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Jacques Simon
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Continuous Functions
To Claire and Patricia,
By your gaiety, “joie de vivre”, and femininity,
you have embellished my life,
and you have allowed me to conserve the tenacity
needed for this endeavor
Analysis for PDEs Set
coordinated by
Jacques Blum
Volume 2
Continuous Functions
Jacques Simon
First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA
www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2020

The rights of Jacques Simon to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020933955
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-010-2
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Familiarization with Semi-normed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter 1. Spaces of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Notions of continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Spaces C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), C(Ω; E) and Cb (Ω; E) . . . . 3
1.3. Comparison of spaces of continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4. Sequential completeness of spaces of continuous functions . . . . . . . 10
1.5. Metrizability of spaces of continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6. The space K(Ω; E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7. Continuous mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8. Continuous extension and restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9. Separation and permutation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10. Sequential compactness in Cb (Ω; E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Chapter 2. Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.1. Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2. Finite increment theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3. Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4. Higher order partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5. Spaces C m (Ω; E), Cbm (Ω; E), CK m
(Ω; E), Cm b (Ω; E) and K (Ω; E)
m
. 42
2.6. Comparison and metrizability of spaces of differentiable functions . . 45
2.7. Filtering properties of spaces of differentiable functions . . . . . . . . 47
2.8. Sequential completeness of spaces of differentiable functions . . . . . 49
2.9. The space C m (Ω; E) and the set C m (Ω; U ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
vi Continuous Functions
Chapter 3. Differentiating Composite Functions and Others . . . . . 55

3.1. Image under a linear mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2. Image under a multilinear mapping: Leibniz rule . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3. Dual formula of the Leibniz rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4. Continuity of the image under a multilinear mapping . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5. Change of variables in a derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.6. Differentiation with respect to a separated variable . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.7. Image under a differentiable mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.8. Differentiation and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.9. Localizing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 4. Integrating Uniformly Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . 83

4.1. Measure of an open subset of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d
. . . . . . . . 83
4.2. Integral of a uniformly continuous function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3. Case where E is not a Neumann space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4. Properties of the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5. Dependence of the integral on the domain of integration . . . . . . . . 96
4.6. Additivity with respect to the domain of integration . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7. Continuity of the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.8. Differentiating under the integral sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chapter 5. Properties of the Measure of an Open Set . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1. Additivity of the measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2. Negligible sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3. Determinant of d vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4. Measure of a parallelepiped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 6. Additional Properties of the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.1. Contribution of a negligible set to the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2. Integration and differentiation in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.3. Integration of a function of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.4. Integrating a function of multiple variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.5. Integration between graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.6. Integration by parts and weak vanishing condition for a function . . . . 133
6.7. Change of variables in an integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.8. Some particular changes of variables in an integral . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents vii
Chapter 7. Weighting and Regularization of Functions . . . . . . . . 147

7.1. Weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2. Properties of weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3. Weighting of differentiable functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.4. Local regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.5. Global regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.6. Partition of unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.7. Separability of K∞ (Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter 8. Line Integral of a Vector Field Along a Path . . . . . . . . 173

8.1. Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2. Line integral of a field along a path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.3. Line integral along a concatenation of paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.4. Tubular flow and the concentration theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.5. Invariance under homotopy of the line integral of a local gradient . . . 186
Chapter 9. Primitives of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

9.1. Explicit primitive of a field with line integral zero . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.2. Primitive of a field orthogonal to the divergence-free test fields . . . . 194
9.3. Gluing of local primitives on a simply connected open set . . . . . . . 195
9.4. Explicit primitive on a star-shaped set: Poincaré’s theorem . . . . . . . 197
9.5. Explicit primitive under the weak Poincaré condition . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.6. Primitives on a simply connected open set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.7. Comparison of the existence conditions for a primitive . . . . . . . . . 205
9.8. Fields with local primitives but no global primitive . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.9. Uniqueness of primitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.10. Continuous primitive mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Chapter 10. Additional Results: Integration on a Sphere . . . . . . . 213

10.1. Surface integration on a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.2. Properties of the integral on a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.3. Radial calculation of integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.4. Surface integral as an integral of dimension d − 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10.5. A Stokes formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Introduction
Objective. This book is the second of six volumes in a series dedicated to the
mathematical tools for solving partial differential equations derived from physics:
Volume 1: Banach, Fréchet, Hilbert and Neumann Spaces;
Volume 2: Continuous Functions;
Volume 3: Distributions;
Volume 4: Lebesgue and Sobolev Spaces;
Volume 5: Traces;
Volume 6: Partial Differential Equations.
This second volume is devoted to the partial differentiation of functions and the
construction of primitives, which is its inverse mapping, and to their properties, which
will be useful for constructing distributions and studying partial differential equations
later.
Target audience. We intended to find simple methods that require a minimal level
of knowledge to make these tools accessible to the largest audience possible – PhD
candidates, advanced students1 and engineers – without losing generality and even
generalizing some standard results, which may be of interest to some researchers.
1 Students? What might I have answered if one of my MAS students in 1988 had asked for more details
about the de Rham duality theorem that I used to obtain the pressure in the Navier–Stokes equations?
Perhaps I could say that “Jacques-Louis L IONS, my supervisor, wrote that it follows from the de Rham
cohomology theorem, of which I understand neither the statement, nor the proof, nor why it implies the
result that we are using.” What a despicably unscientific appeal to authority!
This question was the starting point of this work: writing proofs that I can explain to my students for
every result that I use. It took me 5 years to find the “elementary” proof of the orthogonality theorem
x Continuous Functions
Originality. The construction of primitives, the Cauchy integral and the weighting
with which they are obtained are performed for a function taking values in a Neumann
space, that is, a space in which every Cauchy sequence converges.
Neumann spaces. The sequential completeness characterizing these spaces is the

most general property of E that guarantees that the integral of a continuous function
taking values in E will belong to it, see Case where E is not a Neumann space (§ 4.3,
p. 92). This property is more general than the more commonly considered property
of completeness, that is the convergence of all Cauchy filters; for example, if E is
an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, then E-weak is a Neumann space but is not
complete [Vol. 1, Property (4.11), p. 82].
Moreover, sequential completeness is more straightforward than completeness.
Semi-norms. We use families of semi-norms, instead of the equivalent notion of

locally convex topologies, to be able to define differentiability (p. 73) by comparing
the semi-norms of a variation of the variable to the semi-norms of the variation of the
value. A section on Familiarization with Semi-normed Spaces can be found on p. xiii.
Semi-norms can be manipulated in a similar fashion to normed spaces, except that we
are working with several semi-norms instead of a single norm.
Primitives. We show that any continuous field q = (q1 , . . . , qd ) on an open set Ω

of Rd has a primitive f , namely that ∇f = q, if and only if it is orthogonal to the
divergence-free test fields, that is, if Ω q . ψ = 0E for every ψ = (ψ1 , . . . , ψd ) such
that ∇ . ψ = 0. This is the orthogonality theorem (Theorem 9.2).
When Ω is simply connected, for a primitive f to exist, it is necessary and sufficient

for q to have local primitives. This is the local primitive gluing theorem (Theorem 9.4).
On any such open set, it is also necessary and sufficient that it verifies Poincaré’s
1
if the field is C (Theorem 9.10),
condition ∂i qj = ∂j qi for every i and j to be satisfied
or a weak version of this condition, Ω qj ∂i ϕ = Ω qi ∂j ϕ for every test function ϕ, if
the field is continuous (Theorem 9.11).
We explicitly determine all primitives (Theorem 9.17) and construct one that
depends continuously on q (Theorem 9.18).
Integration. We extend the Cauchy integral to uniformly continuous functions taking

values in a Neumann space, because this will be an essential tool for constructing
primitives.

.
primitives of a field q. I needed a way to obtain Γ q d = 0
(Theorem 9.2, p. 194) on the existence of the
for every closed path Γ from the condition Ω q . ψ = 0 for every divergence-free ψ. It gave me the greatest
mathematical satisfaction I have ever experienced to explicitly construct an incompressible tubular flow (see
p. 184). Twenty-five years later, I am finally ready to answer any other questions from my (very persistent)
students.
Introduction xi
The properties established here for continuous functions will also be used to
extend them to integrable distributions in Volume 4, by continuity or transposition.
Indeed, one of the objectives of the Analysis for PDEs series is to extend integration
and Sobolev spaces to take values in Neumann spaces. However, it seemed more
straightforward to first construct distributions (in Volume 3) using just continuous
functions before introducing integrable distributions (in Volume 4), which play the
role usually fulfilled by classes of almost everywhere equal integrable functions.
Weighting. The weighted function f μ of a function f defined on an open set Ω

by the weight μ, a real function with compact support D, is a function defined on the
open set ΩD = {x ∈ Rd : x + D ⊂ Ω} by (f μ)(x) = D̊ f (x + y) μ(y) dy. This
concept will be repeatedly useful. It plays an analogous role to convolution, which is
equivalent to it up to a symmetry of μ when Ω = Rd .
Novelties. Many results are natural extensions of previous results, but the following
seemed most noteworthy:
— The construction of the topology of the space K(Ω; E) of continuous functions
with compact support using the semi-norms f K(Ω;E);q = supx∈Ω q(x)f (x)E;ν
indexed by q ∈ C + (Ω) and ν ∈ NE (Definition 1.17). This is equivalent to and much
simpler than the inductive limit topology of the CK (Ω; E).
— The fact that if a function f ∈ C(Ω) satisfies supx∈Ω q(x)|f (x)| < ∞ for every
q ∈ C + (Ω), then its support is compact (Theorem 1.22). This is the basis for defining
the semi-norms of D(Ω) in Volume 3.
— The concentration theorem for the integral and the construction of an
incompressible tubular flow (Theorems 8.18 and 8.17), which are key steps in our
construction of the primitives of a field taking values in a Neumann space, as it is
explained in the comment Utility of the concentration theorem, p. 186.
Prerequisites. The proofs in the main body of the text only use definitions and results
established in Volume 1, whose statements are recalled either in the text or in the
Appendix. Detailed proofs are given, including arguments that may seem trivial to
experienced readers, and the theorem numbers are systematically referenced.
Comments. Comments with a smaller font size than the main body of the text appeal to external results or
results that have not yet been established. The Appendix on Reminders is also written with a smaller font
size, since its contents are assumed to be familiar.
Historical notes. Wherever possible, the origin of the concepts and results is given
as a footnote2.
2 Appeal to the reader. Many important results lack historical notes because I am not familiar with their
origins. I hope that my readers will forgive me for these omissions and any injustices they may discover.
And I encourage the scholars among you to notify me of any improvements for future editions!
xii Continuous Functions
Navigation through the book:

— The Table of Contents at the start of the book lists the topics discussed.
— The Table of Notations, p. xv, specifies the meaning of the notation in case there
is any doubt.
— The Index, p. 243, provides an alternative access to specific topics.
— All hypotheses are stated directly within the theorems themselves.
— The numbering scheme is shared across every type of statement to make results
easier to find by number (for instance, Theorem 2.9 is found between the statements
2.8 and 2.10, which are a definition and a theorem, respectively).
Acknowledgments. Enrique F ERNÁNDEZ -C ARA suggested to me a large number of

improvements to various versions of this work. Jérôme L EMOINE was kind enough
to proofread the countless versions of the book and correct just as many mistakes and
oversights.
Olivier B ESSON, Fulbert M IGNOT, Nicolas D EPAUW, and Didier B RESCH also
provided many improvements, in form and in substance.
Pierre D REYFUSS gave me insight into the necessity of simply connected domains
for the existence of primitives with Poincaré’s condition, as explained on p. 209 in the
comment Is simple connectedness necessary for gluing together local primitives?
Joshua P EPPER spent much time discussing about the best way to adapt this work
in English.
Thank you, my friends.
Jacques S IMON
Chapdes-Beaufort
April 2020
Familiarization with Semi-normed Spaces
A semi-normed space E is a vector space endowed with a family { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } of semi-norms.

— The set NE indexing the semi-norms is, a priori, arbitrary.
— A normed space is the special case where this family simply consists of a single norm.
— Every locally convex topological vector space can be endowed with a family of semi-norms that
generates its topology (Neumann’s theorem).
— We only consider separated spaces, namely in which uE;ν = 0 for every ν ∈ NE , then u = 0E .
Working with semi-normed spaces:

— un → u in E means that un − uE;ν → 0 for every ν ∈ NE .
— U is bounded in E means that supu∈U uE;ν < ∞ for every ν ∈ NE .
— T is continuous from F into E at the point u means that, for every ν ∈ NE and > 0, there exists a
finite set M of NF and η > 0 such that supμ∈M v − uF ;μ ≤ η implies T (v) − T (u)E;ν ≤ .
Examples — real-valued function spaces:

— The space Cb (Ω) of continuous and bounded functions is endowed with the norm
f Cb (Ω) = supx∈Ω |f (x)|.
— C(Ω) is endowed with the semi-norms f C(Ω);K = supx∈K |f (x)| indexed by the compact sets
K ⊂ Ω.

