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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Consumer
Behavior
7th Edition
Wayne D. Hoyer
University of Texas, Austin
Deborah J. MacInnis
University of Southern California
Rik Pieters
Tilburg University
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Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, WCN: 01-100-101
Rik Pieters
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
To my wonderful family, Shirley, David, Stephanie, and Lindsey
and to my parents Louis and Doris for their tremendous support
and love. To all of you, I dedicate this book.
Wayne D. Hoyer
Austin, Texas
September 2016
To my loving husband, my beautiful children, and my devoted

family. You are my life-spring of energy and my center of gravity.
Deborah J. MacInnis
Los Angeles, California
September 2016
To Trees who loves me and Thomas who knew everything.

Rik Pieters
Tilburg
September 2016
About the Authors
Wayne D. Hoyer
Wayne D. Hoyer is the James L. Bayless/William S. Farish Fund Chair for Free Enterprise
in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin. He received
his Ph.D. in Consumer Psychology from Purdue University in 1980. He also holds
an honorary doctorate from the University of Bern in Switzerland and was recently
given a Humboldt Research Award in Germany. His major area of study is Consumer
Psychology and his research interests include consumer information processing and
decision-making, customer relationship management, consumer brand sabotage,
and advertising information processing (including miscomprehension, humor, and brand
personality). Wayne has published over 100 articles in various publications including
the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research,
Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of Retailing. A 1998 article in the Journal of
Marketing Research (with Susan Broniarczyk and Leigh McAlister) won the O’Dell Award
in 2003 for having the most impact in the marketing field over that five-year period.
In addition to Consumer Behavior, he has co-authored two books on the topic of
advertising miscomprehension. He is a current area editor for the Journal of Marketing
Marketing, a
Senior Editor for the International Journal of Research in Marketing, a former associate
editor for the Journal of Consumer Research and serves on eight editorial review boards
including the Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, and Journal
of Consumer Psychology. His major areas of teaching include consumer behavior,
customer strategy, and marketing communications. He has also taught internationally at
the University of Mannheim, the University of Muenster, and the Otto Beisheim School
of Management (all in Germany), the University of Bern in Switzerland, the University
of Cambridge (UK), and Thammasat University in Thailand. He has also been the
Montezemolo Visiting Research Fellow in the Judge School of Business and is a Visiting
Fellow of Sidney Sussex College at the University of Cambridge (UK).
Deborah J. MacInnis
Debbie MacInnis (Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh 1986) is the Charles L. and Ramona
I. Hilliard Professor of Business Administration and Professor of Marketing at the
University of Southern California in Los Angeles, CA. She has previously held positions
as Chairperson of the Marketing Department, Vice Dean for Research and Strategy and
Dean of the Undergraduate Programs at Marshall. Debbie has published papers in the
Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology and Marketing
Marketing, and others in the areas of
marketing communications, information processing, imagery, emotions, and branding. She
has also published two co-edited volumes and a book on branding and consumer-brand
relationships. She is former co-editor of the Journal of Consumer Research, and served
as an Associate Editor for the Journal of Consumer Research, the Journal of Consumer
Psychology, and the Journal of Marketing and has won outstanding reviewer awards from
these journals. Debbie has served as Conference Co-Chair, Treasurer, and President of the
Association for Consumer Research. She has also served as Vice President of Conferences
and Research for the Academic Council of the American Marketing Association. She
has received major awards for her research, including the Alpha Kappa Psi and Maynard
awards, given to the best practice- and theory-based articles, respectively, published in the
Journal of Marketing. Debbie’s research has also been named as a finalist for the Practice
Prize Competition for contributions to marketing, and the Converse Award for significant
iv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS v
long-term contributions to marketing. She has been named recipient of the Marshall
Teaching Innovation Award, the Dean’s Award for Community, and the Dean’s Award for
Research from the Marshall School of Business. She has also received the USC mentoring
work for her mentoring of faculty. Her classes have won national awards through the SAA
National Advertising Competition. Debbie enjoys travel, reading, and being in nature.
Rik Pieters
Rik Pieters is Professor of Marketing at the Tilburg School of Economics and Management
(TISEM) of Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology
from the University of Leiden in 1989. Rik believes in interdisciplinary work, and that
imagination, persistence, and openness to surprise are a person’s biggest assets. He has
published over 100 articles in marketing, psychology, economics, and statistics. His work
has appeared in Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal
of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Marketing Science, Management Science, and
International Journal of Research in Marketing. He has published in the Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, European
Journal of Social Psychology, Emotion, Psychological Science, and Journal of Economic
Literature. Currently, Rik is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Marketing Research.
His research concerns attention and memory processes in marketing communication,
and the role of emotions in consumer decision-making. He has served as Co-Chair of
the Association for Consumer Research annual conference, and has co-organized special
conferences on visual marketing, social communication, and service marketing and
management. He has taught internationally at Pennsylvania State University; University
of Innsbruck, Austria; Koc University, Turkey; and the University of Auckland, New
Zealand. He has won best teaching awards at the school and university levels. He has been
Strategy Director for National and International clients at the Publicis/FCB advertising
agency, Amsterdam office. He bakes bread, rides bikes, plays the bass, and drinks hoppy,
fermented barley beverages, all except the first in moderation. In his spare time, he works.
Brief Contents
Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3
1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4
Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28
Part 2 The Psychological Core 43
2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44
3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

