz, Jefferson Ingram and Christopher Devine of the University of
Dayton have stepped forward to revise and enhance the work started by John Klotter
and Jacqueline Kanovitz. Every effort has been made to continue their groundbreaking
work by carefully updating legal principles and cases while staying true to the concep-
tual presentation of prior editions.
Now in its fifteenth edition, Constitutional Law for Criminal Justice has been a
leader in its field for 50 years. The book contains a combination of 65 percent textual
materials and 35 percent edited cases that amplify and explain important principles of
constitutional law. This combination creates flexibility in teaching approaches and
enhances the classroom experience. The coverage is comprehensive, providing an
in-depth analysis of investigatory detentions, traffic stops, arrests, searches and seizure,
electronically-assisted surveillance, the federal Wiretap Act, the right to counsel, inter-
rogations and confessions, compulsory self-incrimination, pretrial identification proce-
dures, constitutional safeguards available during trials, due process, equal protection,
capital punishment, First Amendment limitations on police use of authority, constitu-
tional rights of police in the workplace, police liability for violating constitutional
rights of others, and much, much more. The fifteenth edition presents current legal
theories that assist the student in learning the state of the art in constitutional law as it

xv
xvi PREFACE

applies to the criminal justice field. This book is designed for career-path students who
seek a deep and rich understanding of the constitutional principles that apply to their
daily work.
The text is well organized and written in plain, clear, student-friendly language. A
variety of techniques has been used to enhance the learning experience. Chapters begin
with an outline and conclude with a summary. Key terms and concepts appear in bold
face type and are defined in the Glossary. Tables, Figures, and Charts are used to sim-
plify and synthesize information. Check the book page on www.routledge.com/cw/
kanovitz, for the companion website link. We offer the professor and student supple-
ments that assist the learning experience. These techniques and resources enable com-
plex materials and concepts to be presented with clarity and ease.
Highlights of the Fifteenth Edition

The Fifteenth Edition contains over a dozen new cases. The highlights include:

Chapter 1. Constitutional History and Content—Obergefell v. Hodges (2015),

in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that state bans on same-sex marriage
were unconstitutional violations of the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process
and equal protection clauses; Fisher v. University of Texas (2016), in which
the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the University of Texas’ affirmative action
policy—which used race, among other factors, to evaluate students applying
for admission—did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection
clause.
Chapter 2. Freedom of Speech—Packingham v. North Carolina (2017), in which
the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a North Carolina law prohibiting convicted
sex offenders from accessing social media and other websites where minors may
create a user account, as a violation of the First Amendment freedom of speech;
Matal v. Tam (2017), in which the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a provision
of the 1946 Lanham Act, prohibiting the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office from
registering disparaging trademarks, as a violation of the First Amendment free-
dom of speech; Reed v. Town of Gilbert (2015), a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that
invalidated a town’s code for displaying outdoor signs, which imposed stricter
limitations on temporary directional signs, as a content-based restriction on the
freedom of speech.
Chapter 3. Authority to Detain and Arrest—New concepts in this chapter
include a Supreme Court case that makes evidence discovered during an illegal
Terry-type stop and frisk admissible if the illegality was sufficiently separate
from the discovery of criminal evidence on the person of the detainees. The
Supreme Court enhanced the definition of attenuation or separation that came
from the Wong Sun v. United States case in 1963. This chapter addresses, among
other things, the situation where a police officer has a reason to suspect criminal
activity that is not certain. This chapter addresses this concept, known as the
stop and frisk, and updates it, with respect to the admission of evidence obtained
from a stop when that evidence might have previously been inadmissible. In
Utah v. Strieff, 579 U.S. ___, 136 Ct. 2056, 195 L. Ed. 2d 400, 2016 U.S. LEXIS
392 (2016), the Court allowed the admission of evidence that had been

xvii
xviii HIGHLIGHTS OF THE FIFTEENTH EDITION

obtained from an illegal Terry-type detention. The identification of the subject

led to his arrest pursuant to an outstanding warrant. Evidence that was seized
from his person incident to the arrest was ultimately deemed admissible against
him, even though the initial stop was unlawful under the Fourth Amendment,
and under the Terry standard. The court majority found that the discovery of the
outstanding warrant was sufficiently attenuated or separated from the original
illegal stop and that evidence pursuant to the arrest found on his person should
have been admitted against him. In a new reaffirmation of a prior principle,
the Court in Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 191 L.
Ed. 2d 492, 2015 U.S. LEXIS 2807 (2015), held that evidence obtained after
holding motorist longer than needed for traffic processing to allow drug dog
sniff must be excluded from use to prove guilt. Such an extended detention was
unreasonable and evidence obtained during the illegal detention should have
been suppressed from admission into evidence. Both Strieff and Rodriguez are
presented in an edited format in Part II, Chapter 3.
Chapter 4. Search and Seizure—Issues frequently arise concerning whether
or when a search warrant may be necessary under the Fourth Amendment.
Recently, the Court clarified when a police officer needs a warrant when inves-
tigating impaired motorist cases. In Chapter 4, the Court added a “bright line”
to some earlier case decisions with its decision in Birchfield v. North Dakota,
579 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 2160, 195 L. Ed. 2d 560, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 4058
(2016), involving testing to determine the level of alcohol impairment of drink-
ing drivers. Prior to the Supreme Court’s decision in Birchfield, there was some
uncertainty concerning just when a warrant might be required for alcohol testing
of arrested impaired motorists. In Birchfield, the Court clarified the landscape
and permitted warrantless post-arrest breath testing for arrested impaired driv-
ers. However, Birchfield, absent exigent or emergency circumstances, clearly
required search warrants for the purpose of drawing blood and analyzing the
results of an alcohol impaired driver.
Chapter 5. Laws Governing Police Surveillance—While much police surveil-
lance does not require a search warrant, some areas have emerged that may
require the obtaining of court-ordered warrants. In following suspects who have
not been arrested, police often use modern technology. Some of this monitoring
is subject to the warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment. Using global
positioning system [GPS] tracking devices and similar instruments that indicate
where a person or motor vehicle has traveled or has been located has been deter-
mined to require warrants under the Supreme Court’s decision in United States
v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400, 132 S. Ct. 945, 181 L. Ed. 2d 911, 2012 U.S. LEXIS
1063 (2012). In a newer case that arguably has a close relationship to the legal
principles recognized to Jones, in Grady v. North Carolina, 574 U.S. ___, 135
S. Ct. 1368, 191 L. Ed. 2d 459, 2015 U.S. LEXIS 2124 (2015), the Court con-
cluded that the perpetual use of a GPS device on a convicted sex offender, who
had served his sentence, constituted a search under the Fourth Amendment. The
 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE FIFTEENTH EDITION xix