— Lp (Ω) is endowed with the norm f Lp (Ω) = ( Ω |f |p )1/p .
p
— Lloc (Ω) is endowed with the semi-norms f Lp (Ω);ω = ( ω |f |p )1/p indexed by the bounded
loc
open sets ω such that ω ⊂ Ω.
Examples — abstract-valued function spaces:

— Cb (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms f Cb (Ω;E);ν = supx∈Ω f (x)E;ν indexed by
ν ∈ NE .
— C(Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms f C(Ω;E);K,ν = supx∈K f (x)E;ν indexed by the
compact sets K ⊂ Ω and ν ∈ NE .
— Lp (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms f Lp (Ω;E);ν = ( Ω f pE;ν )1/p indexed by ν ∈ NE .
Examples — weak space, dual space:

— E-weak is endowed with the semi-norms eE -weak;e = |e , e | indexed by e ∈ E .
— E is endowed with the semi-norms e E ;B = supe∈B |e , e | indexed by the bounded sets B of E.
— E -weak is endowed with the semi-norms e E -weak;e = |e , e | indexed by e ∈ E .
— E -∗weak is endowed with the semi-norms e E -∗weak;e = |e , e | indexed by e ∈ E.
xiv Continuous Functions
Neumann spaces and others:

— A sequentially complete space is a space in which every Cauchy sequence converges.
— A Neumann space is a sequentially complete separated semi-normed space.
— A Fréchet space is a sequentially complete metrizable semi-normed space.
— A Banach space is a sequentially complete normed space.
Advantages of using semi-norms rather than topology:

— Semi-norms allow the definition of Lp (Ω; E) (by raising the semi-norms of E to the power p).
— They allow the definition of the differentiability of a mapping from a semi-normed space into another
(by comparing the semi-norms of an increase in the variable to the semi-norms of the increase in the value).
— They are easy to manipulate: working with them is just like working with normed spaces, the main
difference being that there are several semi-norms or norms instead of a single norm.
— Some definitions are simpler, for example that of a bounded set U : “supv∈U vE;ν < ∞ for any
semi-norm E;ν of E” would be expressed, in terms of topology, in the more abstract form “for any
open set V containing 0E , there is t > 0 such that tU ⊂ V ”.
Notations
S PACES OF FUNCTIONS
B(Ω; E) space of uniformly continuous functions with bounded support . . . . . . 87
C(Ω; E) space of continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cb (Ω; E) space of bounded continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CK (Ω; E) space of continuous functions with support included in the compact set K ⊂ Ω . 6
C∇ (Ω; E d ) space of gradients of continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . 205
C + (Ω) set of positive continuous real functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C m (Ω; E) space of m times continuously differentiable functions, and the case m = ∞ 43, 44
Cbm (Ω; E) id. with bounded derivatives, and the case m = ∞ . . . . . . . . 43, 44
CKm (Ω; E) id. with support included in the compact set K ⊂ Ω, and the case m = ∞ . 43, 44
C m (Ω; E) space C m defined on the closure of a bounded open set . . . . . . . . 52
C m (Ω; U ) set of functions in C m taking values in the set U . . . . . . . . . . 54
C(Ω; E) space of uniformly continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Cb (Ω; E) space of bounded uniformly continuous functions . . . . . . . . . 4
CD (Ω; E) id. with support included in the compact subset D of Rd . . . . . . . 6
Cmb (Ω; E) space C m with uniformly continuous bounded derivatives, and the case m = ∞ 43, 44
K(Ω; E) space of continuous functions with compact support . . . . . . . . . 14
Km (Ω; E) id. m times continuously differentiable, and the case m = ∞ . . . . . 43, 44
O PERATIONS ON A FUNCTION f
f extension by 0E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
f˘ image under permutation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
fˇ image under the symmetry x → −x of the variable . . . . . . . . . 151
f image under separation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
τx f translation by x ∈ Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Rn f global regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
f μ function weighted by μ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
f ρn local regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
f μ convolution with μ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
f ⊗g tensor product with g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
f ◦T composition with T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
xvi Continuous Functions
supp f support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Lf or L ◦ f composition with the linear mapping L . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
D ERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION f
f or df /dx derivative of a function of a single real variable . . . . . . . . . . 32
∂i f partial derivative: ∂i f = ∂f /∂xi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
β
∂β f derivative of order β: ∂ β f = ∂1β1 . . . ∂d d f . . . . . . . . . . . 41
β positive multi-integer: β = (β1 , . . . , βd ), βi ≥ 0 . . . . . . . . . 37
|β| differentiability order: |β| = |β1 | + . . . |βd | . . . . . . . . . . . 37
∂0f derivative of order 0: ∂ 0 f = f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
∇f gradient: ∇f = (∂1 f, . . . , ∂d f ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
df differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
q field: q = (q1 , . . . , qd ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
∇.q divergence: ∇ . q = ∂1 q1 + . . . ∂d qd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
∇−1 q primitive that depends continuously on q . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

q∗ explicit primitive: q ∗ (x) = Γ(a,x) q . d . . . . . . . . . . . 192
I NTEGRALS AND PATHS

ωf Cauchy integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Sn f approximate integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
ω
f ds surface integral over a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
r
S
.
Γ q d line integral of a vector field along a path . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Γ path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
[Γ] image of a path: [Γ] = {Γ(t) : ti ≤ t ≤ te } . . . . . . . . . . . 173
←−
Γ reverse path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Γ{a} path consisting of a single point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
# ”
Γa,x rectilinear path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
→
∪ path concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
T tube around a path: T = [Γ] + B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
H homotopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
[H] image of a homotopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
S EPARATED SEMI - NORMED SPACES

E separated semi-normed space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E;ν semi-norm of E of index ν . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NE set indexing the semi-norms of E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
≡
↔ equality of families of semi-norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
=
↔ topological equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
≈
↔ topological equality up to an isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . 23
⊂
→
topological inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
E-weak space E endowed with pointwise convergence in E . . . . . . . . . 236
E dual of E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Ed Euclidean product E × . . . × E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
E1 × · · · × E product of spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

E sequential completion of E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Ů interior of the set U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
U closure of U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Notations xvii
∂U boundary of U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
[u, v] closed segment: [u, v] = {tu + (1 − t)v : 0 ≤ t ≤ 1} . . . . . . . 34
L(E; F ) space of continuous linear mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
L (E1 × . . . × E ; F ) space of continuous multilinear mappings . . . . . . . . . 59
P OINTS AND SETS IN Rd

Rd Euclidean space: Rd = {x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) : ∀i, xi ∈ R} . . . . . . 232
|x| Euclidean norm: |x| = (x21 + · · · + x2d )1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . 232
x.y Euclidean scalar product: x . y = x1 y1 + . . . + xd yd . . . . . . . . 232
ei ith basis vector of Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Ω domain on which a function f is defined . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ΩD domain of f μ: ΩD = {x : x + D ⊂ Ω}, and its figure . . . . . 148, 149
Ω1/n Ω with a neighborhood of the boundary of size 1/n removed . . . . . 13, 158
Ωn1/n Ω1/n truncated by |x| < n : Ωn 1/n = {x : |x| < n, B(x, 1/n) ⊂ Ω} . . . 13
Ω∗a
1/n part of Ω1/n which is star-shaped with respect to a, and its figure . . . 197, 200
Ωnr potato-shaped set: Ωnr = {x : |x| < n, B(x, r) ⊂ Ω} . . . . . . . . 13
κn crown-shaped set: κn = Ωn+2 1/(n+2)
\ Ωn 1/n . . . . . . . . . 166, 167
ω subset of Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
|ω| Lebesgue measure of the open set ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
σ negligible subset of Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
B(x, r) closed ball B(x, r) = {y ∈ Rd : |y − x| ≤ r} . . . . . . . . . . 13
B̊(x, r) open ball B̊(x, r) = {y ∈ Rd : |y − x| < r} . . . . . . . . . . 13
υd measure of the unit ball: υd = |B̊(0, 1)| . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
C(x, ρ, r) open crown C(x, ρ, r) = {y ∈ Rd : ρ < |y − x| < r} . . . . . . . 107
S(x, r) sphere: S(x, r) = {y ∈ Rd : |y − x| = r} . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Δs,n closed cube of edge length 2−n centered at 2−ns . . . . . . . . . 84
P (v 1 , . . . , v d ) open parallelepiped with edges v 1 , . . . , v d . . . . . . . . . . . 115
OTHER SETS
N∗ set of natural numbers: N∗ = {0, 1, 2, . . .} . . . . . . . . . . . 227
N set of non-zero natural numbers: N = {1, 2, . . .} . . . . . . . . . 227
Z set of integers: Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} . . . . . . . . . . 227
Q set of rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
R space of real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
m, n integer interval: m, n = {i ∈ N∗ : m ≤ i ≤ n} . . . . . . . . . 227
m, ∞ extended integer interval: m, ∞ = {i ∈ N∗ : i ≥ m} ∪ {∞} . . . . . 227
(a, b) open interval: (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b} . . . . . . . . . . 228
[a, b] closed interval: [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} . . . . . . . . . . 228
compact inclusion in Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
⊂ algebraic inclusion
\ set difference: U \ V = {u ∈ U : u ∈ / V}
× product: U × V = {(u, v) : u ∈ U, v ∈ V }
∅ empty set
S PECIAL FUNCTIONS
det determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
e exponential number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
xviii Continuous Functions
log logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

δΓ concentrated flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
α localizing function, partition of unity . . . . . . . . . . 80, 163, 167
ρn regularizing function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
ψ divergence-free test field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Ψ tubular flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Υ function whose graph defines a surface . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
T YPOGRAPHY
end of statement
end of proof or remark
Chapter 1
Spaces of Continuous Functions
This chapter is dedicated to the properties of spaces of continuous functions taking values in a semi-
normed space E that we will need later. Definitions of the space C(Ω; E) of continuous functions, the
space C(Ω; E) of uniformly continuous functions and variants of these spaces are given in § 1.2. We
then compare these spaces (§ 1.3) and study their completions (§ 1.4) and metrizability properties (§ 1.5).
The space K(Ω; E) of functions with compact support is investigated in § 1.6. We also study continuous
extensions (§ 1.8), separation of variables (§ 1.9) and sequential compactness (§ 1.10) in these spaces.
These topics are more necessary than original, with the exception of our construction of the topology
of K(Ω; E) using the semi-norms f K(Ω;E);q = supx∈Ω q(x)f (x)E;ν indexed by q ∈ C + (Ω) and
ν ∈ NE . These semi-norms yield properties that are usually obtained using the inductive limit topology
of the CK (Ω; E). A useful tool for this, which is also new, is Theorem 1.23: if a family F of functions in
C(Ω) satisfies supf ∈F supx∈Ω q(x)|f (x)| < ∞ for every q ∈ C + (Ω), their supports are all included in
the same compact set.
1.1. Notions of continuity
We reserve the term function for mappings defined on a subset of Rd , which is

written as Ω in general.
Let us begin by defining separated semi-normed spaces1 (the definitions of vector

spaces and semi-norms are recalled in the Appendix, § A.2). We will then consider
functions taking values in these spaces.
D EFINITION 1.1.– A semi-normed space is a vector space E endowed with a family

of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE }.
1 History of the notion of semi-normed space. John VON N EUMANN introduced semi-normed spaces
in 1935 [59] (with a superfluous countability condition). He also showed [59, Theorem 26, p. 19] that
they coincide with the locally convex topological vector spaces that Andrey KOLMOGOROV had previously
introduced in 1934 [49, p. 29].
2 Continuous Functions
Any such space is said to be separated if u = 0E is the only element such that
uE;ν = 0 for every ν ∈ NE .
A normed space is a vector space E endowed with a norm E .
Caution. Definition 1.1 is general but not universal. For Laurent S CHWARTZ [67, p. 240], a semi-normed
space is a space endowed with a filtering family of semi-norms (Definition 2.21). This definition is
equivalent, since every family is equivalent to a filtering family [Vol. 1, Theorem 3.15]. For Nicolas
B OURBAKI [12, editions published after 1981, Chapter III, p. III.1] and Robert E DWARDS [32, p. 80], a
semi-normed space is a space endowed with a single semi-norm, which drastically changes the
meaning.
Let us define various notions relating to the continuity2 of a function taking values
in a semi-normed space. These are special cases of Definition 1.24 of a continuous
mapping from a semi-normed space into another.
D EFINITION 1.2.– Let f be a function from a subset Ω of Rd into a separated semi-

normed space E with a family of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE }.
(a) We say that f is continuous at the point x of Ω if, for every ν ∈ NE and > 0,
there exists η > 0 such that, if y ∈ Ω and |y − x| ≤ η, then
f (y) − f (x)E;ν ≤ .
We say that f is continuous if it is continuous at every point of Ω.
(b) We say that f is uniformly continuous if, for every ν ∈ NE and > 0, there
exists η > 0 such that, if x and y belong to Ω and |y − x| ≤ η, then
f (y) − f (x)E;ν ≤ .
(c) We say that f is sequentially continuous at the point x of Ω if, for every sequence
(xn )n∈N in Ω such that xn → x in Rd , we have f (xn ) → f (x) in E.
We say that f is sequentially continuous if it is sequentially continuous at every

point of Ω.
2 History of the notion of continuous mapping. Augustin C AUCHY defined sequential continuity for a
real function on an interval in 1821 in [20]. Bernard Placidus Johann Nepomuk B OLZANO also contributed
to the emergence of this notion.
History of the notion of uniformly continuous function. Eduard H EINE defined the notion of uniform
continuity of functions on (a subset of) Rd in 1870 in [46]. This notion had previously been implicitly used
by Augustin C AUCHY in 1823 to define the integral of a real function [21, pp. 122–126] and was later
explicitly used by Peter D IRICHLET.
Spaces of Continuous Functions 3
(d) We say that f is bounded if its image f (Ω) = {f (x) : x ∈ Ω} is a bounded set
(of E), or in other words, if, for every ν ∈ NE ,
sup f (x)E;ν < ∞.