4 Memory and Knowledge 100
5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127
6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154
Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 179
7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180
8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206
9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234
10 Post-Decision Processes 258
Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 291
11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 292
12 Consumer Diversity 321
13 Household and Social Class Influences 346
14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373
Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and

Issues 403
15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 404
16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 429
17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility

vi in Today’s Consumer Society 457
Contents
About the Authors iv
Preface xiv
Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3
Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

1-1 Defining Consumer Behavior 5 1-3d Academics 16
1-1a Consumer Behavior Involves Goods, Services, 1-3e Consumers and Society 16
Activities, Experiences, People, and Ideas 5 1-4 Making Business Decisions Based on the Marketing
1-1b Consumer Behavior Involves More than Buying 5 Implications of Consumer Behavior 16
1-1c Consumer Behavior Is a Dynamic Process 7 1-4a Developing and Implementing Customer-Oriented
1-1d Consumer Behavior Can Involve Many People 7 Strategy 16
1-1e Consumer Behavior Involves Many Decisions 7 1-4b Selecting the Target Market 17
1-1f Consumer Behavior Involves Emotions and Coping 11 1-4c Developing Products 17
1-2 What Affects Consumer Behavior? 11 1-4d Positioning 18
1-2a The Psychological Core: Internal Consumer Processes 11 1-4e Making Promotion and Marketing Communications
1-2b The Process of Making Decisions 12 Decisions 18
1-2c The Consumer’s Culture: External Processes 13 1-4f Making Pricing Decisions 19
1-2d Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 14 1-4g Making Distribution Decisions 20
1-3 Who Benefits from the Study of Consumer Behavior? 15 Summary 22
1-3a Marketing Managers 15 Endnotes 22
1-3b Ethicists and Advocacy Groups 15
1-3c Public Policy Makers and Regulators 16
Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28
Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28 External Marketing Research Firms 35

Surveys 28 Advertising Agencies and Media Planning Firms 36
Focus Groups 29 Syndicated Data Services 36
Interviews 30 Retailers 36
Storytelling 30 Research Foundations and Trade Groups 37
Photography and Pictures 31 Government 37
Diaries 31 Consumer Organizations 37
Experiments 31 Academics and Academic Research Centers 37
Field Experiments 32 Ethical Issues in Consumer Research 38
Conjoint Analysis 32 The Positive Aspects of Consumer Research 38
Observations and Ethnographic Research 32 The Negative Aspects of Consumer Research 38
Purchase Panels 33
Database Marketing and Big Data 33 Summary 39
Netnography 33 Endnotes 39
Psychophysiological Reactions and Neuroscience 34
Types of Consumer Researchers 34
In-House Marketing Research Departments 34
vii
viii CONTENTS
Part 2 The Psychological Core 43
Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44