Court did not resolve the issue of whether such a constant perpetual search was
reasonable and sent the case back to the lower courts for reconsideration.
Chapter 6. Interrogations and Confessions—Within the last several years, the
Supreme Court has not revisited the area of constitutional requirements for the
conducting of interrogations and the obtaining of confessions. Miranda issues
are often at the forefront of the litigation involving interrogations and are reg-
ulated by the case of Miranda v. Arizona and subsequent case law. This chap-
ter offers a state case demonstration of an exception to the Miranda warning
requirements, first introduced by the Court in New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S.
649, 104 S. Ct. 2626, 81 L. Ed. 2d 550 (1984). Quarles created the public safety
exception to the Miranda warning requirement that permitted giving the warn-
ings later where an emergency existed. In a Connecticut case, State v. Smith,
321 Conn. 278, 138 A.3d 223, 2016 Conn. LEXIS 117 (2016), the Supreme
Court of Connecticut adjudicated an interesting fact-driven state application of
the Miranda public safety exception, which further demonstrated how Miranda
warnings may be excused or delayed in some situations.
Chapter 8. Right to Counsel—Commonwealth v. Bland, a ruling by the Pennsyl-
vania Supreme Court which held that, in order to be valid, a criminal defendant
must invoke his or her Sixth Amendment right to counsel only after the gov-
ernment has initiated adversarial judicial proceedings, and not prior to entering
custodial interrogation.
Chapter 9. Trial and Punishment—The substantive constitutional issues covered
by Chapter 9, have remained fairly stable in recent years. Most of the issues
related to the death penalty and collateral issues have been fairly definitively
decided by prior case law. Stable issues include speedy and public trial and con-
frontation concerns. This chapter introduces a refinement on concepts involving
double jeopardy, and whether jurisdictions other than states, the federal govern-
ment, and some Indian jurisdictions may be considered separate sovereigns for
the purpose of double jeopardy. In Puerto Rico v. Sánchez Valle, 579 U.S. ___,
136 S. Ct. 1863, 195 L. Ed. 2d 179, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 3773 (2016), the Court
considered whether the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico constituted a separate
sovereign jurisdiction so that a person tried in a federal court of the United
States could subsequently be tried in a Commonwealth criminal court for activ-
ities constituting the same basic crime. In determining that since the Puerto
Rican government obtained its power to prosecute crimes from the United States
government and that the Puerto Rican government and the United States gov-
ernment constituted one sovereign, a subsequent prosecution for the same act
violated the Fifth Amendment prohibition against double jeopardy. An edited
version of Sánchez Valle has been presented in Part II, Chapter 9 of the book.
Chapter 10. Rights and Liabilities in the Workplace—Cases dealing with the
civil constitutional liability of sworn law enforcement personnel, as decided
by the Supreme Court of the United States, have clearly indicated that police
officers have a qualified immunity against civil suit for alleged wrongdoing. In
xx HIGHLIGHTS OF THE FIFTEENTH EDITION

a case where an officer has violated a clearly established constitutional or legal

principle, a reasonable officer should have known about the proper parameters
of his or her conduct and will not be immune from suit. The Supreme Court
reaffirmed this principle, in Stanton v. Sims, 571 U.S. ___, 134 S. Ct. 3, 187
L. Ed. 2d 341 (2013). In a recently decided case involving the constitutional
liability for supervisory personnel and police departments, Heffernan v. City of
Paterson, 578 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 1412, 194 L. Ed. 2d 508, 2016 U.S. LEXIS
2924 (2016), the Court found a First Amendment free-speech violation where a
police chief demoted a fellow member of management for appearing to support
a particular candidate who appeared to be opposed to the current city mayor’s
reelection. In Heffernan, the Court held that where a public employer demotes
an employee due to a desire to prevent or punish that employee from engaging
in political activity that the First Amendment protects, the employee will be per-
mitted to challenge that unlawful action under the First Amendment and under
42 U.S.C. §1983, the civil rights statute. An edited version of the Heffernan case
appears in the cases for Chapter 10, Part II.
Online Resource Materials

Many of the materials cited in footnotes throughout this text are available, free of
charge, from the following sources:

Supreme Court (http://www.supremecourt.gov)

The Supreme Court’s official website contains an automated docket system of
cases now pending before the Court, including the briefs filed in these cases,
slip opinions of cases recently decided, and bound volumes of cases decided
since 2007.
Findlaw (http://www.findlaw.com/casecode)
This website is a gold mine. It contains all Supreme Court decisions since
1893, all federal statutes, more recent lower federal court decisions, and select
state materials, plus additional legal resources, such as the Supreme Court’s
current docket, briefs, and transcripts of oral arguments. For cases decided
since September 2000, Findlaw offers a choice between the full text or an
opinion summary, plus access to other secondary materials. CAVEAT: The
website at http://www.findlaw.com/casecode cannot be accessed using Inter-
net Explorer. It is necessary to type this address into another search window.
Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com)
Google Scholar is an excellent resource for in-depth research. Researchers can
access the full text of Supreme Court cases by typing in the case name; check
the box entitled “articles” and gain access to numerous law review articles;
and find references to other online repositories, universities, and websites
that contain relevant information. A free Gmail account is needed to use this
resource.
American Bar Association (http://www.americanbar.org/publications/preview_home.
html)
This site contains summaries of the facts and issues presented in cases cur-
rently before the Supreme Court, along with the briefs filed in these cases.
Duke University (http://law.duke.edu/lib/researchguides/legal_materials)
This site contains most law journals and law review articles in PDF form for
back issues, but not for current ones. Some legal reference books are also
available.

xxi
xxii ONLINE RESOURCE MATERIALS

Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute (http://www.law.cornell.edu)

This site presents the United States Constitution with Amendments, the
United States Code, the Code of Federal Regulations, and a collection of fed-
eral rules, including the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Evidence and
Appellate procedure.
Historical Documents (http://www.usa.gov/Topics/Reference-Shelf/Documents.
shtml)
This site contains the full text of the Constitution and other historically sig-
nificant documents like the Declaration of Independence (1776), Articles of
Confederation (1777), Federalist Papers (1787–1788), Bill of Rights (1791),
Gettysburg Address (1863), and Emancipation Proclamation (1863).
Acknowledgments

We want to continue to offer our thanks to the professors, instructors, and police
departments who have used this book over the years for their suggestions, comments,
and support. Special thanks must be offered to Dean John Klotter and to Jacqueline
Kanovitz and Michael Kanovitz for their seminal work on this book through its many
iterations. Thanks and gratitude go to Pam Chester for giving us the opportunity to con-
tinue this excellent work and for her guidance and assistance in its revision. We wish to
thank Ellen Boyne for her oversight and assistance in getting the manuscript ready for
publication. The anonymous reviewers who made important and creative suggestions
that were incorporated into our final draft deserve thanks. We most certainly wish to
thank Dr. Grant Neeley, Chair of the Department of Political Science at the University
of Dayton, for his support during the revision of this book.