x∈Ω
We say that a sequence (un )n∈N in a separated semi-normed space E converges

to a limit u ∈ E, and we denote un → u as n → ∞, if, for every semi-norm E;ν
of E,
un − uE;ν → 0 as n → ∞.
Recall that a function is continuous if and only if it is sequentially continuous

(Theorem A.293, since Rd is a normed space).
1.2. Spaces C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), C(Ω; E) and Cb (Ω; E)
Addition of functions taking values in a vector space and multiplication by a scalar

t ∈ R are defined by
def def
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), (tf )(x) = tf (x). (1.1)
Let us first define spaces of continuous functions4.
D EFINITION 1.3.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd and E be a separated semi-normed space with a

family of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE }.
(a) We denote by C(Ω; E) the vector space of continuous functions from Ω into E
endowed with the semi-norms and indexed by the compact sets K ⊂ Ω and ν ∈ NE ,
f C(Ω;E);K,ν = sup f (x)E;ν .

def
x∈K
(b) We denote by Cb (Ω; E) the vector space of continuous and bounded functions
from Ω into E endowed with the semi-norms and indexed by ν ∈ NE ,
f Cb (Ω;E);ν = sup f (x)E;ν .

def
x∈Ω
3 Theorem A.29. Theorems with numbers in the form A.n can be found in the Appendix.
4 History of the notion of function space. Bernhard R IEMANN introduced the concept of (infinite-
dimensional) function space in 1892 in his inaugural lecture On the Hypotheses Which Lie at the Bases
of Geometry [64, p. 276] (see the extract cited in [14, p. 176]).
Justification. Addition and scalar multiplication of functions make C(Ω; E) and

Cb (Ω; E) vector spaces.
In (a), the mapping f → supx∈K f (x)E;ν is a semi-norm on C(Ω; E), since the
upper envelope of a family of semi-norms is a semi-norm whenever it is everywhere
finite (Theorem A.6). This is indeed the case here, since, for every x, the mapping
f → f (x)E;ν is a semi-norm on C(Ω; E) and, for each f , supx∈K f (x)E;ν < ∞
because continuous functions are bounded on compact sets (Theorem A.34).
In (b), supx∈Ω f (x)E;ν similarly defines a semi-norm on Cb (Ω; E).
These spaces are written as C(Ω) and Cb (Ω), respectively, in the case where
E = R.
The topology with which we have endowed C(Ω; E) is said to be the topology of
uniform convergence on compact sets, and the topology of Cb (Ω; E) is said to be
the topology of uniform convergence.
Let us now define spaces of uniformly continuous functions.
D EFINITION 1.4.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd and E be a separated semi-normed space.
(a) We denote by C(Ω; E) the vector space of uniformly continuous functions from Ω
into E.
(b) We denote by Cb (Ω; E) the vector space of uniformly continuous and bounded
functions from Ω into E endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
We denote these spaces by C(Ω) and Cb (Ω), respectively, in the case where
E = R.
Absence of a topology on C(Ω; E). We shall not endow C(Ω; E) with semi-norms, since we do not
require them.
Next, let us define the support of a function (recall that denotes the closure).
D EFINITION 1.5.– The support of a function f from a subset Ω of Rd into a

separated semi-normed space E is the set
supp f = {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } ∩ Ω.
def
Let us state some properties of the support of a function defined on an open set5.
T HEOREM 1.6.– Let f be a function from a subset Ω of Rd into a separated semi-

normed space E. If Ω is an open set:
(a) Then supp f = Ω\O, where O is the largest open subset of Rd on which f = 0E ;
in other words, O is the interior of {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E }.
(b) If f is also continuous, then {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } is open and included in the

˚ f of the support of f , and f = 0E on Ω \ supp
interior supp ˚ f.
Proof of Theorem 1.6. (a) Let

O = Ω \ supp f = Ω ∩ (Rd \ {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E }).
This is an open set, as a finite intersection of open sets (Theorem A.10), and f is zero
on it.
If U is another open set included in Ω on which f is zero, then the set

{x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } is included in Rd \ U . Since the latter is closed,
supp f ⊂ {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } ⊂ Rd \ U.
Hence, U ⊂ Ω ∩ (Rd \ supp f ) = O. Therefore, O is indeed the largest such open set
U or, in other words, the interior (Definition A.8) of {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E }.
(b) If f (x) = 0E , there exists a semi-norm on the space E of values of f such

that f (x)E;ν = a > 0. If f is continuous, there exists η > 0 such that y ∈ Ω
and |y − x| ≤ η imply f (y) − f (x)E;ν ≤ a/2, so f (y)E;ν ≥ a/2, and hence
f (y) = 0E . Since Ω is open, it contains a ball B(x, η ). Thus, the ball B(x, r), where
r = inf{η, η } is included in the set {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E }, which shows that this set
is indeed open.
The set {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } is an open set included in the support of f and so

˚ f of the support. Therefore, f = 0E outside of this
is included in the interior supp
set.
Let us finally define spaces of continuous functions with support in an arbitrary

compact set. Recall that, in Rd , a compact set is a closed and bounded set by the
Borel–Lebesgue theorem [Theorem A.23 (b)].
D EFINITION 1.7.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd and E be a separated semi-normed space.
5 Numbering of statements. The same numbering scheme is used for all statements – Definitions 1.1–1.5,
Theorem 1.6, Definition 1.7, etc. –, to make it easier to find a given result by number. For example, the
reader will struggle to find Theorems 1.1–1.5, because these numbers were assigned to definitions.
(a) Given a compact subset K of Rd included in Ω, we denote
CK (Ω; E) = {f ∈ C(Ω; E) : supp f ⊂ K},

def
endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
(b) Given a compact subset D of Rd (not necessarily included in Ω), we denote
CD (Ω; E) = {f ∈ C(Ω; E) : supp f ⊂ D},

def
endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Justification. (a) The vector space CK (Ω; E) can be endowed with the semi-norms of
Cb (Ω; E) because every function f in this space is bounded, since f is zero outside
of K and bounded on K, noting that continuous functions are bounded on compact
sets (Theorem A.34).
(b) The vector space CD (Ω; E) can be endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E)
because every function f in this space is bounded, since f is zero outside of D
and bounded on Ω ∩ D. Indeed, since D is precompact (Theorem A.19 (a)), the
subset Ω ∩ D is also precompact (Theorem A.20), and so is its image f (Ω ∩ D)
(Theorem A.33), which is therefore bounded (Theorem A.19 (a)).
We denote these spaces by CK (Ω) and CD (Ω), respectively, in the case where
E = R.
Caution about behavior at the boundary. When Ω is an open set, functions in CK (Ω; E) must be zero
on some neighborhood of the boundary ∂Ω, since K is included in Ω.
By contrast, functions in CD (Ω; E) do not necessarily vanish on a neighborhood of ∂Ω (regardless of
whether Ω is open, unless it is the whole of Rd ) when D is not included in Ω. To highlight this difference,
we have chosen notation that differentiates between arbitrary compact sets D and compact sets K that are
included in Ω.
Utility of the spaces CK (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E). The space CK (Ω; E), or, more precisely, its
generalization CKm (Ω; E), will be useful for our study of distributions in Volume 3, since the space D(Ω)
∞ (Ω).
of test functions is the union of the CK
The space CD (Ω; E) will be useful for our study of the Cauchy integral of continuous functions (for
example in Theorem 4.22), since B(Ω; E) (Definition 4.7) is the union of the CD (Ω; E).
1.3. Comparison of spaces of continuous functions
Let us first define the topological equalities and inclusions of separated

semi-normed spaces. We will then discuss inclusions between spaces of continuous
functions.
D EFINITION 1.8.– Let { 1;ν : ν ∈ N1 } and { 2;μ : μ ∈ N2 } be two families

of semi-norms on the same vector space E. We say that the first family dominates the
second if, for every μ ∈ N2 , there exists a finite set N1 in N1 and c1 ∈ R such that,
for every u ∈ E,
u2;μ ≤ c1 sup u1;ν .
ν∈N1
We say that the two families are equivalent if each family dominates the other. We also
say that they generate the same topology.
Terminology. The topology of E is the set of its open sets. We can say that two families of semi-norms
generate the same topology instead of saying that they are equivalent because equivalence of two families
of semi-norms implies equality of their open sets [Vol. 1, Theorem 3.4] and the converse also holds [Vol. 1,
Theorem 7.14 (a) and 8.2 (a), with L = T = Identity].
D EFINITION 1.9.– Let E and F be two semi-normed spaces.
≡ F if E = F and if their additions, multiplications and families of

(a) We write E ↔
semi-norms coincide, or, in other words, if they have the same vector space structures
and the same semi-norms.
= F , if E = F , their
(b) We say that E is topologically equal to F , written E ↔
additions and multiplications coincide, and their families of semi-norms are
equivalent.
(c) We say that E is topologically included in F , written E → ⊂ F , if E is a vector

subspace of F and if the family of semi-norms of E dominates the family of restrictions
to E of the semi-norms of F . In other words, if, for every μ ∈ NF , there exists a finite
set N in NE and c ∈ R such that, for every u ∈ E,
uF ;μ ≤ c sup uE;ν .

ν∈N
(d) We say that E is a topological subspace of F if it is a vector subspace of F , i.e.

a vector space under the addition and multiplication of E, and it is endowed with the
restrictions of the semi-norms of F , or, more generally, with a family equivalent to this
family of restrictions.
Let us now show that spaces of continuous functions are separated and compare
them.
T HEOREM 1.10.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , E be a separated semi-normed space, K a compact

set included in Ω and D a compact subset of Rd . Then:
(a) C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are separated semi-
normed spaces.
(b) CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are closed and hence sequentially closed
topological subspaces of Cb (Ω; E).
(c) ≡ CK (Ω; E) →
CK (Ω; E) ↔ ⊂ Cb (Ω; E) →
⊂ Cb (Ω; E) →
⊂ C(Ω; E).
(d) If Ω is bounded,
Cb (Ω; E) = C(Ω; E).
(e) If Ω is compact,
≡ Cb (Ω; E) ↔
Cb (Ω; E) ↔ = C(Ω; E).
Proof. (a) These spaces are semi-normed spaces (Definition 1.1) by construction.
The space C(Ω; E) is separated (Definition 1.1) because, if every semi-norm of

one of its elements f is zero, then (Definition 1.3 (a)), for every x ∈ Ω and ν ∈ NE ,
we have f (x)E;ν = 0, so f (x) = 0E because E is separated and therefore f is
zero. The same proof works for Cb (Ω; E) (Definition 1.3 (b)) and hence for the spaces
CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E), since they are endowed with the semi-norms of
Cb (Ω; E).
(b) The vector spaces CK (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are included in Cb (Ω; E), as we saw
earlier in the justification of Definition 1.7, and so is Cb (Ω; E). These spaces are
topological subspaces (Definition 1.9 (d)) of Cb (Ω; E) because they are endowed with
its semi-norms. Let us check that they are closed.
Closedness of CK (Ω; E) in Cb (Ω; E). Let us show that the complement is open. Thus,
let f ∈ Cb (Ω; E) \ CK (Ω; E). There exists x ∈ Ω \ K such that f (x) = 0E and hence
ν ∈ NE such that f (x)E;ν = a > 0. Therefore, g − f Cb (Ω;E);ν ≤ a/2 implies
g(x) > 0, and so g ∈ Cb (Ω; E) \ CK (Ω; E), showing that the complement is open.
Closedness of Cb (Ω; E) in Cb (Ω; E). Let us show that the complement is open. Thus,
let f ∈ Cb (Ω; E) \ Cb (Ω; E). There exists ν ∈ NE , a > 0 and, for all n ∈ N, xn
and yn in Ω such that |xn − yn | ≤ 1/n and f (xn ) − f (yn )E;ν ≥ a. Therefore,
g − f Cb (Ω;E);ν ≤ a/3 implies g(xn ) − g(yn )E;ν ≥ a/3, and so g ∈ Cb (Ω; E) \
Cb (Ω; E), showing that the complement is open.
Closedness of CD (Ω; E) in Cb (Ω; E). The set CD (Ω; E) is the intersection of

Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E), which are closed (for the latter, consider the above proof
with D instead of K), and so it is itself closed (Theorem A.10).
(c) Identity CK (Ω; E) ↔≡ CK (Ω; E). Algebraic equality is satisfied because every
function in CK (Ω; E) is uniformly continuous on the compact set K by Heine’s
theorem (Theorem A.34) and therefore on the whole of Ω (since it vanishes on ∂K).
Topological identity follows because these two spaces are both endowed with the
semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Inclusion CK (Ω; E) →
⊂ Cb (Ω; E). Algebraic inclusion follows from the fact that every
function in CK (Ω; E) is bounded on the compact set K (Heine’s theorem again) and
is therefore bounded on the whole of Ω. Topological inclusion follows because both
spaces are endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Inclusion Cb (Ω; E) →
⊂ Cb (Ω; E). This topological inclusion follows from the fact that
every uniformly continuous function is continuous, noting that Cb (Ω; E) is endowed
with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Inclusion Cb (Ω; E) →
⊂ C(Ω; E). This topological inclusion follows from the fact that,
by Definition 1.3 of the semi-norms of C(Ω; E) and Cb (Ω; E), for every f ∈ Cb (Ω; E)
and ν ∈ NE and every compact set K ⊂ Ω,
f C(Ω;E);K,ν = sup f (x)E;ν ≤ sup f (x)E;ν = f Cb (Ω;E);ν .