2-1 Consumer Motivation and Its Effects 45 2-3 Consumer Ability: Resources to Act 60
2-1a High-Effort Behavior 45 2-3a Financial Resources 61
2-1b High-Effort Information Processing and 2-3b Cognitive Resources 61
Decision-Making 45 2-3c Emotional Resources 61
2-1c Felt Involvement 45 2-3d Physical Resources 61
2-2 What Determines Motivation? 47 2-3e Social and Cultural Resources 62
2-2a Personal Relevance 48 2-3f Education and Age 62
2-2b Consistency with Self-Concept 48 2-4 Consumer Opportunity 63
2-2c Values 48 2-4a Time 63
2-2d Needs 48 2-4b Distraction 63
2-2e Goals 52 2-4c Complexity, Amount, Repetition, and Control
2-2f Goals and Emotions 55 of Information 63
2-2g Self-Control and Goal Conflict 55 Summary 65
2-2h Perceived Risk 58
2-2i Inconsistency with Attitudes 60 Endnotes 65
Chapter 3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

3-1 Exposure and Consumer Behavior 73 3-3c Perceiving Through Taste 81
3-1a Factors Influencing Exposure 73 3-3d Perceiving Through Smell 81
3-1b Selective Exposure 73 3-3e Perceiving Through Touch 82
3-2 Attention and Consumer Behavior 76 3-3f When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 84
3-2a Characteristics of Attention 76 3-3g How Do Consumers Perceive a Stimulus? 86
3-2b Focal and Nonfocal Attention 76 3-4 Comprehension and Consumer Behavior 87
3-2c Customer Segments Defined by Attention 80 3-4a Source Identification 87
3-2d Habituation 80 3-4b Message Comprehension 87
3-3 Perception and Consumer Behavior 80 3-4c Consumer Inferences 89
3-3a Perceiving Through Vision 80 Summary 92
3-3b Perceiving Through Hearing 81 Endnotes 92
Chapter 4 Memory and Knowledge 100

4-1 What Is Memory? 102 4-2c Knowledge Flexibility 114
4-1a Sensory Memory 102 4-2d Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge Content and
4-1b Working Memory 102 Structure 115
4-1c Long-Term Memory 103
4-3 Memory and Retrieval 116
4-1d Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory, and Processing
4-3a Retrieval Failures 116
Fluency 104
4-3b Retrieval Errors 117
4-1e How Memory Is Enhanced 104
4-3c Enhancing Retrieval 118
4-2 Knowledge Content, Structure, and 4-3d Characteristics of the Stimulus 118
Flexibility 105
Summary 120
4-2a Knowledge Content: Schemas and Scripts 105
4-2b Knowledge Structure: Categories 111 Endnotes 120
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127

5-1 What Are Attitudes? 128 5-3 How Cognitively Based Attitudes are Influenced 135
5-1a The Importance of Attitudes 128 5-3a Communication Source 135
5-1b The Characteristics of Attitudes 128 5-3b The Message 137
5-1c Forming and Changing Attitudes 128 5-4 The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes 139
5-2 The Cognitive Foundations 5-5 How Affectively Based Attitudes Are Influenced 141
of Attitudes 129 5-5a The Source 141
5-2a Direct or Imagined Experience 131 5-5b The Message 142
5-2b Reasoning by Analogy or Category 131
5-2c Values-Driven Attitudes 131 5-6 Attitude Toward the AD 144
5-2d Social Identity-Based Attitude 5-7 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 144
Generation 131
Summary 147
5-2e Analytical Processes of Attitude
Formation 131 Endnotes 147
Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154