Jefferson L. Ingram, J.D.

Professor
Political Science
University of Dayton

Christopher J. Devine, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Political Science
University of Dayton

xxiii
Case Citation Guide

The following list provides an explanation of case citations used in Constitutional

Law for Criminal Justice, Fifteenth Edition, for readers who may be unfamiliar with
how court decisions are cited.

U.S. United States Reports. Published by the United States government,

this is the official source of United States Supreme Court decisions.
It reports only United States Supreme Court decisions.
S. Ct. Supreme Court Reporter. Published by West Publishing Company,
this publication reports United States Supreme Court decisions.
L. Ed./L. Ed. 2d United States Reports, Lawyers’ Edition, First Series/Second Series.
Published by Lawyers Cooperative Publishing Company, this publi-
cation reports United States Supreme Court decisions.
F.2d/F.3d Federal Reports, Second Series/Third Series. Published by West
Publishing Company, it reports decisions of the Federal Courts of
Appeals.
F. Supp. Federal Supplement. Published by West Publishing Company, this
reports decisions of the Federal District Courts.
A./A.2d/A.3d Atlantic Reporter, a regional reporter By West Publishing Company
that reports decisions from the states of CT, DE, ME, MD, NH, NJ,
PA, RI, and VT. It includes cases from the District of Columbia,
printed in three series.
N.E./N.E.2d North Eastern Reporter, a regional reporter by West Publishing
Company that reports decisions from the states of IL, IN, MA, NY,
and OH; printed in two series.
P./P.2d/P.3d Pacific Reporter, a regional reporter by West Publishing Com-
pany that reports decisions from the states of AK, AZ, CA, CO,
HI, ID, KS, MT, NV, NM, OK, OR, UT, WA, WY; printed in three
series.
S.E./S.E.2d South Eastern Reporter, a regional reporter by West Publishing
Company that reports decisions from the states of GA, NC, SC, VA,
WV; printed in two series.

xxv
xxvi CASE CITATION GUIDE

So./So.2d Southern Reporter, a regional reporter by West Publishing

Company that reports decisions from AL, FL, LA, MS; printed
in two series.
S.W./S.W.2d/S.W.3d South Western Reporter, a regional reporter by West Publishing
Company that reports decisions from AR, KY, MO, TN, TX;
printed in three series.
Sample Case Citations

Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963). This case is located in volume 372 of the
United States Reports, beginning on page 335. It was decided in 1963.

Gideon v. Wainwright, 83 S. Ct. 792 (1963). Gideon v. Wainwright is published in

volume 83 of the Supreme Court Reporter, beginning on page 792.

Gideon v. Wainwright, 9 L. Ed. 2d 799 (1963). Gideon v. Wainwright is also published

in volume 9 of Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers’ Edition, Second Series, beginning
on page 799.

Phillips v. Perry, 106 F.3d 1420 (9th Cir. 1997). This case is located in volume 106 of
Federal Reports, Third Series, beginning on page 1420. It was decided by the Ninth
Circuit Court of Appeals in 1997.

Brockway v. Shepherd, 942 F. Supp. 1012 (M.D. Pa. 1997). This case is located in
volume 942 of Federal Supplement, beginning on page 1012. It was decided in 1997
by the Federal District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania.

xxvii
Table of Cases

Cases Relating to Chapter 1

CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND CONTENT
Arizona v. United States, __ U.S. __, 132 S. Ct. 2492,
183 L. Ed. 2d 351 (2011) 553
National Association of Independent Business v. Sebelius, __ U.S. __,
132 S. Ct. 2566, 183 L. Ed. 2d 450 (2012) 557
United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 115 S. Ct. 1624, 131 L. Ed. 2d
626 (1995) 562
Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 98, 117 S. Ct. 2365, 138 L. Ed. 2d 914
(1997) 565
District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570, 128 S. Ct. 2783, 171 L.
Ed. 2d 637 (2008) 567
Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. __, 135 S. Ct. 2584, 192 L. Ed. 2d 609
(2015) 569
Fisher v. University of Texas, 579 U.S. __, 136 S. Ct. 2198, 195 L. Ed.
2d 511 (2016) 573

Cases Relating to Chapter 2

FREEDOM OF SPEECH
Packingham v. North Carolina, 582 U.S. ___, __ S. Ct. __, L. Ed. __
___ (2017) 575
Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343, 123 S. Ct. 1536,155 L. Ed. 2d 535 (2003) 577
Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 109 S. Ct. 2533, 105 L. Ed. 2d 342 (1989) 578
Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, __ U.S. __, 131 S.
Ct. 2729, 180 L. Ed. 2d 708 (2011) 581
Matal v. Tam, 582 U.S. ___, __ S. Ct. __, L. Ed. __ ___ (2017) 582
State v. Suhn, 759 N. W. 2d 546 (S.D. 2009) 584
Congine v. Village of Crivitz, 947 F. Supp. 2d 968 (E.D. Wis. 2013) 586
United States v. Turner, 720 F.3d 411, 2013 U.S. App. LEXIS 12748 (2013) 589
Reed v. Town of Gilbert, 576 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 2218, 192 L. Ed. 2d
236 (2015) 592

xxix
xxx TABLE OF CASES

Cases Relating to Chapter 3

AUTHORITY TO DETAIN AND ARREST
California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 111 S. Ct. 1547, 113 L. Ed. 2d
290 (1991) 595
Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S. Ct. 1868, 20 L. Ed. 2d 889 (1968) 596
Kaupp v. Texas, 538 U.S. 626, 123 S. Ct. 1843, 155 L. Ed. 2d 814 (2003) 600
United States v. Drayton, 536 U.S. 194, 122 S. Ct. 2105, 153 L. Ed. 2d
242 (2002) 600
Utah v. Strieff, 579 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 2056, 195 L. Ed. 2d 400, 2016
U.S. LEXIS 392 (2016) 603
Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 120 S. Ct. 673, 145 L. Ed. 2d
570 (2000) 606
Navarette v. California, 572 U.S. __, 134 S. Ct. 1683, 188 L. Ed. 2d
680, 2014 U.S. LEXIS 2930 (2014) 607
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S. Ct. 1602, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694 (1966) 609
Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 116 S. Ct. 1769, 135 L. Ed. 2d 89
(1996) 609
Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 191 L. Ed.
2d 492, 2015 U.S. LEXIS 2807 (2015) 611
Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d
485 (2009) 612
Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 100 S. Ct. 1371, 63 L. Ed. 2d
639 (1980) 616
United States v. King, 227 F.3d 732, 2000 U.S. App. LEXIS 2950
(6th Cir. 2000) 617
Brigham City, Utah v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed.
2d 650 (2006) 620
Scott v. Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 176 S. Ct. 1769, 167 L. Ed. 2d 686 (2007) 621