x∈K x∈Ω
(d) Case where Ω is bounded. In this case, Cb (Ω; E) = C(Ω; E) because, given
that Ω is precompact (Theorem A.23 (b)), uniformly continuous functions on Ω are
bounded. Indeed, their images are precompact (Theorem A.33) and hence bounded
(Theorem A.19 (a)).
(e) Case where Ω is compact. Equality Cb (Ω; E) = Cb (Ω; E) = C(Ω; E). This
algebraic equality follows from the fact that every continuous function on a compact
set is uniformly continuous and bounded on this set (Heine’s theorem once again,
Theorem A.34).
≡ Cb (Ω; E). This identity follows from the algebraic equality

Identity Cb (Ω; E) ↔
because both spaces are endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Equality Cb (Ω; E) ↔
= C(Ω; E). Here, we can take K = Ω in Definition 1.3 (a), which
gives f Cb (Ω;E);ν = f C(Ω;E);Ω,ν and hence C(Ω; E) → ⊂ Cb (Ω; E) (because
Cb (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E)). The topological equality
follows because the inverse inclusion holds by (c).
Non-closedness of C(Ω) in C(Ω). If Ω is an open set (or more generally a set that is not compact),
C(Ω) is not (sequentially) closed in C(Ω). (1.2)
For example, the functions fn defined on (0, 1) by fn (x) = inf{n, 1/x} are uniformly continuous and,
as n → ∞, they converge in C((0, 1)) to the function f (x) = 1/x, which is not uniformly continuous.
1.4. Sequential completeness of spaces of continuous functions
Let us define sequential completeness.
D EFINITION 1.11.– A Neumann space is a separated semi-normed space that is

sequentially complete, namely one in which every Cauchy sequence converges.
A sequence (un )n∈N in a separated semi-normed space E is said to be Cauchy if,

for every semi-norm E;ν of E,
sup um − un E;ν → 0 as n → ∞.
m≥n
Terminology. We named these spaces Neumann spaces in Volume 1 in honor of John VON N EUMANN,
who introduced them in 1935 [59]. Thus, readers will need to recall this definition before using it elsewhere.

Let us show that spaces of continuous functions are sequentially complete

whenever the space E of values is itself sequentially complete6.
T HEOREM 1.12.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , K be a compact set included in Ω, and D a compact

subset of Rd .
If E is a Neumann space, then C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and
CD (Ω; E) are also Neumann spaces.
Proof. Let { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } be the family of semi-norms of E.
Sequential completeness of C(Ω; E). Let (fn )n∈N be a Cauchy sequence in C(Ω; E).
By Definition 1.3 (a) of the semi-norms of C(Ω; E), for every compact set K ⊂ Ω,
every ν ∈ NE and > 0, there exists ∈ N such that
sup sup fn (x) − f (x)E;ν = sup fn − f C(Ω;E);K ν ≤ .
n≥ x∈K n≥
Then, for every x ∈ Ω, (fn (x))n∈N is a Cauchy sequence in E; since E is a Neumann

space, this sequence has a limit, which we shall denote as f (x). Taking the limit as
n → ∞, the previous inequality yields
sup f (x) − f (x)E;ν ≤ . (1.3)
x∈K
6 History of Theorem 1.12. In a series of unpublished but nonetheless hugely influential lectures, Karl
W EIERSTRASS showed that the limit of a sequence of sequentially continuous real functions that converge
uniformly is itself sequentially continuous. In other words, he showed that an inequality of type (1.3) implies
the sequential continuity of f . This is the key point in the proof of the sequential completeness of C(R).
Let us prove by contradiction that f is sequentially continuous. Suppose not. Then

there exists > 0, ν ∈ NE , x ∈ Ω, and a sequence (xm )m∈N in Ω such that xm → x
and f (xm ) − f (x)E;ν ≥ 3. Applying the inequality (1.3) to the compact set
K = {xm : m ∈ N} ∪ {x} then gives, for every m ∈ N,
f (xm ) − f (x)E;ν =
= f (xm ) − f (xm ) + f (xm ) − f (x) + f (x) − f (x)E;ν ≥
≥ f (xm ) − f (xm )E;ν − f (xm ) − f (x)E;ν − f (x) − f (x))E;ν ≥
≥ .
Therefore, f is not sequentially continuous. This proves that f is sequentially
continuous.
Hence, f is continuous (Theorem A.29, since Rd is a normed space), and thus

f ∈ C(Ω; E). Equation (1.3) then shows that fn → f in C(Ω; E), which proves that
C(Ω; E) is sequentially complete.
Sequential completeness of Cb (Ω; E). The space Cb (Ω; E) may be shown to be

sequentially complete by repeating the above proof with Ω instead of K (the
boundedness of the limit f then follows from the inequality (1.3)).
Sequential completeness of CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E). Since every closed
topological subspace of a sequentially complete space is sequentially complete
(Theorem A.27), the subspaces CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) of Cb (Ω; E) are
sequentially complete (they are closed by Theorem 1.10 (b)).
Another proof of the sequential completeness of Cb (Ω; E). The proof above can be revisited with Ω
instead of K to show that the limit f thus obtained is uniformly continuous by using two sequences
(xm )m∈N and (ym )m∈N in Ω such that |xm − ym | ≤ 1/m instead of xm → x.
1.5. Metrizability of spaces of continuous functions
Let us define metrizability7.
D EFINITION 1.13.– We say that a semi-normed space is metrizable if it is separated

and its family of semi-norms is countable or equivalent to a countable family of semi-
norms.
A Fréchet space is a metrizable semi-normed space that is sequentially complete.

A Banach space is a sequentially complete normed space.
7 History of the notion of metrizable space. Maurice F RÉCHET gave the general definition of a metric
space in 1906 in [38].
Justification of the term “metrizable”. We speak of a metrizable space because any countable family, or
equivalently any sequence ( k )k∈N of semi-norms, may be associated with a metric d, that generates
the same topology, given by
u − vk
2−k
def
d(u, v) = .
k∈N
1 + u − vk
Strictly speaking, Definition 1.13 defines a separated countably semi-normable space. We prefer to speak
instead of a metrizable space by abuse of language because this equivalent notion is more familiar. A
metrizable space is, more precisely, a space that is “topologically equal to a metric space.”
Superiority of a sequence of semi-norms over a metric. The semi-norms of a metrizable space E

characterize its bounded sets by supu∈U uE;k < ∞ for every k ∈ N (Definition A.7).
By contrast, if E is not normable and d is a metric that generates its topology, its bounded sets are
not characterized by supu∈U d(u, 0E ) < ∞. Even worse, none of the “balls” {u ∈ E : d(u, z) ≤ r} are
bounded (if r > 0). If they were, {u : d(u, z) < r} would be a non-empty bounded open set. But the
existence of such an open set is equivalent to normability by Kolmogorov’s theorem8.
Let us state some metrizability and normability properties of spaces of continuous

functions.

(a) If E is metrizable, then Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are
metrizable.
(b) If E is metrizable and Ω is open, then C(Ω; E) is metrizable.
(c) If E is a normed space, then Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are
normed spaces.
Proof. (a) If E is metrizable, then, by Definition 1.13, we may endow it with a

family of semi-norms indexed by a countable set NE . Therefore, Cb (Ω; E) is
metrizable because its semi-norms are indexed by NE (Definition 1.3 (b)).
Furthermore, Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are also metrizable, since they are
endowed (Definitions 1.4 (b) and 1.7) with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
(c) If E is a normed space, the family of semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E) reduces to the norm
f Cb (Ω;E) = supx∈Ω f (x)E . Thus, by definition, the spaces CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E)
and CD (Ω; E) are endowed with this norm as well.
8 History of Komogorov’s theorem. Andrey KOLMOGOROV showed in 1934 [49, p. 33] that a topological
vector space is normable if and only if there exists a bounded convex neighborhood of the origin, which
here is equivalent to the existence of a bounded open set.
(b) Suppose that Ω is open. For every n ∈ N, let
Ωn1/n = {x ∈ Rd : |x| < n, B(x, 1/n) ⊂ Ω},

def
where B(x, 1/n) denotes the closed ball {y ∈ Rd : |y −x| ≤ 1/n}. As we shall check
in Lemma 1.15, every compact set K ⊂ Ω is included in one of the compact sets
Kn = Ωn1/n , so the family of semi-norms of C(Ω; E) (Definition 1.3 (a)) is equivalent
to the sub-family associated with the Kn , which is indexed by N × NE . If, moreover,
E is metrizable, by Definition 1.13, we can choose NE to be countable, in which case
N × NE is also countable (Theorem A.2), and so C(Ω; E) is metrizable.
We still need to show the following lemma.
L EMMA 1.15.– Let Ω be an open subset of Rd , r > 0, n ∈ N, and
Ωr = {x ∈ Rd : B(x, r) ⊂ Ω}, Ωnr = {x ∈ Rd : |x| < n, B(x, r) ⊂ Ω},

def def
where B(x, r) = {y ∈ Rd : |y − x| ≤ r}.

def
Then, Ωr and Ωnr are open, the closure Ωnr is a compact set included in Ω, the
(Ωn1/n )n∈N forms an increasing open covering of Ω and every compact set K included
in Ω is included in one of the Ωn1/n .
Proof. The set Ωr = {x ∈ Rd : B(x, r) ⊂ Ω} is open because if x ∈ Ωr , then the

closed ball B(x, r) is a compact set included in Ω, so the strong inclusion theorem
(Theorem A.22) provides s > 0 such that B(x, r) + B(0, s) ⊂ Ω, and hence
B(x, s) ⊂ Ωr .
The intersection Ωnr with the open ball {x ∈ Rd : |x| < n} is therefore also open
(Theorem A.10).
The closure Ωnr , which is closed by definition and bounded, is compact in Rd by

the Borel–Lebesgue theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)). It is included in Ωn+1r/2 and hence
in Ω.
Finally, the sets Ωn1/n increase with n and form a covering of Ω. Every compact set
K ⊂ Ω is therefore, by Definition A.17 (a), included in one of these sets, and, finally,
in one of their closures Ωn1/n .
Let us state a few consequences of the previous two theorems.

(a) If E is a Fréchet space, then Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are
Fréchet spaces.
(b) If E is a Fréchet space and Ω is open, then C(Ω; E) is a Fréchet space.
(c) If E is a Banach space, then Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and CD (Ω; E) are
Banach spaces.
In particular:
(d) If Ω is open, then C(Ω) is a Fréchet space.
(e) Cb (Ω), CK (Ω), Cb (Ω) and CD (Ω) are Banach spaces.
Proof. (a), (b) and (c). This follows from the sequential completeness properties in
Theorem 1.12 and the metrizability and normability properties in Theorem 1.14.
(e) and (d). This follows from (a), (b) and (c), since R is a Banach space
(Theorem A.23 (a)) and hence a Fréchet space.
Metrizability of C(Ω). The properties of Theorems 1.14 (b) and 1.16 (c) and (d) still hold when:

Ω is the union of a sequence (Kn )n∈N of compact subsets of Rd such that,
for any compact set K ⊂ Ω, there exists n such that K ⊂ Kn .
This property is, for example, satisfied whenever Ω is open or closed, but not for arbitrary subsets of Rd .
1.6. The space K(Ω; E)
Let us define the space of continuous functions with compact support9. The support
of a function was defined on page 4. We denote
C + (Ω) = {q ∈ C(Ω) : ∀x ∈ Ω, q(x) ≥ 0}.

def
D EFINITION 1.17.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , E be a separated semi-normed space, and

{ E;ν : ν ∈ NE } its family of semi-norms.
We denote by K(Ω; E) the vector space of continuous functions from Ω into E with
compact support endowed with the semi-norms, indexed by q ∈ C + (Ω) and ν ∈ NE ,
f K(Ω;E);q,ν = sup q(x)f (x)E;ν .

def
x∈Ω
9 History of the semi-norms of K(Ω; E). The semi-norms in Definition 1.17, which are new to the best of
the author’s knowledge, provide a very simple way [S IMON, 75, forthcoming] of generating the inductive
limit topology of the CK (Ω; E) with which B OURBAKI endowed K(Ω; E) [11, Chapter III, § 1, p. 41].
Justification. The continuous functions with compact support form a vector subspace
of C(Ω; E) because the support of the sum of two functions is included in the union
of their supports, which is compact if the supports of both functions are compact.
The mapping f → supx∈Ω q(x)f (x)E;ν is a semi-norm on K(Ω; E), since the
upper envelope of a set of semi-norms is itself a semi-norm whenever it is
everywhere finite (Theorem A.6). This is indeed the case here, since, on the one
hand, for every x, the mapping f → q(x)f (x)E;ν is a semi-norm on K(Ω; E) and,
on the other hand, for each f , supx∈Ω q(x)f (x)E;ν is finite, since q and f E;ν
are bounded on the support of f (because continuous functions are bounded on
compact sets by Theorem A.34).
Notation K(Ω; E). This notation was used by B OURBAKI [11, Chapter III, § 1, p. 40].
Benefit of the semi-norms of K(Ω; E). The semi-norms newly introduced in Definition 1.17 yield the
properties usually obtained from the inductive limit topology of the CK (Ω; E). In particular, the functions
in a bounded subset of K(Ω; E) all have supports included in the same compact set K included in Ω
(Theorem 1.23, which is also new). These semi-norms generate the inductive limit topology [S IMON, 75,
forthcoming] and are simpler.
Motivation of the study of K(Ω; E). We study the space K(Ω; E) because we will frequently need
continuous approximations with compact support of functions or distributions. More importantly, the
properties of K(Ω) stated in Theorems 1.22 and 1.23 are the basis of those of the space D(Ω) that will be
used to construct the space D (Ω; E) of distributions in Volume 3.
Let us state a condition to guarantee that the support of a function is compact.
T HEOREM 1.18.– The support of a function from a subset Ω of Rd into a separated

semi-normed space is compact if and only if it is included in a compact subset of Ω.
Proof. By Definition 1.5, the support of f is {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } ∩ Ω, where E is

the semi-normed space in question, so it is not necessarily closed.
If supp f ⊂ K ⊂ Ω, where K is compact, then
{x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E } ⊂ K = K ⊂ Ω,
so supp f = {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0E }. This set is closed (by definition) and bounded

(like K) in Rd , and thus compact by the Borel–Lebesgue theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)).
The converse is clear (taking K = supp f ).