6-1 High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes 6-5 Affective Bases of Attitudes When Consumer
to Persuasion 155 Effort Is Low 160
6-2 Unconscious Influences on Attitudes 6-5a The Mere Exposure Effect 160
When Consumer Effort Is Low 155 6-5b Classical and Evaluative Conditioning 161
6-2a Thin-Slice Judgments 155 6-5c Attitude Toward the Ad 163
6-2b Body Feedback 155 6-5d Mood 164
6-3 Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When Consumer 6-6 How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced 165
Effort Is Low 157 6-6a Communication Source 165
6-6b The Message 166
6-4 How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced 158
6-4a Communication Source 158 Summary 171
6-4b The Message 158 Endnotes 171
6-4c Message Context and Repetition 160
Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 179
Chapter 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180
7-1 Problem Recognition 182 7-3b How Much Do We Engage in External Search? 192
7-1a The Ideal State: Where We Want to Be 182 7-3c What Kind of Information Is Acquired in External
7-1b The Actual State: Where We Are Now 182 Search? 197
7-2 Internal Search: Searching for Information from 7-3d Is External Search Always Accurate? 198
Memory 183 7-3e How Do We Engage in External Search? 198
7-2a How Much Do We Engage in Internal Search? 183 Summary 200
7-2b What Kind of Information Is Retrieved from Internal Endnotes 200
Search? 184
7-2c Is Internal Search Always Accurate? 188
7-3 External Search: Searching for Information from the
Environment 189
7-3a Where Can We Search for Information? 189
x CONTENTS
Chapter 8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206
8-1 High-Effort Judgment Processes 208 8-4 Deciding What Brand to Choose: High-Effort
8-1a Judgments of Likelihood and Goodness/ Feeling-Based Decisions 219
Badness 208 8-4a Appraisals and Feelings 220
8-1b Mental and Emotional Accounting 209 8-4b Affective Forecasts and Choices 220
8-1c Biases in Judgment Processes 209 8-4c Imagery 221
8-2 High-Effort Decisions and High-Effort 8-5 Additional High-Effort Decisions 222
Decision-Making Processes 210 8-5a Decision Delay 222
8-2a Deciding Which Brands to Consider 211 8-5b Decision-Making When Alternatives Cannot
8-2b Deciding Which Criteria Are Important to the Be Compared 222
Choice 212 8-6 What Affects High-Effort Decisions? 223
8-3 Deciding What Brand to Choose: Thought-Based 8-6a Consumer Characteristics 223
Decisions 214 8-6b Characteristics of the Decision 224
8-3a Decisions Based on Brands 216 8-6c Group Context 225
8-3b Decisions Based on Product Attributes 217 Summary 227
8-3c Decisions Based on Gains and
Losses 218 Endnotes 228
Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234
9-1 Low-Effort Judgment Processes 236 9-4b Habit as a Simplifying Strategy 241
9-1a The Representativeness Heuristic 236 9-4c Brand Loyalty as a Simplifying Strategy 243
9-1b The Availability Heuristic 236 9-4d Price as a Simplifying Strategy 245
9-2 Low-Effort Decision-Making Processes 237 9-4e Normative Influences as a Simplifying Strategy 247
9-2a Unconscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 237 9-5 Low-Effort Feeling-Based Decision-Making 247
9-2b Conscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 238 9-5a Feelings as a Simplifying Strategy 247
9-2c Using Simplifying Strategies When Consumer 9-5b Brand Familiarity 248
Effort Is Low 238 9-5c Decision-Making Based on Variety-Seeking Needs 249
9-3 Learning Choice Tactics 239 9-5d Buying on Impulse 250
9-3a Reinforcement 239 Summary 252
9-3b Punishment 239 Endnotes 252
9-3c Repeat Purchase 240