Cases Relating to Chapter 4

SEARCH AND SEIZURE
Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d 576 (1967) 625
California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35, 108 S. Ct. 1625, 100 L. Ed. 2d
30 (1988) 625
Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 100 S. Ct. 1371, 63 L. Ed. 2d 639
(1980) 626
Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S. Ct. 1868, 20 L. Ed. 2d 889 (1968) 626
United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400, 132 S. Ct. 945, 181 L. Ed. 2d 911,
2012 U.S. LEXIS 1063 (2012) 626
Florida v. Jardines, 569 U.S. 1, 133 S. Ct. 1409, 185 L. Ed. 2d 495, 2013
U.S. LEXIS 2542 (2013) 627
 TABLE OF CASES xxxi

Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S. Ct. 1826, 16 L. Ed. 2d 908

(1966) 629
Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 121 S. Ct. 2038, 150 L. Ed. 2d 94
(2001) 629
United States v. Dunn, 480 U.S. 294, 107 S. Ct. 1134, 94 L. Ed. 2d 326
(1987) 629
Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 120 S. Ct. 1462, 146 L. Ed. 2d 365
(2000) 631
Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 89 S. Ct. 2034, 23 L. Ed. 2d 265 (1969) 633
Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 107 S. Ct. 1149, 94 L. Ed. 2d 347 (1987) 634
Flippo v. West Virginia, 528 U.S. 11, 120 S. Ct. 7, 145 L. Ed. 2d 16 (1999) 636
United States v. Weinbender, 109 F.3d 1327 (8th Cir. 1997) 637
Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009) 638
United States v. Drayton, 536 U.S. 194, 122 S. Ct. 2105, 153 L. Ed. 2d
242 (2002) 638
United States v. Richards, 741 F.3d 843, 2014 U.S. App. LEXIS 1967
(7th Cir. 2014) 638
Florida v. Jimeno, 500 U.S. 248, 111 S. Ct. 1801, 114 L. Ed. 2d 297 (1991) 640
United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218, 94 S. Ct. 467, 38 L. Ed. 2d
427 (1973) 641
Riley v. California, 573 U.S. ___, 134 S. Ct. 2473, 189 L. Ed. 2d 430,
2014 U.S. LEXIS 4497 (2014) 643
Brigham City, Utah v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed.
2d 650 (2006) 647
Birchfield v. North Dakota, 579 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 2160, 195 L. Ed.
2d 560, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 4058 (2016) 649
United States v. King, 227 F.3d 732, 2000 U.S. App. LEXIS 2950
(6th Cir. 2000) 654
State v. Vessel, 131 So.3d 523 (La. App. 2014) 654
Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington, 566
U.S. 318, 132 S. Ct. 1510, 2012 U.S. LEXIS 2712 (2012) 655
Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 191 L. Ed.
2d 492, 2015 U.S. LEXIS 2807 (2015) 655
Wyoming v. Houghton, 526 U.S. 295, 119 S. Ct. 1297, 143 L. Ed. 2d
408, 1999 U.S. LEXIS 2347 (1999) 655
Bailey v. United States, 568 U.S. 186, 133 S. Ct. 1031, 185 L. Ed. 2d
19, 2013 U.S. LEXIS 1075 (2013) 657
Kentucky v. King, 563 U.S. 452, 131 S. Ct. 1849, 179 L. Ed. 2d 865,
2011 U.S. LEXIS 3541 (2011) 660
Herring v. United States, 555 U.S. 135, 129 S. Ct. 695, 172 L. Ed. 2d
496, 2009 U.S. LEXIS 581 (2009) 663
xxxii TABLE OF CASES

Cases Relating to Chapter 5

LAWS GOVERNING POLICE SURVEILLANCE
Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d 576 (1967) 665
United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400, 132 S. Ct. 945, 181 L. Ed. 2d 911,
2012 U.S. LEXIS 1063 (2012) 667
Florida v. Jardines, 569 U.S. 1, 133 S. Ct. 1409, 185 L. Ed. 2d 495, 2013
U.S. LEXIS 2542 (2013) 671
United States v. Dunn, 480 U.S. 294, 107 S. Ct. 1134, 94 L. Ed. 2d 326 (1987) 671
Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 121 S. Ct. 2038, 150 L. Ed. 2d 94
(2001) 671
Carpenter v. United States, 819 F.3d 880, 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 6670
(6th Cir. 2016), cert. granted, 137 S. Ct. 2211, 198 L. Ed. 2d 657,
2017 U.S. LEXIS 3686 (2017) 673
Grady v. North Carolina, 574 U.S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1368, 191 L. Ed. 2d
459, 2015 U.S. LEXIS 2124 (2015) 676
United States v. Anderson-Bagshaw, 509 F. App’x 396 (6th Cir. 2012)
cert. denied, 569 U.S. 953. 133 S. Ct. 2012, 185 L. Ed. 2d 877, 2013
U.S. LEXIS 3273 (2013) 678
United States v. Hartwell, 436 F.3d 174 (3d Cir. 2006) 680
United States v. McIntyre, 582 F.2d 1221 (9th Cir. 1978) 681
United States v. Turner, 209 F.3d 1198, 2000 U.S. App. LEXIS 6952
(2000) 683
United States v. Willoughby, 860 F.2d 15 (2d Cir. 1988) 684
United States Code Annotated Title 18. Crimes and Criminal Procedure
(2017). Part I. Crimes, Chapter 121. Stored Wire and Electronic
Communications and Transactional Records Access 685

Cases Relating to Chapter 6

INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS
Miranda v. Arizona. 384 U.S. 436, 86 S. Ct. 1602, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694 (1966) 687
Arizona v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279, 111 S. Ct. 1246, 113 L. Ed. 2d 302
(1991) 693
Kaupp v. Texas, 538 U.S. 626, 123 S. Ct. 1843, 155 L. Ed. 2d 814 (2003) 694
Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 100 S. Ct. 1371, 63 L. Ed. 2d
639 (1980) 695
Howes v. Fields, 565 U.S. 499, 132 S. Ct. 1181, 182 L. Ed. 2d 17, 2012
U.S. LEXIS 1077 (2012) 695
Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 100 S. Ct. 1682, 64 L. Ed. 2d
297 (1980) 699
State v. Smith, 321 Conn. 278, 138 A.3d 223, 2016 Conn. LEXIS
117 (2016) 701
 TABLE OF CASES xxxiii

Maryland v. Shatzer, 559 U.S. 98, 130 S. Ct. 1213, 175 L. Ed. 2d
1045 (2010) 704
Berghuis v. Thompkins, 560 U.S. 88, 130 S. Ct. 130 S. Ct. 2250, 176 L.
Ed. 2d 1098, 2010 U.S. LEXIS 4379 (2010) 707
Davis v. United States, 512 U.S. 452, 114 S. Ct. 2350, 129 L. Ed. 2d 362
(1994) 710
Missouri v. Seibert, 542 U.S. 600, 124 S. Ct. 2601, 159 L. Ed. 2d
643 (2004) 711
Kuhlmann v. Wilson, 477 U.S. 436, 106 S. Ct. 2616, 91 L. Ed. 2d
364 (1986) 713