Let us state a few elementary properties.
T HEOREM 1.19.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , E be a separated semi-normed space, and K a

compact set included in Ω.
Then K(Ω; E) is a separated semi-normed space and
CK (Ω; E) →
⊂ K(Ω; E) →
⊂ Cb (Ω; E).
Semi-normed space. The space K(Ω; E) is a semi-normed space by Definition 1.17.

It is separated (Definition 1.1) because if every semi-norm of one of its elements f is
zero, then
f K(Ω;E);1Ω ,ν = sup f (x)E;ν = 0,
x∈Ω
where 1Ω is the constant function of value 1 on Ω. This holds for every ν ∈ NE , so

f (x) = 0E for every x ∈ Ω because E is separated, and therefore f is zero.
Inclusion CK (Ω; E) →⊂ K(Ω; E). Let f ∈ CK (Ω; E). Its support is included in the
compact set K and hence is compact (Theorem 1.18), so f ∈ K(Ω; E). Furthermore,
for every q ∈ C + (Ω) and ν ∈ NE , we have, by Definitions 1.17 and 1.3,
f K(Ω;E);q,ν = sup q(x)f (x)E;ν ≤ sup q(x) sup f (x)E;ν = cq f Cb (Ω;E);ν ,
x∈Ω x∈K x∈Ω
where cq = supx∈K q(x), which is finite by Heine’s theorem (Theorem A.34). This
gives us the topological inclusion (Definition 1.9 (c)), since, by Definition 1.7 (a),
CK (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E).
Inclusion K(Ω; E) →⊂ Cb (Ω; E). Let f ∈ K(Ω; E). The function f is continuous with
compact support, so it is uniformly continuous and bounded on its support, again
by Heine’s theorem, and hence bounded everywhere. Thus, f ∈ Cb (Ω; E). The
topological inclusion follows from the fact that, by Definition 1.4 (b), Cb (Ω; E) is
endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E) and, for every ν ∈ NE ,
f Cb (Ω;E);ν = sup f (x)E;ν = f K(Ω;E);1Ω ,ν . (1.4)

x∈Ω

Let us observe that the topologies of C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E) and K(Ω; E) coincide on
CK (Ω; E).
T HEOREM 1.20.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , E be a separated semi-normed space, and K a

compact set included in Ω.
Then the topologies of C(Ω; E), Cb (Ω; E), CK (Ω; E) and K(Ω; E) coincide on
CK (Ω; E).
Proof. According to the inclusion CK (Ω; E) → ⊂ K(Ω; E) →⊂ Cb (Ω; E) →

⊂ C(Ω; E)
(Theorems 1.19 and 1.10 (c)), it suffices to show that the family of semi-norms of
C(Ω; E) dominates that of CK (Ω; E) on the latter space. Given that the space
CK (Ω; E) (Definition 1.7 (a)) is endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E), the
desired result follows from the fact that for every f ∈ CK (Ω; E) and ν ∈ NE ,
f Cb (Ω;E);ν = sup f (x)E;ν = sup f (x)E;ν = f C(Ω;E);K,ν .

x∈Ω x∈K
Let us show that K(Ω; E) is sequentially complete whenever E is a sequentially

complete normed space.
T HEOREM 1.21.– For every Ω ⊂ Rd :
If E is a Banach space, then K(Ω; E) is a Neumann space.
In particular, K(Ω) is a Neumann space.
Proof. Let E be a Banach space. Observe that for all f ∈ K(Ω; E) and q ∈ C + (Ω),
the function qf belongs to K(Ω; E) and hence to Cb (Ω; E) by Theorem 1.19.
Furthermore, by the definition of their semi-norms (Definitions 1.17 and 1.3 (b)),
f K(Ω;E);q = sup q(x)f (x)E = qf Cb (Ω;E) (1.5)

x∈Ω
(the index ν is absent because E only has one semi-norm, namely its norm).
Now, let (fn )n∈N be a Cauchy sequence in K(Ω; E). By (1.4), this sequence is
Cauchy in Cb (Ω; E), which is sequentially complete (Theorem 1.12), so it has a limit f
in this space. By (1.5), for every q ∈ C + (Ω), the sequence (qfn )n∈N is Cauchy in
Cb (Ω; E) and therefore has a limit in this space, which must necessarily be qf . Hence,
qf ∈ Cb (Ω; E) and so, again by (1.5),
sup q(x)f (x)E < ∞. (1.6)

x∈Ω
This implies that the support of the function f E is compact by Theorem 1.22,
which we will prove below. Indeed, this function f E is continuous, since

f (y)E − f (x)E ≤ f (y) − f (x)E (because norms are contractions, see
Theorem A.5). Since the supports of f and f E coincide, it follows that
f ∈ K(Ω; E). Therefore, once again by (1.5),
fn − f K(Ω;E);q = q(fn − f )Cb (Ω;E) → 0.
Hence, fn → f in K(Ω; E), which is therefore sequentially complete, i.e. a Neumann
space.
This is, in particular, true for K(Ω), since R is a Banach space (Theorem A.23 (a)).

It remains to be checked that the property (1.6) implies the compactness of the
support of f E . More precisely, we need to establish the following property10.
T HEOREM 1.22.– Let f ∈ C(Ω), where Ω ⊂ Rd , such that, for every q ∈ C + (Ω),
sup q(x) |f (x)| < ∞.
x∈Ω
Then the support of f is compact.
Proof. Let
K = {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = 0}.
def
Let us first show by contradiction that

K ⊂ Ω. (1.7)
Suppose that K is not included in Ω. Then, since in Rd the closure coincides with the
set of limits of convergent sequences (Theorem A.25 (b)), there exists z ∈ K \ Ω and
a sequence (zm )m∈N of Ω converging to z such that, for every m ∈ N,
f (zm ) = 0.
Since z ∈ / Ω, taking a subsequence if necessary, we can choose rm > 0 for each
m ∈ N such that the ball Bm = {x : |x − zm | ≤ rm } does not contain z and is
disjoint from the Bi for i ≤ m − 1. Then we define a function q on the whole of Rd
as follows:
⎧
⎨ m |x − zm |
1− on Bm ,
q(x) = |f (zm )| rm (1.8)
⎩
0 outside of the Bm .
10 History of Theorem 1.22. This property, newly introduced here, is equivalent to a special case of a
result by Nicolas B OURBAKI relating to the inductive limit topology of the CK (Ω; E) which is specified in
footnote 11.
This function is everywhere continuous except at z, therefore its restriction to Ω is

continuous. For every m ∈ N, it satisfies
q(zm ) |f (zm )| = m.
This contradicts the hypothesis that qf is bounded. Therefore, (1.7) is satisfied, that
is, K is included in Ω.
Hence, by Definition 1.5 of the support,
supp f = K ∩ Ω = K.
Next, let us show that

K is bounded.
If not, we can choose the zm and the rm as above, but with |zm | → ∞ instead of
zm → z. Then q is continuous at every point and, once again, q(zm ) |f (zm )| = m,
which contradicts the hypothesis that qf is bounded. Therefore, K is bounded.
Since K is also closed in Rd by definition, it is compact by the Borel–Lebesgue

theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)). The support of f being equal to K, it is indeed compact.

Let us generalize this result to a family of functions that will be useful later11.
T HEOREM 1.23.– Let F ⊂ C(Ω), where Ω ⊂ Rd , such that, for every q ∈ C + (Ω),
sup sup q(x) |f (x)| < ∞.

f ∈F x∈Ω
Then all the functions of F have their support included in the same compact subset
of Ω.
Proof. Let
K = ∪f ∈F supp f .
def
We will first show by contradiction that
K ⊂ Ω.
11 History of Theorem 1.23. This new property is equivalent to a result by B OURBAKI [11, Chapter III,
§ 1, Proposition 2, (ii), p. 42]: the support of every function in a bounded subset of K(Ω; E) endowed with
the inductive limit topology of the CK (Ω; E) is included in some compact set K ⊂ Ω. The proof given by
B OURBAKI, which uses topological arguments (infinite direct topological sum and strict inductive limits),
is completely different from the proof given here.
Suppose that K is not included in Ω. Then, since in Rd the closure coincides with the
set of limits of convergent sequences (Theorem A.25 (b)), there exists z ∈ K \ Ω and
a sequence (ym )m∈N converging to z such that, for every m ∈ N, there exists fm ∈ F
such that ym belongs to the support of fm . By Definition 1.5 of the latter,
ym ∈ {x ∈ Ω : fm (x) = 0}.
Again by Theorem A.25 (b), there exists zm ∈ Ω such that |zm − ym | ≤ 1/m and
fm (zm ) = 0.
Then zm → z and z ∈ / Ω thus, taking a subsequence if necessary, we can choose

rm > 0 for each m ∈ N such that the ball Bm = {x : |x − zm | ≤ rm } does
not contain z and is disjoint from the Bi for i ≤ m − 1. Defining q as in (1.8) but
with fm (zm ) instead of f (zm ), we obtain a function which is everywhere continuous
except at z. Its restriction to Ω is continuous and satisfies, for all m ∈ N,
q(zm ) |fm (zm )| = m.
This contradicts the hypothesis that the qf are bounded as a whole. Thus, K is indeed
included in Ω.
Now, let us show that

K is bounded.
If not, we can choose the ym , zm and rm , and therefore q, as above but with |ym | → ∞
instead of ym → z. Then |zm | → ∞ instead of zm → z, thus q is now everywhere
continuous and satisfies again q(zm ) |fm (zm )| = m. This contradicts the hypothesis
that the qf are bounded as a whole. Therefore, K is indeed bounded.
By construction, K is also closed in Rd , so it is compact by the Borel–Lebesgue

theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)), and it contains the support of all the f in F.
Non-metrizability of K(Ω). If Ω is non-empty, then K(Ω) is not metrizable [S IMON, 75], despite being
the union of the normed spaces CKn (Ω), where the Kn are compact sets whose union is Ω. This
illustrates that the countable union of normed spaces is not necessarily metrizable. Similarly, K(Ω; E) is
not metrizable if E = {0}.
Characterization of K(Ω; E) when E is a normed space. Theorem 1.22 implies the following property
(by applying it to f E and using equality (1.5)). If E is a normed space:
f ∈ K(Ω; E) ⇔ f ∈ C(Ω; E) and qf is bounded for every q ∈ C + (Ω).
1.7. Continuous mappings
Let us define the notion of continuity of a mapping from a separated semi-normed

space into another, which generalizes the definition of a continuous function
(Definition 1.2).
D EFINITION 1.24.– Let E and F be two separated semi-normed spaces with

families of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } and { F ;μ : μ ∈ NF }.
A mapping T from a subset X of E into F is said to be continuous at the point u

if, for every μ ∈ NF and > 0, there exists a finite subset N of NE and η > 0 such
that:
v ∈ X, sup v − uE;ν ≤ η ⇒ T (v) − T (u)F ;μ ≤ .
ν∈N
We say that T is continuous if it is continuous at every point of X.
Let us characterize the continuous linear mappings (the definition of a linear

mapping is recalled in the Appendix, Definition A.39).
T HEOREM 1.25.– Let E and F be two separated semi-normed spaces with families
of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } and { F ;μ : μ ∈ NF }.
A linear mapping L from E into F is continuous if and only if, for every μ ∈ NF ,
there exists a finite subset N of NE and c ≥ 0 such that: for every u ∈ E,
LuF ;μ ≤ c sup uE;ν .

ν∈N
Proof. If L is linear, then L(0E ) = 0F . If L is also continuous, then, by Definition

1.24, its continuity at 0E implies that, for every ν ∈ NE , there exists a finite subset N
of NE and η > 0 such that, if supν∈N vE;ν ≤ η, then LvF ;μ ≤ 1.
If supν∈N uE;ν = 0, by choosing v = ηu/ supν∈N uE;ν , we obtain

η
L(v)F ;μ = L(u)F ;μ ≤ 1,
supν∈N uE;ν
which gives the desired inequality with c = 1/η. This still holds if supν∈N uE;ν is
zero, in which case L(u)F ;μ = 0, otherwise v = 2u/L(u)F ;μ would not satisfy
the derived property for v.
Conversely, the stated inequality and linearity imply that
Lv − LuF ;μ ≤ c sup v − uE;ν ,

ν∈N
which implies continuity.