9-3d Choice Tactics Depend on the Product 240
9-4 Low-Effort Thought-Based Decision-Making 240
9-4a Performance as a Simplifying Strategy 241
Chapter 10 Post-Decision Processes 258
10-1 Post-Decision Dissonance and Regret 260 10-4b Responding to Service Recovery 274
10-1a Dissonance 260 10-4c Responding by Negative Word of Mouth 274
10-1b Regret 260 10-5 Is Customer Satisfaction Enough? 275
10-2 Learning from Consumer Experience* 261 10-5a Customer Retention 275
10-2a A Model of Learning from Consumer Experience 261 10-5b Product-Harm Crises 275
10-2b What Affects Learning? 262 10-6 Disposition 276
10-3 How Do Consumers Make Satisfaction or 10-6a Disposing of Meaningful Objects 278
Dissatisfaction Judgments? 264 10-6b Recycling 279
10-3a Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Thoughts 266 Summary 282
10-3b Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Feelings 270
Endnotes 282
10-4 Responses to Dissatisfaction 272
10-4a Complaints 272
CONTENTS xi
Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 291
Chapter 11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 292
11-1 Sources of Influence 294 11-3b What Affects Normative Influence Strength 305
11-1a Marketing and Nonmarketing Sources 294 11-4 Informational Influence 309
11-1b How Do These General Sources Differ? 295 11-4a Factors Affecting Informational Influence Strength 309
11-1c Opinion Leaders 297 11-4b Descriptive Dimensions of Information 310
11-2 Reference Groups as Sources of Influence 298 11-4c The Pervasive and Persuasive Influence
11-2a Types of Reference Groups 298 of Word of Mouth 311
11-2b Characteristics of Reference Groups 300 Summary 314
11-2c Reference Groups Affect Consumer Socialization 303
Endnotes 315
11-3 Normative Influence 303
11-3a How Normative Influence Can Affect Consumer
Behavior 304
Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 321
12-1 How Age Affects Consumer Behavior 323 12-3 How Regional Influences Affect Consumer
12-1a Age Trends in the United States 323 Behavior 331
12-1b Teens and Millennials 323 12-3a Regions Within the United States 332
12-1c Generation X 326 12-3b Regions Across the World 333
12-1d Boomers 326 12-4 How Ethnic and Religious Influences Affect
12-1e Seniors 327 Consumer Behavior 334
12-2 How Gender and Sexual Orientation Affect 12-4a Ethnic Groups Within the United States 334
Consumer Behavior 329 12-4b Ethnic Groups Around the World 338
12-2a Sex Roles 329 12-4c The Influence of Religion 339
12-2b Differences in Acquisition and Consumption Summary 340
Behaviors 329
12-2c Gender and Sexual Orientation 331 Endnotes 340
Chapter 13 Household and Social Class Influences 346
13-1 How the Household Influences 13-4 How Does Social Class Affect Consumption? 361
Consumer Behavior 348 13-4a Conspicuous Consumption and Voluntary
13-1a Types of Households 348 Simplicity 361
13-1b Households and Family Life Cycle 348 13-4b Status Symbols and Judging Others 361
13-1c Changing Trends in Household 13-4c Compensatory Consumption 361
Structure 349 13-4d The Meaning of Money 362
13-2 Roles that Household Members Play 351 13-5 The Consumption Patterns of Specific
13-2a The Roles of Spouses 352 Social Classes 363
13-2b The Role of Children 353 13-5a The Upper Class 364
13-3 Social Class 355 13-5b The Middle Class 364
13-3a Types of Social Class Systems 356 13-5c The Working Class 364
13-3b Social Class Influences 356 13-5d The Homeless 365
13-3c How Social Class Is Determined 356 Summary 367
13-3d How Social Class Changes Over Time 359 Endnotes 368
xii CONTENTS
Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373
14-1 Values 375 14-3 Lifestyles 391