Cases Relating to Chapter 7

COMPULSORY SELF-INCRIMINATION
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S. Ct. 1602, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694 (1966) 715
Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d 576 (1967) 715
Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S. Ct. 1826, 16 L. Ed. 2d 908
(1966) 715
Birchfield v. North Dakota, 579 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 2160, 195 L. Ed. 2d
560, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 4058 (2016) 718
Maryland v. King, __ U.S. __, 133 S. Ct. 1958, 186 L. Ed. 2d 1 (2013) 718
Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington, 566
U.S. 318, 132 S. Ct. 1510, 2012 U.S. LEXIS 2712 (2012) 721

Cases Relating to Chapter 8

RIGHT TO COUNSEL
Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335, 83 S. Ct. 792, 9 L. Ed. 2d 799 (1963) 725
Hinton v. Alabama, __ U.S. __, 134 S. Ct. 1081, 188 L. Ed. 2d 1 (2014) 727
Commonwealth v. Bland, 115 A.3d 854 (Pa. 2015) 732
State v. Quattlebaum, 338 S.C. 441, 527 S.E.2d 105 (2001) 733
United States v. Downs, 230 F.3d 272 (7th Cir. 2000) 734

Cases Relating to Chapter 9

TRIAL AND PUNISHMENT
Fair Trial and Public Discourse, Part I. General Definitions and Purposes
by the American Bar Association 737
Puerto Rico v. Sánchez Valle, 579 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 1863, 195 L. Ed.
2d 179, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 3773 (2016) 739
Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419, 115 S. Ct. 1555, 131 L. Ed. 2d 490 (1995) 743
Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. 51, 109 S. Ct. 333, 102 L. Ed.2d 741
281 (1988) 745
Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S. 584, 97 S. Ct. 2861, 53 L. Ed. 2d 982 (1977) 746
xxxiv TABLE OF CASES

Cases Relating to Chapter 10

CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES IN THE WORKPLACE
Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U.S. 410, 126 S. Ct. 1951, 164 L. Ed. 2d
689, 2006 U.S. LEXIS 4341 (2006) 749
Connick v. Myers, 461 U.S. 138, 103 S. Ct. 1684, 75 L. Ed. 2d 708
(1983) 752
Vose v. Kliment, 506 F.3d 565 (7th Cir. 2007) 753
Locurto v. Giuliani, 447 F.3d 159 (2d Cir. 2006) 755
Heffernan v. City of Paterson, 578 U.S. ___, 136 S. Ct. 1412, 194 L.
Ed. 2d 508, 2016 U.S. LEXIS 2924 (2016) 757
Schmerber v. California 384 U.S. 757, 86 S. Ct. 1826 16 L. Ed. 2d
908 (1966) 759
Ricci v. DeStefano, 557 U.S. 557, 129 S. Ct. 2658, 174 L. Ed. 2d 490,
2009 U.S. LEXIS 4945 (2009) 759
Desardouin v. City of Rochester, 708 F.3d 102 (2nd Cir. 2013) 762
Stephens v. DeGiovanni, 852 F.3d 1298, 2017 U.S. App. LEXIS 5548
(11th Cir. 2017) 763
Ortega v. City and County of Denver, 944 F. Supp. 2d 1033
(D. Colo. 2013) 768
Stanton v. Sims, 571 U.S. ___, 134 S. Ct. 3, 187 L. Ed. 2d 341 (2013) 770
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Polybia, nests of, 81, 82, 83
Polyctenes fumarius, 560
Polyctenidae, 560
Polyergus lucidus, 151;
P. rufescens, 150 f.
Polymorpha (Coleoptera), 189, 190, 213 f.
Polymorphism, 139 f., 143
Polyphylla fullo, antenna, 191
Polyploca, 386
Polyplocidae, 386
Polyplocotes, 248
Polyrhachis, 155;
P. pandurus, 156;
P. spinigera, 138
Pompilidae, 93, 101 f.
Pompilus, 103;
P. polistoides, 104;
P. sericeus, 106
Ponera contracta, P. ergatandria, P. punctatissima, 172
Ponerides, 132, 170 f.
Porphyraspis tristis, 284
Porphyrophora polonica, 597
Porrorhynchus, 216
Portschinsky, on habits and development of Muscidae, 507, 512
Post-metamorphic growth, 141
Post-scutellum, 307, 312
Potamogeton pectinatus, beetle on, 280
Potamophilus acuminatus, 244
Potassium hydroxide, 328, 384
Potato-beetle, 278
Pouch, abdominal, 350, 362
Poulton, on colours, 336, 339
Praecostal nervures, 319
Praescutum, 312
Pratt, on imaginal discs, 453 n.;
on Melophagus, 519
Prepona, larva, 354
Prey, of Fossores, table, 92
Pria dulcamarae, 232
Primitive, beetles, 251, 252;
Diptera, 475
Priocnemis affinis, 5;
P. bicolor, 107
Priodont, 193
Prionides, 287
Proboscis, 13, 14, 16, 17, 304, 307, 309, 311, 443, 482, 485,
532
Processional maggots, 464
Processionary caterpillars, 376, 408
Prodoxidae, 432;
mouth, 309
Prodoxus, 433
Pro-legs, 323
Prolific, Aphids, 589;
Coccids, 594;
Hepialus, 397;
Lice, 601;
Meloe, 274;
Stylops, 301
Prominents, 383
Pronuba, 321;
P. yuccasella, 432;
P. synthetica, 432
Pronymph, 453
Propodeum, 131, 133
Propolis, 63
Propygidium, 187
Prosopis, 21, 22;
hair of, 11;
proboscis of, 17;
P. signata, 21
Protection, 43, 413;
of trees by ants, 158;
of plant by ants, 168
Proterhinidae, 298
Proterhinus lecontei, 298
Protolepidoptera, 336
Protoparce carolina, 309
Protopaussus, 214
Psammorycter vermileo, 481
Pselaphidae, 223;
and ants, 182
Psen atratus, P. concolor, 127
Psephenus, 244
Pseudholoptic, 440 n.
Pseudocorylophidae, 228
Pseudodicthadia, 180;
P. incerta, 177
Pseudodoxia limulus, 431
Pseudomeria graeca, 99
Pseudomorphides, 205, 206
Pseudomyrma bicolor, 168
Pseudomyrmini, 168
Pseudoneuroptera, 527
Pseudopaedogenesis, 303
Pseudopod, 188, 264, 267, 290, 449, 492
Pseudopontia paradoxa, 357
Pseudo-pupa, 271, 273
Pseudotetramera, 190
Pseudotrimera, 239
Pseudovespa, 88
Pseudovarium and Pseudovum, 584
Pseudovitellus, 588
Psilidae, 504
Psiliglossa, larva, 8
Psilocephala, 484
Psilura monacha, 407
Psithyrus, 53, 57, 59 f.;
P. campestris, 60;
P. vestalis, 60
Psocidae, 248
Psyche helix, 394
Psychidae, 369, 392
Psychina, 394, 395, 404
Psychoda, 466
Psychodidae, 470
Psylla pyricola, 579, 580;
P. succincta, 579;
P. buxi, 580
Psyllidae, 578
Pterocheilus, 76
Pterodecta, 400
Pterophoridae, 340, 371, 425, 426
Pterophorinae, 426
Pterostichus, 205
Pterothysanidae, 369, 406
Pterygodes, 312
Pterygogenea, 542
Ptilinum, 442, 503, 520
Ptilinus pectinicornis, 253
Ptilocnemus sidnicus, 557
Ptilomacra, 395
Ptilomera laticaudata, 553
Ptinidae, 246
Ptomaphila lacrymosa, 222
Ptychoptera, 466
Ptychopterinae, 472
Ptyelus goudoti, 577
Pugs, 411
Pulex avium, P. irritans, P. serraticeps, 525;
P. obtusiceps, 525
Pulicidae, 522 f.
Puliciphora lucifera, 495
Pulvillus, 446
Pupa, of beetles, 188 f.;
coarctata, 452;
obtecta, 227, 327, 451;
depositing eggs, 469;
 hairy, 407, 426;
of Lepidoptera, 326 f.;
with mandibles, 436
Puparium, 452
Pupation, of Badamia, 365;
of Parnassius and Thais, 363
Pupipara, 456, 513, 517
Purple emperor, 344
Pusci, 504
Puss-moth, 328, 383, 406
Pygidium, 187
Pyralidae, 340, 370, 420
Pyralidina, 420, 426
Pyrameis atalanta, 353;
P. cardui, 353;
P. tameamea, 353
Pyraustidae, 421
Pyrochroa rubens, 266
Pyrochroidae, 266
Pyrophorus, 258;
P. noctilucus, 259
Pyrrhocoridae, 549
Pyrrhocoris apterus, 535, 549
Pyrrhopyge, 364
Pythidae, 265
Pytho depressus, 266