1.8. Continuous extension and restriction
We wish to show that continuous extension from Ω to Ω is an isomorphism in the

spaces of uniformly continuous functions Cb (Ω; E) (bounded functions) and
CD (Ω; E) (functions supported in D). Recall that an isomorphism from a separated
semi-normed space to another is a continuous linear bijection whose inverse mapping
is also linear and continuous.
More precisely, we will show that restriction from Ω to Ω is an isomorphism. This

result is equivalent because this mapping is the inverse of continuous extension.
T HEOREM 1.26.– Let Ω ⊂ Rd , E be a separated semi-normed space, NE the set

indexing its semi-norms and D a compact subset of Rd . Then:
(a) For every f ∈ Cb (Ω; E) and ν ∈ NE ,
f |Ω Cb (Ω;E);ν = f Cb (Ω;E);ν .
(b) If E is a Neumann space, then the mapping f → f |Ω is an isomorphism from

Cb (Ω; E) onto Cb (Ω; E) and from CD (Ω; E) onto CD (Ω; E).
Proof. (a) Since, by Definition 1.4 (b), Cb (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms of
Cb (Ω; E) (Definition 1.3 (b)),
f Cb (Ω;E);ν = sup f (x)E;ν ≥ sup f (x)E;ν = f |Ω Cb (Ω;E);ν . (1.9)

x∈Ω x∈Ω
Conversely, let a = f Cb (Ω;E);ν , > 0 and x ∈ Ω such that
f (x)E;ν ≥ a − .
Since f is uniformly continuous, by Definition 1.2 (b), there exists η > 0 such that,
for every y ∈ Ω satisfying |y − x| ≤ η,
f (y) − f (x)E;ν ≤ . (1.10)
But by the characterization of the closure Ω from Theorem A.11, there exists y ∈ Ω
such that |y − x| ≤ η. Therefore, (1.10) implies that
f |Ω Cb (Ω;E);ν ≥ f (y)E;ν ≥ a − 2.
This holds for every > 0, which gives the reverse inequality in (1.9), which must
therefore be an equality.
(b) Here, E is assumed to be a Neumann space.
Isomorphism from Cb (Ω; E) onto Cb (Ω; E). Every function g in Cb (Ω; E) has an
extension g that is uniformly continuous on Ω (Theorem A.38, which may be applied
because Ω is sequentially dense in Ω by Theorem A.25 (b)). This function g is bounded
because the inequality g(x)E;ν ≤ bν in Ω may be continuously extended to Ω
(Theorem A.37 (a) and (b)). Therefore, g ∈ Cb (Ω; E) and g |Ω = g. Thus, the
mapping f → f |Ω is surjective. The equality (a) then shows that it is bijective and
bicontinuous.
Isomorphism from CD (Ω; E) onto CD (Ω; E). This isomorphism follows from the
previous one because, when D is closed, as is the case here, the support of g is included
in D if and only if the support of g is included in D (by Definition 1.5 of the support).

Identification. If we identify f with its restriction in Theorem 1.26, we obtain the following topological
equality:
If E is a Neumann space, Cb (Ω; E) ↔ ≈ Cb (Ω; E). (1.11)
Some care is required with identifications, as it is explained in the section Dangerous identifications of
Volume 1 [73, § 14.6, pp. 240–243].
1.9. Separation and permutation of variables
We can separate the variables of continuous functions as follows.
T HEOREM 1.27.– Let Ω1 ⊂ Rd1 , Ω2 ⊂ Rd2 and E be a separated semi-normed

space. For any function defined on Ω1 × Ω2 , let f be the function obtained by
separating the variables, i.e.
def
(f (x1 ))(x2 ) = f (x1 , x2 ).
Then:
(a) The mapping f → f is an isomorphism from C(Ω1 ×Ω2 ; E) onto C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E))
and from Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
(b) The mapping f → f is linear, continuous and injective from Cb (Ω1 ×Ω2 ; E) into
Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
If Ω1 is compact, or if Ω1 is bounded and E is a Neumann space, then this

mapping is an isomorphism.
(c) For any two compact subsets D1 of Rd1 and D2 of Rd2 , the mapping f → f is
an isomorphism from CD1 ×D2 (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto CD1 (Ω1 ; CD2 (Ω2 ; E)).
(a) 1. Isomorphism in C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). We will proceed in three steps:
Separation of variables. Let f ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). For every x1 ∈ Ω1 , f (x1 ) belongs

to C(Ω2 ; E) because x2 → f (x1 , x2 ) is continuous by restriction. Let (xn1 )n∈N be
a sequence in Ω1 that converges to x1 . By Definition 1.3 (a) of the semi-norms of
C(Ω; E), for any compact set K2 included in Ω2 and ν ∈ NE ,
f (xn1 ) − f (x1 )C(Ω2 ;E);K2 ,ν = sup f (xn1 , x2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν . (1.12)
x2 ∈K2
Let Q1 = {xn1 }n∈N ∪ {x1 }. The set Q1 × K2 is compact in Rd1 +d2 by the Borel–
Lebesgue theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)) because it is closed and bounded, so f is
uniformly continuous on this set by Heine’s theorem (Theorem A.34). Therefore, for
every > 0, there exists η > 0 such that x2 ∈ K2 and |(xn1 , x2 ) − (x1 , x2 )| ≤ η
together imply that f (xn1 , x2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν ≤ .
By (1.12), |xn1 − x1 | ≤ η therefore implies that f (xn1 ) − f (x1 )C(Ω2 ;E);K2 ,ν ≤ .

This proves that f is sequentially continuous and hence continuous (Theorem A.29,
since Rd1 is metrizable) from Ω1 into C(Ω2 , E). In other words, f ∈ C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)).
Regrouping the variables. Let h ∈ C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)) and denote by f the function
obtained by regrouping its variables. Let ((xn1 , xn2 ))n∈N be a sequence in Ω1 × Ω2
converging to a point (x1 , x2 ) in Ω1 × Ω2 . The set Q2 = {xn2 }n∈N ∪ {x2 } is compact
and included in Ω2 . Therefore, by (1.12) (since h = f ), for every ν ∈ NE ,
f (xn1 , xn2 ) − f (x1 , xn2 )E;ν ≤ h(xn1 ) − h(x1 )C(Ω2 ;E);Q2 ,ν → 0,
since h is continuous and hence sequentially continuous (Theorem A.29 again).
Moreover,
f (x1 , xn2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν = (h(x1 ))(xn2 ) − (h(x1 ))(x2 )E;ν → 0,
since h(x1 ) ∈ C(Ω2 ; E). These two properties imply that
f (xn1 , xn2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν → 0.
This shows that f is sequentially continuous and hence continuous (Theorem A.29
again, since Rd1 +d2 is metrizable). In other words, f ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E).
Isomorphism. Let K1 be a compact set included in Ω1 , K2 a compact set included in

Ω2 and ν ∈ NE . Once again by Definition 1.3 (a) of the semi-norms of C(Ω; E),
f C(Ω1 ;C(Ω2 ;E));K1 ,K2 ,ν = sup f (x1 )C(Ω2 ;E);K2 ,ν =
x1 ∈K1
= sup sup (f (x1 ))(x2 )E;ν = sup f (x1 , x2 )E;ν =

x1 ∈K1 x2 ∈K2 (x1 ,x2 )∈K1 ×K2
= f C(Ω1 ×Ω2 ;E);K1 ×K2 ,ν .

Hence, f → f and its inverse mapping, which are both linear, are continuous by the
characterization of continuous linear mappings from Theorem 1.25. This shows that
f → f is an isomorphism from C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)).
2. Isomorphism in Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). A function f ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) is bounded if

and only if f is bounded from Ω1 into Cb (Ω2 ; E), since, by Definition 1.3 (b) of the
semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E), for every ν ∈ NE ,
sup f (x1 )Cb (Ω2 ;E);ν = sup sup (f (x1 ))(x2 )E;ν
x1 ∈Ω1 x1 ∈Ω1 x2 ∈Ω2
= sup f (x1 , x2 )E;ν .
(x1 ,x2 )∈Ω1 ×Ω2
By point 1, the mapping f → f is therefore a bijection from Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto

Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)). This is an isomorphism because the above equality can be written
as
f Cb (Ω1 ;Cb (Ω2 ;E));ν = f Cb (Ω1 ×Ω2 ;E);ν . (1.13)
(b) 1. Continuity and injectivity in Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). Let f ∈ Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). For
every x1 ∈ Ω1 , f (x1 ) is uniformly continuous (since x2 → f (x1 , x2 ) is uniformly
continuous by restriction) and, for every y1 ∈ Ω1 and ν ∈ NE ,
f (y1 ) − f (x1 )Cb (Ω2 ;E);ν = sup f (y1 , x2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν . (1.14)
x2 ∈Ω2
By Definition 1.2 (b) of uniform continuity, for every > 0, there exists η > 0 such
that |(y1 , x2 ) − (x1 , x2 )| ≤ η implies f (y1 , x2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )E;ν ≤ . By (1.14),
|y1 − x1 | ≤ η therefore implies that f (y1 ) − f (x1 )Cb (Ω2 ;E);ν ≤ . This shows that
f is uniformly continuous from Ω1 into Cb (Ω2 ; E), since, by Definition 1.4 (b), the
latter is endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E). Hence, f ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
Thus, once again by the characterization of continuous linear mappings from

Theorem 1.25, the equality (1.13) shows that the mapping f → f is continuous from
Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) into Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
2. Isomorphism in Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). Let us study each case separately.
Case where Ω1 is compact. Let h ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)) and f ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) the
function obtained by regrouping its variables with (c).
Let us first prove by contradiction that f is uniformly continuous. Suppose not.

Then there exists ν ∈ NE , a > 0 and for every n ∈ N, points (xn1 , xn2 ) and (y1n , y2n )
in Ω1 × Ω2 such that:
1
|(xn1 , xn2 ) − (y1n , y2n )| ≤ , f (xn1 , xn2 ) − f (y1n , y2n )E;ν ≥ a. (1.15)
n
We assumed that Ω1 is compact, which is equivalent to being sequentially compact

in Rd1 by the Borel–Lebesgue theorem (Theorem A.23 (b)), so there exists x1 ∈ Ω1
and some subsequence (relabeled as the original sequence!) such that xn1 → x1 as
n → ∞. This implies that y1n → x1 . Therefore, together with (1.14) (since h = f ),
f (xn1 , xn2 ) − f (x1 , xn2 )E;ν ≤ h(xn1 ) − h(x1 )Cb (Ω2 ;E);ν → 0, (1.16)
f (x1 , xn2 ) − f (x1 , y2n )E;ν = (h(x1 ))(xn2 ) − (h(x1 ))(y2n )E;ν → 0, (1.17)
f (x1 , y2n ) − f (y1n , y2n )E;ν ≤ h(x1 ) − h(y1n )Cb (Ω2 ;E);ν → 0, (1.18)
respectively, since h ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)), h(x1 ) ∈ Cb (Ω2 ; E), and, once again,
h ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)). These three properties imply that
f (xn1 , xn2 ) − f (y1n , y2n )E;ν → 0, (1.19)
which contradicts (1.15). Hence, f must be uniformly continuous.
Thus, f ∈ Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E), which shows that the mapping f → f is a bijection

from Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)). The equality (1.13) then shows that
it is in fact an isomorphism of these spaces.
Case where Ω1 is bounded and E is a Neumann space. Let h ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
Since E is a Neumann space, Cb (Ω2 ; E) is also a Neumann space (Theorem 1.12),
so, by Theorem 1.26 (b), h has an extension P h ∈ Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
Since the domain Ω1 is bounded, Ω1 is closed and bounded and hence compact
in Rd1 , so the previous case provides k in Cb (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) such that k = P h. The
restriction f of k to Ω1 ×Ω2 belongs to Cb (Ω1 ×Ω2 ; E) and satisfies f = h. Therefore,
f → f is once again an isomorphism from Cb (Ω1 ×Ω2 ; E) onto Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)).
(c) Isomorphism in CD1 ×D2 (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E). We will proceed in three steps:
Separation of variables. If f ∈ CD1 ×D2 (Ω1 ×Ω2 ; E), then the support of f is included
in D1 and, for every x1 ∈ Ω1 , the support of f (x1 ) is included in D2 for all x1 . Hence,
f ∈ CD1 (Ω1 ; CD2 (Ω2 ; E)) by case (b).
Regrouping the variables. Let h ∈ CD1 (Ω1 ; CD2 (Ω2 ; E)) and f ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E)
the function obtained by regrouping its variables with (c). Then the support of f is
included in D1 × D2 .
Let us prove by contradiction that f is uniformly continuous. Suppose not. Then

there exists ν ∈ NE , a > 0 and, for every n ∈ N, points (xn1 , xn2 ) and (y1n , y2n ) in
Ω1 × Ω2 satisfying (1.15). For each n, either xn1 or y1n belongs to D1 , otherwise
f (xn1 , xn2 ) = 0E = f (y1n , y2n ), which contradicts (1.15). Switching them if necessary,
we may assume that xn1 belongs to D1 . Since the latter is compact, there exists
x1 ∈ Ω1 and a subsequence such that xn1 → x1 , as above. Once again, convergences

(1.16)–(1.18) and hence (1.19) are satisfied, which contradicts (1.15). Therefore, f
must indeed be uniformly continuous.
Thus, f ∈ CD1 ×D2 (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E), and the mapping f → f is a bijection from
CD1 ×D2 (Ω1 × Ω2 ; E) onto CD1 (Ω1 ; CD2 (Ω2 ; E)).
Isomorphism. The equality (1.13) then shows that it is an isomorphism of these spaces,
since CD (Ω; E) is endowed with the semi-norms of Cb (Ω; E) by Definition 1.7 (b).