14-1a How Values Can Be Described 375 14-3a Lifestyle and Behavior Patterns 391
14-1b The Values That Characterize Western Cultures 376 14-3b Voluntary Simplicity 392
14-1c Why Values Change 381 14-4 Psychographics: Combining Values, Personality, And
14-1d Influences on Values 381 Lifestyles 394
14-1e How Values Can Be Measured 384 14-4a VALSTM 394
14-2 Personality 386 14-4b Other Applied Psychographic Research 394
14-2a Research Approaches to Personality 386 Summary 396
14-2b Determining Whether Personality Characteristics
Affect Consumer Behavior 388 Endnotes 396
Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 403
Chapter 15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 404
15-1 Innovations 404 15-3 Diffusion 414

15-1a Defining an Innovation 406 15-3a How Offerings Diffuse Through a Market 414
15-1b Innovations Characterized by Degree 15-3b Factors Affecting the Shape of the Diffusion Curve 414
of Novelty 406 15-3c How Diffusion Relates to the Product Life Cycle 415
15-1c Innovations Characterized by Benefits 15-4 Influences on Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 416
Offered 406 15-4a Characteristics of the Innovation 416
15-1d Innovations Characterized by Breadth 407 15-4b Uncertainty 418
15-1e Innovations and Cocreation 407 15-4c Consumer Learning Requirements 418
15-1f The Consequences of Innovations 408 15-4d Social Relevance 421
15-2 Resistance Versus Adoption 409 15-4e Legitimacy and Adaptability 422
15-2a Whether Consumers Adopt 15-4f Characteristics of the Social System 423
an Innovation 409 Summary 424
15-2b How Consumers Adopt an Innovation 410
15-2c When Consumers Adopt Innovations 411 Endnotes 425
Chapter 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 429
16-1 Sources and Functions of Symbolic Meaning 431 16-2d Why Some Products Are Special 443
16-1a Meaning Derived from Culture 431 16-2e Consumer Characteristics Affect What Is Special 443
16-1b Meaning Derived from the Consumer 432 16-2f Rituals Used with Special Possessions 443
16-1c The Emblematic Function 432 16-2g Disposing of Special Possessions 445
16-1d The Role Acquisition Function 435 16-3 Sacred Meaning 445
16-1e The Connectedness Function 438
16-1f The Expressiveness Function 438 16-4 The Transfer of Symbolic Meaning Through
16-1g Multiple Functions 438 Gift Giving 446
16-1h Symbols and Self-Concept 439 16-4a The Timing of Gifts 447
16-4b Three Stages of Gift Giving 447
16-2 Special Possessions and Brands 440
16-2a Special Brands 441 Summary 451
16-2b Types of Special Possessions 441 Endnotes 451
16-2c The Characteristics That Describe Special Possessions 442
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility

in Today’s Consumer Society 457
17-1 In Search of Balance 459 17-3b Charitable Behavior 474

17-1a Self-interest Versus the Interests of Others 459 17-3c Community Involvement 474
17-1b Immediate Versus Long-Term Interests 459 17-4 How Can Consumers Resist Marketing Practices? 475
17-1c “Dark Side” Versus “Bright Side” Outcomes 460
Summary 476
17-2 Marketing Ethics, Consumer Ethics, and Deviant
Consumer Behavior 460 Endnotes 476
17-2a Acquisition Controversies 461
17-2b Consumption Controversies 466 Glossary 482
17-2c Disposition Controversies 471
Name/Author Index 491
17-3 Social Responsibility Issues in Marketing 472
17-3a Environmentally Conscious Behavior and Ethical Product Index 511
Sourcing 472 Subject Index 515
Preface
At just about every moment of our lives, we engage in some Specific changes and improvements to the seventh edi-
form of consumer behavior. When we look for posts on social tion of this book include:
media, watch an ad on TV, send a text message to friends ▪ Accessible explanations of the latest academic
about a movie we just saw, brush our teeth, go to a ball game
research and classic research from consumer behavior
or to a beach party, visit a website, download a new song, or
studies, and their practical implications for marketing
even throw away an old pair of shoes, we are behaving as a
strategy worldwide.
consumer. Being a consumer reaches into every part of our
lives. Of course, we are much more than just consumers. We ▪ Global perspective of research and behavioral
are students, teammates, family members, employees, citi- concepts related to such important contemporary
zens, voters, patrons, patients, clients, neighbors, basketball topics as financial management and money decisions,
fans, ice-cream lovers, bloggers, inventors, and more. This marketing ethics, privacy and transparency, obesity,
book is dedicated to our role as consumers. materialism, self-control and self-regulation, conta-
Given its omnipresence, the study of consumer behav- gion, emotions, mobile marketing, social media, and
ior has critical implications for areas such as marketing, unconscious consumer behavior.
public policy, and ethics. It also helps us learn about ▪ Carefully edited narrative and examples make the
ourselves—why we buy certain things, why we use them
content easier for students to process and connect
in a certain way, and how we remove them from our
with basic marketing principles as well as personal
lives through practices like throwing them away, selling,
consumer experiences.
re-gifting, and donating them.
In this book we explore the fascinating world of con- ▪ Balanced coverage of marketing controversies and
sumer behavior, looking at a number of interesting and the challenges and opportunities of marketing as a
exciting topics. Some of these are quickly identified with force for social responsibility.
our typical image of consumer behavior. Others may be ▪ New and updated examples highlight how all kinds
surprising. We hope you will see why we became stimulated
of organizations in many nations use insights into
and drawn to this topic from the very moment we had our
consumer behavior to improve their marketing
first consumer behavior course as students. We hope you
effectiveness and creativity.
will also appreciate why we choose to make this field our
life’s work, and why we are dedicated to this textbook. ▪ New database analysis exercises offer students
an opportunity to make marketing decisions
based on consumer demographics and behavior
Why the New Edition of This styles.
Book? ▪ Improved synergistic and digitally accessible