Quartenia, 89
Queen, 66, 67, 69, 140

Races, of Apis, 68
Radial nervures, 319
Raffray, on Pogonostoma, 204;
on classification of Paussidae, 214;
on classification of Pselaphidae, 224
Railway-beetle, 251
Ranatra linearis, 563
Raptorial legs, 493, 554, 556
Réaumur, on Xylocopa, 33
Receptaculum seminis, 140
Rectal cauda, 538
Red admiral, 352
Red ant—see Formica rufa
Reduviidae, 555 f. 537
Reduvius personatus, 558
Régimbart, on Gyrinidae, 216
Resemblance, between ant, wasp, and spider, 169;
between Anthophora and Bombus, 33;
between Arctia villica and Eusemia villicoides, 410;
between beetle-larva and Termite, 206;
between Bombus and Eulema, 35;
between Bombyliidae and Hymenoptera, 489;
between bug and ant, 556, 557;
bug and Tipulid, 556, 558;
bug and fly, 547;
in butterflies, 348;
between Callidulidae and Lycaenidae, 400;
between Celyphus and Hemiptera, 505;
between Cleridae and insects they destroy, 254;
between Dioptinae and Ithomiides, 409;
between Diptera and Hymenoptera, 499, 500;
between Epicopeia and Papilio, 418;
between Flatides and Lepidoptera, 576;
of flies and bees, 502;
to galls, 403;
between host and parasite-bees, 30;
between Insects of different Orders, 339;
of Ithomiides to other butterflies, 346;
between lady-bird and Endomychid, 237;
of larva to a colony of larvae, 418;
of larva of Odynerus and of Chrysis, 4;
between larvae, 162;
in Limacodidae, 401;
of Lobster caterpillar, 385;
 between Longicorns and Hymenoptera, 287;
of moth to bird-excrement, 401;
of parasite and prey, 95;
of Pericopinae and Heliconiides, 409;
between protected butterflies, 345;
between Psithyrus and Bombus, 59;
of Reduviid and Pepsis, 558;
between Rhyphus- and Mycetobia-larvae, 463;
of Syntomids to other Insects, 388 f.;
of Tipulids and Hymenoptera, 475;
between two kinds of ants, 162
Resting-larva, 306
Retinaculum, 316, 319, 420
Retort-shaped bodies, in mouth of Hemiptera, 535
Reuter, E., on classification of butterflies, 343 n.
Rhachicerus, 480
Rhagovelia plumbea, 552
Rhaphiorhynchus, 483
Rhegmatophila alpina, 305, 386
Rheumatobates bergrothi, 553
Rhinomacerides, 291
Rhinopsis, 115;
R. ruficornis, 169
Rhinosimus, 266
Rhipicera mystacina, 256
Rhipiceridae, 256
Rhipidiini, 267
Rhipidioptera, 543
Rhipiphoridae, 267
Rhipiphorides, 268
Rhipiptera, 298 [in error for Rhiphiptera]
Rhizophagus, 232
Rhizotrogus, 191
Rhodoneura, 405
Rhogmus, 179, 180
Rhopalocera, 340, 341 f.
Rhopalomelus angusticollis, 206
Rhopalomeridae, 504
Rhopalosoma poeyi, 100
Rhopalosomides, 100
Rhygchium brunneum, R. carnaticum, R. nitidulum, R. oculatum,
77
Rhynchites betulae, 291, 292
Rhynchitides, 291
Rhynchophora, 190, 277, 288 f.
Rhynchophorous series, 240
Rhynchopsylla pulex, 526
Rhynchota, 532
Rhyphidae, 478
Rhyphus, 463
Rhysodidae, 201, 234
Riley, on Epicauta, 270, 271;
on spermathecal bodies, 321;
on Yucca-moth, 432
Ripidius pectinicornis, 269
Rippe, of Schäffer, 334
Robber-flies, 491
Rose-chafers, 200
Rosema, 401
Rostrum, 291, 472
Rothney, on Ampulex, 115;
on Sima, 169;
on Sphex, 110
Rothschild, N. C., on morphology of fleas, 523 n.
Royal jelly, 66
Rozites gongylophora, 167
Ruby-wasps, 1 f.
Rurales, 342
Rutelides, 195, 198