Let us permute the variables of functions of continuous functions.
T HEOREM 1.28.– Let Ω1 ⊂ Rd1 , Ω2 ⊂ Rd2 and E be a separated semi-normed

space. Let ˘ denote permutation of the variables of functions of functions, i.e.
(f˘(x2 ))(x1 ) = (f (x1 ))(x2 ).

def
Then:
(a) The mapping f → f˘ is an isomorphism from C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)) onto

C(Ω2 ; C(Ω1 ; E)) and from Cb (Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)) onto Cb (Ω2 ; Cb (Ω1 ; E)).
(b) For any two compact subsets D1 of Rd1 and D2 of Rd2 , the mapping f → f˘ is
an isomorphism from CD1 (Ω1 ; CD2 (Ω2 ; E)) onto CD2 (Ω2 ; CD1 (Ω1 ; E)).
(c) If Ω1 and Ω2 are compact, or if Ω1 and Ω2 are bounded and E is a Neumann

space, then the mapping f → f˘ is an isomorphism from Cb (Ω1 ; Cb (Ω2 ; E)) onto
Cb (Ω2 ; Cb (Ω1 ; E)).
Proof. Let f ∈ C(Ω1 ; C(Ω2 ; E)). Regrouping its variables yields g ∈ C(Ω1 × Ω2 ; E)
(Theorem 1.27 (a)). Permuting its variables, i.e. writing g(x2 , x1 ) = g(x1 , x2 ), yields
g ∈ C(Ω2 × Ω1 ; E). Finally, separating the variables of g yields f˘ ∈ C(Ω2 ; C(Ω1 ; E))
(Theorem 1.27 (a) once again).
Similarly, the other properties can be deduced from the properties in Theorem 1.27.

1.10. Sequential compactness in Cb (Ω; E)
Let us characterize the relatively sequentially compact sets in Cb (Ω; E) (a

subset F of a separated semi-normed space F is said to be relatively sequentially
compact if every sequence in F has a convergent subsequence in F ). This is a variant
of the Arzelà-Ascoli theorem12.
T HEOREM 1.29.– Let F ⊂ Cb (Ω; E), where Ω is a bounded subset of Rd and E

is a separated semi-normed space with a family of semi-norms { E;ν : ν ∈ NE }.
Suppose that, for every ν ∈ NE and > 0, there exists η > 0 such that
sup f (y) − f (x)E;ν ≤ (1.20)

y∈Ω, x∈Ω, |y−x|≤η
and, for all x ∈ Ω,
every sequence in {f (x) : f ∈ F} has a convergent subsequence in E.
Then
every sequence in F has a convergent subsequence in Cb (Ω; E).
Notes. The hypothesis (1.20) means that F is uniformly equicontinuous [Vol. 1, Definition 10.5].
Optimality of Theorem 1.29. The conditions of this theorem are necessary and sufficient for every
sequence of F to have a convergent subsequence [S IMON, 75, forthcoming].
m+1
Utility of Theorem 1.29. We will use this theorem to show that every bounded sequence in CK (Ω) has
a convergence subsequence in CK
m (Ω) (Theorem 2.25) and, using this fact, that every bounded sequence
in D(Ω) has a convergent subsequence [Vol. 3], a result that will in turn be useful for the Schwartz kernel
theorem.
Compact versus sequentially compact The definitions of both notions of compactness in a semi-normed
space are recalled in the Appendix (Definitions A.17 and A.18). In spaces of continuous functions, we only
use sequential compactness, not compactness.
Note that there are separated semi-normed spaces where compact is neither stronger nor weaker than
sequentially compact [Vol. 1, Properties (2.6) and (2.7), p. 43]. If this holds in a given space E, then it also
holds in Cb (Ω; E).
12 History of the Arzelà-Ascoli theorem. In 1883 [4, pp. 545–549], Giulio A SCOLI gave a construction
with the essence of Theorem 1.29 in one dimension, namely d = 1. Cesare A RZELÀ showed the converse in
1889 [2]. Both of their manuscripts use geometric language that makes our statement difficult to recognize.
In 1895 [3, pp. 56–60], Cesare A RZELÀ stated Theorem 1.29 in one dimension. Maurice F RÉCHET
extended the result in 1906 to functions defined on a subset of a metrizable space in his thesis [38].
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Defiles the verdant plain. Nor idle stand
The trusty slaves; with pointed spears, they pierce
Through their tough hides; or at their gaping mouths
An easier passage find. The king of brutes,
In broken roarings, breathes his last; the bear
Grumbles in death; nor can his spotted skin,
Though sleek it shine, with varied beauties gay,
Save the proud pard from unrelenting fate.
The battle bleeds; grim slaughter strides along,
Glutting her greedy jaws, grins o’er her prey.
Men, horses, dogs, fierce beasts of every kind,
A strange promiscuous carnage, drench’d in blood,
And heaps on heaps amass’d. What yet remain
Alive, with vain assault, contend to break
The impenetrable line: others, whom fear
Inspires with self-preserving wiles, beneath
The bodies of the slain for shelter creep;
Aghast they fly, or hide their heads, dispersed.
And now, perchance, had Heaven but pleased, the work
Of death had been complete; and Aurengzebe,
By one dread frown, extinguish’d half their race;
When lo! the bright sultanas of his court
Appear, and to his ravish’d eyes display
Those charms, but rarely to the day reveal’d.
BOOK II THE CHASE v. 512-523.

Lowly they bend, and humbly sue, to save
The vanquish’d host. What mortal can deny,
When suppliant beauty begs? At his command,
Opening to right and left, the well-train’d troops
Leave a large void for their retreating foes.
Away they fly, on wings of fear upborne,
To seek, on distant hills, their late abodes.
Ye proud oppressors, whose vain hearts exult
In wantonness of power, ’gainst the brute race,
Fierce robbers, like yourselves, a guiltless war
Wage uncontroll’d; here quench your thirst of blood:
But learn, from Aurengzebe, to spare mankind.
Book III
Argument.
Of King Edgar, and his imposing a tribute of wolves’ heads upon the kings of
Wales: from hence a transition to fox-hunting, which is described in all its
parts. Censure of an over-numerous pack. Of the several engines to destroy
foxes, and other wild beasts. The steel-trap described, and the manner of
using it. Description of the pitfall for the lion; and another for the
elephant. The ancient way of hunting the tiger with a mirror. The Arabian
manner of hunting the wild boar. Description of the royal stag-chase at
Windsor Forest. Concludes with an address to his Majesty, and an eulogy
upon mercy.
In Albion’s isle, when glorious Edgar reign’d,
He, wisely provident, from her white cliffs
Launch’d half her forests, and, with numerous fleets,
Cover’d his wide domain: there proudly rode,
Lord of the deep, the great prerogative
Of British monarchs. Each invader bold,
Dane and Norwegian, at a distance gazed,
And, disappointed, gnash’d his teeth in vain.
He scour’d the seas, and to remotest shores,
With swelling sails, the trembling corsair fled.
Rich commerce flourish’d; and with busy oars
Dash’d the resounding surge. Nor less, at land,
His royal cares; wise, potent, gracious prince!
BOOK III THE CHASE v. 14-38.

His subjects from their cruel foes he saved,
And, from rapacious savages, their flocks.
Cambria’s proud kings, though with reluctance, paid
Their tributary wolves; head after head,
In full account, till the woods yield no more,
And all the ravenous race, extinct, is lost.
In fertile pastures, more securely grazed
The social troops; and soon their large increase,
With curling fleeces, whiten’d all the plains.
But yet, alas! the wily fox remain’d,
A subtle, pilfering foe, prowling around
In midnight shades, and wakeful to destroy.
In the full fold, the poor defenceless lamb,
Seized by his guileful arts, with sweet warm blood,
Supplies a rich repast. The mournful ewe,
Her dearest treasure lost, through the dun night
Wanders perplex’d, and, darkling, bleats in vain:
While, in the adjacent bush, poor Philomel,
Herself a parent once, till wanton churls
Despoil’d her nest, joins in her loud laments,
With sweeter notes, and more melodious woe.
For these nocturnal thieves, huntsman, prepare
Thy sharpest vengeance. Oh! how glorious ’tis
To right the oppress’d, and bring the felon vile
To just disgrace! Ere yet the morning peep,

Or stars retire from the first blush of day,
With thy far-echoing voice alarm thy pack,
And rouse thy bold compeers. Then to the copse,
Thick with entangling grass, or prickly furze,
With silence lead thy many-colour’d hounds,
In all their beauty’s pride. See! how they range
Dispersed; how busily, this way and that,
They cross, examining, with curious nose,
Each likely haunt. Hark! on the drag I hear
Their doubtful notes, preluding to a cry
More nobly full, and swell’d with every mouth.
As straggling armies, at the trumpet’s voice,
Press to their standard; hither all repair,
And hurry through the woods with hasty step,
Rustling and full of hope; now, driven in heaps,
They push, they strive, while from his kennel sneaks
The conscious villain. See! he skulks along,
Sleek, at the shepherd’s cost, and plump, with meals
Purloin’d: so thrive the wicked here below.
Though high his brush he bear, though, tipp’d with white,
It gaily shine, yet ere the sun, declined,
Recall the shades of night, the pamper’d rogue
Shall rue his fate, reversed; and, at his heels,

Behold the just avenger, swift to seize
His forfeit head, and thirsting for his blood.
Heavens! what melodious strains! how beat our hearts,
Big with tumultuous joy! the loaded gales
Breathe harmony; and, as the tempest drives,
From wood to wood, through every dark recess,
The forest thunders, and the mountains shake.
The chorus swells; less various, and less sweet,
The trilling notes, when, in those very groves,
The feather’d choristers salute the spring,
And every bush in concert joins: or, when
The master’s hand, in modulated air,
Bids the loud organ breathe, and all the powers
Of musick, in one instrument combine
An universal minstrelsy. And now
In vain each earth he tries; the doors are barr’d,
Impregnable; nor is the covert safe;
He pants for purer air. Hark! what loud shouts
Re-echo through the groves!—he breaks away!
Shrill horns proclaim his flight. Each straggling hound
Strains o’er the lawn, to reach the distant pack.
’Tis triumph all, and joy. Now, my brave youths,
Now give a loose to the clean generous steed;

Flourish the whip, nor spare the galling spur:
But, in the madness of delight, forget
Your fears! Far o’er the rocky hills we range,
And dangerous our course; but, in the brave,
True courage never fails: in vain the stream
In foaming eddies whirls; in vain the ditch,
Wide-gaping, threatens death: the craggy steep,
Where the poor dizzy shepherd crawls with care,
And clings to every twig, gives us no pain;
But down we sweep, as stoops the falcon bold
To pounce his prey: then up the opponent hill,
By the swift motion slung, we mount aloft.
So ships, in winter seas, now sliding, sink
Adown the steepy wave, then, toss’d on high,
Ride on the billows, and defy the storm.
What lengths we pass! where will the wandering chase
Lead us, bewilder’d! smooth as swallows skim
The new-shorn mead, and far more swift, we fly.
See, my brave pack! how to the head they press,
Justling in close array; then, more diffuse,
Obliquely wheel, while, from their opening mouths,
The vollied thunder breaks. So, when the cranes
Their annual voyage steer, with wanton wing
Their figure oft they change, and their loud clang

From cloud to cloud rebounds. How far behind
The hunter-crew, wide-straggling o’er the plain!
The panting courser now, with trembling nerves,
Begins to reel; urged by the goring spur,
Makes many a faint effort: he snorts, he foams;
The big round drops run trickling down his sides,
With sweat and blood distain’d. Look back, and view
The strange confusion of the vale below,
Where sour vexation reigns: see yon poor jade;
In vain the impatient rider frets and swears,
With galling spurs harrows his mangled sides;
He can no more; his stiff unpliant limbs,
Rooted in earth, unmoved and fix’d he stands,
For every cruel curse returns a groan,
And sobs, and faints, and dies! who, without grief,
Can view that pamper’d steed, his master’s joy,
His minion, and his daily care, well clothed,
Well fed with every nicer cate; no cost,
No labour, spared; who, when the flying chase
Broke from the copse, without a rival led
The numerous train; now, a sad spectacle
Of pride brought low, and humbled insolence,
Drove like a pannier’d ass, and scourged along!
While these, with loosen’d reins and dangling heels,

Hang on their reeling palfreys, that scarce bear
Their weights; another, in the treacherous bog,
Lies floundering, half ingulf’d. What biting thoughts
Torment the abandon’d crew! Old age laments
His vigour spent: the tall, plump, brawny youth,
Curses his cumbrous bulk; and envies, now,
The short pygmean race, he whilom kenn’d,
With proud insulting leer. A chosen few,
Alone, the sport enjoy, nor droop beneath
Their pleasing toils. Here, huntsman! from this highth
Observe yon birds of prey; if I can judge,
’Tis there the villain lurks: they hover round,
And claim him as their own. Was I not right?
See! there he creeps along; his brush he drags,
And sweeps the mire impure: from his wide jaws
His tongue unmoisten’d hangs; symptoms too sure
Of sudden death. Ha! yet he flies, nor yields
To black despair: but one loose more, and all
His wiles are vain. Hark, through yon village now
The rattling clamour rings. The barns, the cots,
And leafless elms, return the joyous sounds.
Through every homestall, and through every yard,
His midnight walks, panting, forlorn, he flies;

Through every hole he sneaks, through every jakes,
Plunging, he wades, besmear’d; and fondly hopes
In a superiour stench to lose his own:
But, faithful to the track, the unerring hounds,
With peals of echoing vengeance, close pursue.
And now, distress’d, no sheltering covert near,
Into the hen-roost creeps, whose walls, with gore
Distain’d, attest his guilt. There, villain! there
Expect thy fate deserved. And soon from thence
The pack, inquisitive, with clamour loud,
Drag out their trembling prize, and, on his blood,
With greedy transport feast. In bolder notes
Each sounding horn proclaims the felon dead;
And all the assembled village shouts for joy.
The farmer, who beholds his mortal foe
Stretch’d at his feet, applauds the glorious deed,
And, grateful, calls us to a short repast:
In the full glass the liquid amber smiles,
Our native product; and his good old mate,
With choicest viands, heaps the liberal board,
To crown our triumphs, and reward our toils.
Here must the instructive Muse, but with respect,
Censure that numerous pack, that crowd of state,
With which the vain profusion of the great
Covers the lawn, and shakes the trembling copse.