supplemental materials allow students the opportunity
There are a number of consumer behavior books on the to participate in self-assessments, polls, and short
market. An important question concerns what this book videos for self-reflection and more; Additional short
has to offer and what distinguishes it from other texts. As readings are also available. These materials are both
active researchers in the field of consumer behavior, our student friendly and extremely helpful for effec-
overriding goal was to continue providing a treatment of tive learning using the Cengage MindTap platform.
the field that is up to date and cutting edge. There has been A description of the MindTap platform appears later
an explosion of research on a variety of consumer behavior in this preface.
topics over the last 30 years. Our primary aim was to pro-
vide a useful summary of this material for students of mar-
keting. However, in drawing on cutting-edge research, we Textbook Features
wanted to be careful not to become too “academic.” Instead,
our objective is to present cutting-edge topics in a man- As award-winning teachers, we have tried to translate our
ner that is accessible and easy for students to understand, instructional abilities and experience into the writing of
and provides context for how and why consumer behavior this text. The following features have been a natural out-
insights are applied in real-world marketing. growth of these experiences.
xiv
PREFACE xv
Conceptual Model Society.” These important topics are likely to be of consid-

erable interest to students. Instructors have told us how
First, we believe that students can learn best when they much they appreciate the cutting-edge nature of our book
see the big picture—when they understand what concepts and its ability to keep abreast of the latest research in con-
mean, how these concepts are used in business practice, sumer behavior. Students appreciate that this material is
and how these relate to one another. In our opinion, con- delivered in an engaging way that’s also easy to read.
sumer behavior is too often presented as a set of discrete
topics with little or no relationship to one another. We
have therefore developed an overall conceptual model that Balanced Treatment of Micro
helps students grasp the big picture and see how the chap- and Macro Topics
ters and topics are themselves interrelated. Each chapter
Fourth, our book tries to provide a balanced perspective
is linked to other chapters by a specific model that fits
on the field of consumer behavior. Specifically, we give
within the larger model. Further, the overall model guides
treatment to both psychological (micro) consumer behav-
the organization of the book. This organizing scheme
ior topics (e.g., attitudes, decision-making) and sociolog-
makes the chapters far more integrative than most other
ical (macro) consumer behavior topics (e.g., subculture,
books. Instructors have told us that this conceptual model
gender, social class influences). Also, although we typically
is a valuable and beneficial aide to student learning.
teach consumer behavior by starting with the more micro
topics and then moving up to more macro topics, we real-
Practical Orientation, with an ize that some instructors prefer the reverse sequence.
Emphasis on Globalization and
Social Media Broad Conceptualization of the
Second, we believe that insights into consumer behav- Subject
ior are interesting in and of themselves, but also that Fifth, we present a broad conceptualization of the topic
they should be relevant to managerial practice. The ulti- of consumer behavior. While many books focus on what
mate goal of consumer behavior theory and research is products or services consumers buy, consumer behav-
to improve the decision-making ability of managers in ior scholars have recognized that the topic of consumer
profit and nonprofit organizations who aim to cater to behavior is much broader. Specifically, rather than study-
consumers’ needs, and to help policy makers better pro- ing buying per se, we recognize that consumer behavior
tect consumers. Rather than merely translating general includes a set of decisions (what, whether, when, where,
psychological or sociological principles and theories to a why, how, how often, how much, how long) about acqui-
consumer context, this book is dedicated to understand- sition (including, but not limited to buying), usage, shar-
ing consumer behavior in order to improve managerial ing, and disposition decisions. Focusing on more than
practice. Given our notion that students enjoy seeing how what products or services consumers buy provides a rich
the concepts in consumer behavior can apply to business set of theoretical and practical implications for both our
practice, a second objective of the book was to provide understanding of consumer behavior and the practice of
a very practical orientation. We include a wealth of con- marketing.
temporary real-world examples to illustrate key topics. Finally, we consider the relevance of consumer behav-