Saccoderes, 558;
S. tuberculatus, 537
Saccus, 314
Sagra splendida, 279
Sagrides, 279
Salda, 560
Saldidae, 544, 562
Salivary, duct, 320;
gland, 320
Sand-flea, 525;
-flies, 477
Saperda populnea, 285, 286
Sapromyzidae, 504
Sapyga quinquepunctata, 100
Sapygides, 99
Sarcophaga, 510;
S. carnaria, 510
Sarcophagidae, 510
Sarcophila magnifica, S. wohlfahrti, 510
Sarcopsylla gallinacea, S. penetrans, 525
Sarginae, 479
Saropoda, 32
Sarrothripus, 410
Sasaki, on parasite of silkworm, 508
Saturnia, 307, 310;
S. pavonia, 313, 374
Saturniidae, 368, 372
Satyrides, 347
Sauba, or Sauva, ant, 137
Saunders, E., on feathered hairs, 11;
on proboscis of bees, 16
Saunders, Sir S., on Hymenopterous larvae, 8
Scale, 131, 133, 315, 467;
development of, 329 f.;
-formation, 333;
-holder, 331
Scale-Insects, 592 f.;
enemy of, 356, 357, 417, 425, 430
Scalpella, 443
Scape, 441
Scaphidiidae, 229
Scaphisoma agaricinum, 229
Scaphium, 314
Scapulae, 312
Scarabaeidae, 194 f.
Scarabaeini, 196
Scarabaeus sacer, 196, 197
Scatomyzidae, 504
Scatophagidae, 504
Scatopse, 477
Sceliphron, 112;
S. nigripes, 91
Scenopinidae, 484
Schäffer, on structure of wings and nervures, 330
Schiödte, on Anoplura, 599 f.;
on Hemiptera, 543
Schistocerca peregrina, enemy of, 506, 514
Schizocarpus mingaudi, 220
Schizometopa, 504
Schizoneura, 589
Schizophora, 455
Schmidt-Schwedt, on Donacia, 280
Schoenbergia, 360, 361
Schoenobiinae, 425
Sciapteron, 387
Sciara militaris, 464
Sciomyzidae, 504
Sciophila unimaculata, 462
Scolia bifasciata, S. haemorrhoidalis, 97
Scoliidae, 93, 94 f.
Scoliides, 97 f.
Scolytidae, 294
Scopariidae, 421
Scopariinae, 421
Scopelodes, 401
Scopulipedes, 20, 32 f.
Screw-worm, 512
Scudder, on butterflies, 543
Scutata or Scutati, 546
Scutellerides, 545
Scutelligera, 501
Scutellum, 307, 312, 537
Scutum, 307;
S. proboscidis, 443
Scydmaenidae, 223
Scymnites, 238
Scymnus minimus, 238
Seasonal dimorphism or variation, 335
Seitz, on Syntomid resemblances, 388, 389
Semi-loopers, 415
Seminal duct, 321
Semi-pupa, 271
Semper, on development of wing, 333
Sense-organ, 442, 448;
thoracico-abdominal, 414;
in Uraniidae, 419
Sepsidae, 504
Sericaria mori, 375
Sericteria, 325
Seroot-fly, 482
Serricornia, 189, 213, 255
Sesia, 387;
S. scoliaeformis, 321
Sesiidae, 386, 388, 370 (for Syntomidae), 389
Setae, 534 f.;
aërostatic, 408
Setina, 410
Seventeen-year Cicada, 569
Sex, differences, 92, 95;
production of, 32, 67;
in larva, 325
Sexuparous, 586
Sharp, on classification of Dytiscidae, 213 n.
Sheep, bot-fly, 517;
-tick, 518
Shield, 592
Shoulder, -lappets, 312;
-tufts, 312;
of wing, 316, 319
Siagona, 206
Siculodidae, 423
Siebold, von, on Strepsiptera, 301
Sigara minutissima, 568
Sight, of Pompilus, 104
Silk-glands, 325
Silkworm, 375;
affected by parasitic fly, 507, 508;
Madagascar-, 405
Silpha, 221;
Silpha atrata, S. laevigata, S. lapponica, 222;
S. obscura, 222;
S. opaca, S. thoracica, 222
Silphidae, 221 f., 252, 256
Sima, 168;
S. leviceps, stridulating organ, 169;
S. rufonigra, 169
Simuliidae, 477
Simulium columbaczense, 477
Sinodendron cylindricum, 194
Siphon, 563, 581, 589
Siphonaptera, 522 f.
Siphonophora, 239
Siphunculata, 600
Sitaris, 33;
S. humeralis, 272
Sitodrepa, 247
Skippers, 363
Slave-making ant, 149, 150, 163
Sloth, 430
Slug-worms, 402
Smallest Insect, 228
Smerinthini, 380
Smerinthus populi, 309, 381
Smith, F., on Mellinus arvensis, 123
Snails, enemies of, 205, 222, 510;
parasite of, 495
Social, bees, 35;
wasps, 78, 84
Sociales, 20, 53 f.
Solanum dulcamara, beetle on, 232
Soldiers, 132
Soldier-ant, 150
Solenobia, 395, 430
Solenopsis fugax, 137
Solitary wasps—see Fossores and Eumenidae
Song, of Cicada, 572
Soronia, 232
Sound-organs, 448;
of Ageronia, 354;
of Hecatesia, 371;
of Cicada, 573, 574—see also stridulating organs
Sound-production, 155, 156;
by Aegocera, 411;
by Arctiidae, 410;
by Sphingidae, 382—see also Stridulation
Spalacopsini, 288
Spatula, 459
Spencer, Herbert, on Weismann, 143
Spercheus emarginatus, 218, 219
Spermatheca, 320, 321
Spermophila, 506
Sphaeridiides, 219
Sphaeriidae, 227
Sphaerites, 223
Sphaeritides, 229
Sphaerius acaroides, 227
Sphaerocarides, 279
Sphecia, 387
Sphecius speciosus, 123
Sphecodes, 21, 22;
S. gibbus, 23, 23;
S. rubicundus, 22;
S. subquadratus, 23
Sphegidae, 93, 107 f.
Sphegides, 107 f.
Sphex coeruleus, 110;
S. flavipennis, 108;
S. lobatus, 110;
S. maxillosus, 108
Sphindidae, 245
Sphingidae, 309, 315, 316, 368, 380 f.
Sphinx ligustri, 380
Spider parasite, 490
Spilosoma, 408
Spinneret, 324, 325, 403, 417
Spirachtha, 227
Spiracles, 188, 191;
of Diptera, 449 f.;
of Hippoboscidae, 519;
of Lepidoptera, 313, 314;
of Lipara, 451;
of Nepa, 564;
of Thrips, 528
Spondyliaspis, 581
Spondylidae, 288
Springing plant-lice, 579
Spuler, on nervures, 317 n.
Squama, 448
Squeakers, 209
Staetherinia, 401
Stag-beetles, 193
Stalk, 317, 319
Staphylinidae, 223, 224 f.
Staudinger, Schatz and Röber, on butterflies, 343 n.
Stauronotus maroccanus, 489
Stauropus fagi, 385
Stelis minuta, 29;
S. nasuta, 30, 43;
S. signata, 30
Stelocyttares, 81
Stenamma westwoodi, 159
Stenopteryx hirundinis, 519
Stephostethus, 240
Sternorhyncha, 544
Sterrhopteryx, 394
Stethopathidae, 496
Stigmata—see Spiracles
Stigmatomma, 180
Stigmus pendulus, 128
Sting, 4, 5, 6, 58, 144;
development of, 8, 9
Stinging, 98;
by Calicurgus, 102;
by Pompilidae, 104;
by Sphex, 109
Stingless bees, 61
Stink-gland, 257, 533;
-vessel, 225
Stipes, 309
Stizinae, 123
Stomach, 320
Stomoxys calcitrans, 512
Stratiomyidae, 478
Stratiomys, 452
Straus-Durckheim, on Melolontha, 198
Strawberries, eaten by beetles, 205
Streblidae, 521
Strepsiptera, 189, 298 f.
Streptoperas, 401
Stridulating organ, of Myrmica, 133;
of Heterocerus, 243;
of Passalus-larva, 192;
of Sima leviceps, 169
Stridulation, of ants, 134;
of Corixa, 568;
of Criocerides, 281;
of Dynastides, 199;
of Geotrupes, 195;
of Ipides, 232;
of Lomaptera, 200;
of Longicorns, 287;
of larva of Lucanus cervus, 194;
of Megalopides, 282;
of Melolontha-larva, 198;
of Mutilla, 94;
of Pelobius, 208;
of Phonapate, 246;
of Phyllomorpha, 548;
of Praogena, 264;
of Siagona, 206;
of Trox, 195
Strigil, 568
Striphnopterygidae, 376
Strongylognathus huberi, S. testaceus, 162
Strumigenys, 170
Style, 442
Stylopidae, 298
Stylopised bees, 26
Stylops dalii, 299
Styx infernalis, 340, 358
Suana, 405
Subcostal nervure, 318
Submedian nervure, 318
Suboesophageal ganglion, 320
Sucking-stomach, 311, 449
Suction by Lepidoptera, 311
Suctoria, 526
Supericornia, 546
Swallow-flies, 519
Swarming of wasps, 70 n.
Swarms, 62, 65, 67, 80, 135, 467, 505, 584
Swift-moths, 396
Symbiosis, of ants and plants, 139;
of bee and Acarid, 70.
See also Ants'-nest Insects, and Association
Symbius blattarum, 269
Symphily, 183
Synecthry, 183
Synemon, 371
Synoeca cyanea, nest, 82
Syntelia westwoodi, 229
Synteliidae, 229
Syntomidae, 339 n., 369, 388
Syntomis phegea, 390
Syringe, 535, 536
Syrphidae, 439, 498 f.
Systoechus oreas, 489
Systropus crudelis, 489