Pompous incumbrance! a magnificence
Useless, vexatious! for the wily fox,
Safe in the increasing number of his foes,
Kens well the great advantage: slinks behind,
And slyly creeps through the same beaten track,
And hunts them step by step; then views, escaped,
With inward ecstasy, the panting throng
In their own footsteps puzzled, foil’d, and lost.
So, when proud Eastern kings summon to arms
Their gaudy legions, from far distant climes
They flock in crowds, unpeopling half a world;
But when the day of battle calls them forth,
To charge the well-train’d foe, a band compact
Of chosen veterans, they press blindly on,
In heaps confused, by their own weapons fall,
A smoking carnage scatter’d o’er the plain.
Nor hounds alone this noxious brood destroy:
The plunder’d warrener full many a wile
Devises, to entrap his greedy foe,
Fat with nocturnal spoils. At close of day,
He silent drags his trail; then from the ground
Pares thin the close-grazed turf; there, with nice hand,
Covers the latent death, with curious springs
Prepared to fly at once, whene’er the tread

Of man or beast, unwarily shall press
The yielding surface: by the indented steel
With gripe tenacious held, the felon grins,
And struggles, but in vain: yet oft, ’tis known,
When every art has fail’d, the captive fox
Has shared the wounded joint, and, with a limb,
Compounded for his life. But if, perchance,
In the deep pitfall plunged, there’s no escape;
But unreprieved he dies, and, bleach’d in air,
The jest of clowns, his reeking carcase hangs.
Of these are various kinds; not even the king
Of brutes evades this deep devouring grave;
But, by the wily African betray’d,
Heedless of fate, within its gaping jaws
Expires, indignant. When the orient beam
With blushes paints the dawn, and all the race
Carnivorous, with blood full-gorged, retire
Into their darksome cells, there, satiate, snore
O’er dripping offals, and the mangled limbs
Of men and beasts, the painful forester
Climbs the high hills, whose proud aspiring tops,
With the tall cedar crown’d, and taper fir,
Assail the clouds; there, ’mong the craggy rocks,
And thickets intricate, trembling, he views
His footsteps in the sand, the dismal road

And avenue to death. Hither he calls
His watchful bands, and, low into the ground,
A pit they sink, full many a fathom deep:
Then, in the midst, a column high is rear’d,
The butt of some fair tree; upon whose top
A lamb is placed, just ravish’d from his dam;
And next, a wall they build, with stones and earth
Encircling round, and hiding from all view
The dreadful precipice. Now, when the shades
Of night hang lowering o’er the mountains brow,
And hunger keen, and pungent thirst of blood,
Rouze up the slothful beast, he shakes his sides,
Slow-rising from his lair, and stretches wide
His ravenous paws, with recent gore distain’d;
The forests tremble as he roars aloud,
Impatient to destroy. O’erjoy’d, he hears
The bleating innocent, that claims, in vain,
The shepherd’s care, and seeks, with piteous moan,
The foodful teat; himself, alas! design’d
Another’s meal. For now the greedy brute
Winds him from far; and, leaping o’er the mound,
To seize his trembling prey, headlong is plunged
Into the deep abyss. Prostrate he lies,
Astunn’d, and impotent. Ah! what avail
Thine eye-balls flashing fire, thy length of tail

That lashes thy broad sides, thy jaws besmear’d
With blood, and offals crude, thy shaggy mane,
The terrour of the woods, thy stately port,
And bulk enormous, since, by stratagem,
Thy strength is foil’d? Unequal is the strife,
When sovereign reason combats brutal rage.
On distant Ethiopia’s sun-burnt coasts,
The black inhabitants a pitfall frame,
But of a different kind, and different use:
With slender poles the wide capacious mouth,
And hurdles slight, they close; o’er these is spread
A floor of verdant turf, with all its flowers
Smiling delusive, and from strictest search
Concealing the deep grave that yawns below:
Then boughs of trees they cut, with tempting fruit,
Of various kinds, surcharged; the downy peach,
The clustering vine, and, of bright golden rind,
The fragrant orange. Soon as evening gray
Advances slow, besprinkling all around,
With kind refreshing dews, the thirsty glebe,
The stately elephant, from the close shade,
With step majestic, strides, eager to taste
The cooler breeze, that from the sea-beat shore
Delightful breathes, or, in the limpid stream,
To lave his panting sides; joyous he scents

The rich repast, unweeting of the death
That lurks within. And soon he, sporting, breaks
The brittle boughs, and greedily devours
The fruit delicious: ah! too dearly bought;
The price is life: for now the treacherous turf,
Trembling, gives way; and the unwieldy beast,
Self-sinking, drops into the dark profound.
So when dilated vapours, struggling, heave
The incumbent earth, if, chance, the cavern’d ground,
Shrinking, subside, and the thin surface yield,
Down sinks, at once, the ponderous dome, ingulf’d,
With all its towers. Subtle, delusive man,
How various are thy wiles! artful to kill
Thy savage foes, a dull unthinking race.
Fierce, from his lair, springs forth the speckled pard,
Thirsting for blood, and eager to destroy;
The huntsman flies, but to his flight alone
Confides not: at convenient distance fix’d,
A polish’d mirror stops, in full career,
The furious brute: he there his image views;
Spots against spots, with rage improving, glow;
Another pard his bristly whiskers curls,
Grins as he grins, fierce-menacing, and wide
Distends his opening paws; himself against
Himself opposed, and with dread vengeance arm’d.

The huntsman, now secure, with fatal aim
Directs the pointed spear, by which transfix’d,
He dies; and with him dies the rival shade.
Thus man innumerous engines forms, to assail
The savage kind; but most, the docile horse,
Swift, and confederate with man, annoys
His brethren of the plains; without whose aid
The hunter’s arts were vain, unskill’d to wage,
With the more active brutes, an equal war;
But borne by him, without the well-train’d pack,
Man dares his foe, on wings of wind secure.
Him the fierce Arab mounts, and, with his troop
Of bold compeers, ranges the desert wild,
Where, by the magnet’s aid, the traveller
Steers his untrodden course; yet oft, on land,
Is wreck’d, in the high-rolling waves of sand
Immersed, and lost; while these intrepid bands,
Safe in their horses’ speed, out-fly the storm,
And scouring round, make men and beasts their prey.
The grisly boar is singled from his herd,
As large as that in Erimanthian woods,
A match for Hercules: round him they fly,
In circles wide; and each, in passing, sends
His feather’d death into his brawny sides.
But perilous the attempt; for, if the steed
Haply too near approach, or the loose earth

His footing fail, the watchful angry beast
The advantage spies, and, at one sidelong glance,
Rips up his groin. Wounded, he rears aloft,
And, plunging, from his back the rider hurls
Precipitant; then, bleeding, spurns the ground,
And drags his reeking entrails o’er the plain.
Meanwhile the surly monster trots along,
But with unequal speed; for still they wound,
Swift wheeling in the spacious ring: a wood
Of darts upon his back he bears; adown
His tortured sides the crimson torrents roll,
From many a gaping font; and now at last,
Staggering, he falls, in blood and foam expires.
But whither roves my devious Muse, intent
On antique tales, while yet the royal stag
Unsung remains? Tread, with respectful awe,
Windsor’s green glades, where Denham, tuneful bard,
Charm’d once the listening Dryads with his song,
Sublimely sweet. O grant me, sacred shade,
To glean, submiss, what thy full sickle leaves!
The morning sun, that gilds, with trembling rays,
Windsor’s high towers, beholds the courtly train
Mount for the chase; nor views in all his course
A scene so gay: heroick, noble youths,

In arts and arms renown’d, and lovely nymphs,
The fairest of this isle, where beauty dwells,
Delighted, and deserts her Paphian grove,
For our more favour’d shades; in proud parade
These shine magnificent, and press around
The royal happy pair. Great in themselves,
They smile superiour; of external show
Regardless, while their inbred virtues give
A lustre to their power, and grace their court
With real splendours, far above the pomp
Of Eastern kings, in all their tinsel pride.
Like troops of Amazons, the female band
Prance round their cars; not in refulgent arms,
As those of old; unskill’d to wield the sword,
Or bend the bow, these kill with surer aim.
The royal offspring, fairest of the fair,
Lead on the splendid train. Anna, more bright
Than summer suns, or as the lightning keen,
With irresistible effulgence arm’d,
Fires every heart: he must be more than man
Who, unconcern’d, can bear the piercing ray.
Amelia, milder than the blushing dawn,
With sweet engaging air, but equal power,
Insensibly subdues, and in soft chains
Her willing captives leads. Illustrious maids!

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Continuous Functions, Volume 2

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Oceans: Evolving Concepts Guy Jacques

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2020933955

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Familiarization with Semi-normed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1. Spaces of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2. Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 3. Differentiating Composite Functions and Others . . . . . 55

Chapter 4. Integrating Uniformly Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 5. Properties of the Measure of an Open Set . . . . . . . . . 105

Chapter 6. Additional Properties of the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 7. Weighting and Regularization of Functions . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 8. Line Integral of a Vector Field Along a Path . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 9. Primitives of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Chapter 10. Additional Results: Integration on a Sphere . . . . . . . 213

Volume 1: Banach, Fréchet, Hilbert and Neumann Spaces;

Volume 2: Continuous Functions;

Volume 4: Lebesgue and Sobolev Spaces;

Volume 6: Partial Differential Equations.

Neumann spaces. The sequential completeness characterizing these spaces is the

Moreover, sequential completeness is more straightforward than completeness.

Semi-norms. We use families of semi-norms, instead of the equivalent notion of

Primitives. We show that any continuous ﬁeld q = (q1 , . . . , qd ) on an open set Ω

When Ω is simply connected, for a primitive f to exist, it is necessary and sufﬁcient

Integration. We extend the Cauchy integral to uniformly continuous functions taking

Weighting. The weighted function f μ of a function f deﬁned on an open set Ω

Navigation through the book:

Acknowledgments. Enrique F ERNÁNDEZ -C ARA suggested to me a large number of

Thank you, my friends.

A semi-normed space E is a vector space endowed with a family { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } of semi-norms.

Working with semi-normed spaces:

Examples — real-valued function spaces:

Examples — abstract-valued function spaces:

Examples — weak space, dual space:

Neumann spaces and others:

Advantages of using semi-norms rather than topology:

I NTEGRALS AND PATHS

S EPARATED SEMI - NORMED SPACES

P OINTS AND SETS IN Rd

log logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Spaces of Continuous Functions

1.1. Notions of continuity

We reserve the term function for mappings deﬁned on a subset of Rd , which is

Let us begin by deﬁning separated semi-normed spaces1 (the deﬁnitions of vector

D EFINITION 1.1.– A semi-normed space is a vector space E endowed with a family

A normed space is a vector space E endowed with a norm  E .

D EFINITION 1.2.– Let f be a function from a subset Ω of Rd into a separated semi-

We say that f is continuous if it is continuous at every point of Ω.

We say that f is sequentially continuous if it is sequentially continuous at every

A normed space is a vector space E endowed with a norm E .

sup f (x)E;ν < ∞.

f C(Ω;E);K,ν = sup f (x)E;ν .

f Cb (Ω;E);ν = sup f (x)E;ν .

D EFINITION 1.8.– Let { 1;ν : ν ∈ N1 } and { 2;μ : μ ∈ N2 } be two families

uF ;μ ≤ c sup uE;ν .

f C(Ω;E);K,ν = sup f (x)E;ν ≤ sup f (x)E;ν = f Cb (Ω;E);ν .

Proof. Let { E;ν : ν ∈ NE } be the family of semi-norms of E.