Tabanidae, 481, 492

Tabanus, 482
Tachinidae, 507, 514
Tachysphex panzeri, 117
Tachytes, 116;
destroyer of, 275;
T. australis, 113, 117;
T. pectinipes, 117
Tachytides, 116
Taenia, fleas as hosts of, 526
Tajuria diaeus, pupa, 357
Taleporia, 395
Taleporiidae, 430
Tanypezidae, 504
Taphroderides, 296
Tapinoma erraticum, 157
Tarantula-killer, 105
Tarphius, 233
Tarsolepis, 383
Taschenberg, on anatomy of flea, 523 n.
Tascina, 372
Tea-plant bug, 562
Teara melanosticta, 408
Tegula, 71, 187, 307, 311, 312, 447
Tegmina, 539
Teleodont, 193
Telephorides, 248
Telmatophilus, 235
Temnochila coerulea, 232
Temnochilides, 233
Tenebrio molitor, 263
Tenebrionidae, 263
Tenebroides mauritanica, 232
Tentacle, maxillary, 309, 432
Tenthredinidae, parasite of, 4
Terebrantia, 531
Termites, 203, 206, 227, 231
Terrifying attitude, 384
Tesseratomides, 546
Testes, 321, 324, 400, 429;
in larva, 325
Tetanocera ferruginea, 504
Tetanoceridae, 504
Tetragona, 53, 61
Tetramera, 190
Tetramorium caespitum, 160, 163
Tettigometrides, 567
Teucrium, bug and galls on, 550
Thais, pupation of, 363
Thanaos, 342;
T. tages, androconia, 332
Therevidae, 484
Thiridopteryx, 420
Thomas, on androconia, 331
Thorictidae, 236
Thorictus, 236
Thrips, 526 f.;
Thrips lini, 531;
T. secalina, 530
Throscides, 260
Thyatira batis, T. derasa, 386
Thymaridae, 392
Thynnides, 96
Thyreophoridae, 504
Thyrididae, 370, 404
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 394
Thysanoptera, 526 f.
Tiger-beetles, 201 f.
Tiger-moths, 409
Tillus elongatus, 253, 254
Tinaegeriidae, 370, 387
Tinea, 305;
T. pellionella, 429, 430;
T. vastella, 430;
T. vivipara, 430
Tineidae, 340, 370, 394, 427, 428
Tineodidae, 423
Tineola biselliella, 430
Tingidae, 549
Tipula brobdignagia, 475
Tipulidae, 471 f.;
T. Brevipalpi, 472, 473;
T. Longipalpi, 472, 475
Tipulinae, 475
Tiresias serra, 241
Titanus giganteus, 287
Tithorea, 346
Tomicides, 295
Tomognathus sublaevis, 161
Tongue, 309
Tortoise-shell butterflies, 352
Tortricidae, 340, 395, 427, 432
Tortricina, 395
Toxorrhina, 472
Toxotrypana, 506
Trechus, 205
Trichiini, 200
Trichocera, 473
Trichodes alvearius, T. ammios, T. apiarius, 254
Trichophaga tapetzella, 430
Trichoptera, 306, 425
Trichopterygidae, 227
Trichopteryx fascicularis, 227
Trichroism, 351
Trichterwickler, 294
Trichura, 389, 390
Trictenotomidae, 275
Triecphora, 543
Trigona, 53, 61;
T. carbonaria, 63;
T. crassipes, 65;
T. mosquito, 62
Trimera, 238, 544
Trimeria, 89
Trineura aterrima, 494
Triodites mus, 489
Trioza rhamni, 580
Triphaena, 415
Triphleps, 530
Tritoma bipustulata, 236
Triungulin, 262, 268, 270, 271, 272, 299, 300
Trochalopoda, 543, 544
Trochanter, 307;
divided, 123
Trochilium, 387
Trogini, 195
Trogositidae, 232, 235
Trogosita mauritanica, 232
Tromoptera, 457