We also try to broaden students’ horizons by providing ior to many constituents, not just marketers. Chapter 1
a number of international examples. Given the impor- indicates that consumer behavior is important to mar-
tance of online consumer behavior, the new edition also keters, public policy makers, ethicists and consumer
fully treats the advent and implications of the latest digital advocacy groups, and consumers themselves (including
developments, social media marketing, and mobile mar- students). Some chapters focus exclusively on the impli-
keting applications. cations of consumer behavior for public policy makers,
ethicists, and consumer advocacy groups. Other chapters
Current and Cutting-Edge consider these issues as well, though in less detail.
Coverage
Third, we provide coverage of the field of consumer behav-
ior that is as current and up to date as possible (including
Content and Organization
many of the recent research advances). This includes sev- of the Book
eral novel chapters that often do not appear in other text-
books: “Attitudes Based on Low Effort,” “Judgement and One can currently identify two main approaches to the
Decision Making Based on Low Effort,” and “Marketing study of consumer behavior: One approach focuses on
Ethics and Social Responsibility in Today’s Consumer the individual psychological processes that consumers
xvi PREFACE
use to make acquisition, consumption, and disposition it is low (Chapter 9). Further, in both chapters we exam-
decisions. A second approach focuses on group behaviors ine these important processes from both a cognitive and
and the symbolic nature of consumer behavior. This lat- an affective perspective. Finally, the process does not end
ter orientation draws heavily from such fields as sociol- after a decision has been made. In Chapter 10, we see how
ogy, culture theory, and anthropology. Both orientations consumers determine whether they are satisfied or dissat-
are represented in this book. The current book and overall isfied with their decisions and how they learn from choos-
model have been structured around a “micro to macro” ing and consuming products and services.
organization based on the way we teach this course and Part IV, “The Consumer’s Culture,” examines how
the feedback that we have received from reviewers. various aspects of culture affect consumer behavior. First,
Chapter 1 in Part I, “An Introduction to Consumer Chapter 11 considers how, when, and why the specific
Behavior,” presents an introduction to consumer behav- reference groups (friends, work group, clubs) to which we
ior. It helps students understand the breadth of the field, belong can influence acquisition, usage, and disposition
and its importance to marketers, advocacy groups, public decisions and behaviors. Then, we see how consumer
policy makers, and consumers themselves. This chapter diversity (in terms of age, gender, sexual orientation,
introduces some of the newest research and presents the region, ethnicity, and religion) can affect consumer
overall model that guides the organization of the text. An behavior in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 then examines how
Appendix, which follows Chapter 1, introduces methods social class and household characteristics influence acquisi-
by which consumer research is conducted. tion, usage, and disposition behaviors. Finally, Chapter 14
Part II, “The Psychological Core,” focuses on the inner examines how external influences affect our personality,
psychological processes that affect consumer behavior. lifestyle, and values, as well as consumer behavior.
We see that the amount of effort consumers put into their Finally, Part V, “Consumer Behavior Outcomes,” examines
acquisition, usage, and disposition behaviors and deci- the effects of the numerous influences and decision processes
sions has significant effects on the decisions they make. discussed in the previous three sections. Chapter 15 builds
Chapter 2 describes three critical factors that affect effort: on the topics of internal decision-making and group behav-
the (1) motivation or desire, (2) ability (knowledge and ior by examining how consumers adopt new offerings, and
information), and (3) opportunity to engage in behaviors how their adoption decisions affect the spread or diffusion
and make decisions. The key role of emotions is also dis- of an offering through a market. Because products and ser-
cussed. In Chapter 3, we then examine how consumers vices often reflect deep-felt and significant meanings (e.g., our
process information in their environments (ads, prices, favorite song or restaurant), Chapter 16 focuses on the excit-
product features, word-of-mouth communications, etc.). ing topic of symbolic consumer behavior. Finally, Chapter 17
We consider how they come in contact with these stim- examines marketing, ethics, and social responsibility, including
uli (exposure), notice them (attention), and perceive them a look at marketing controversies and the use of marketing for
(perception). Chapter 4 continues by discussing how constructive purposes.
consumers compare new things they encounter in their
environment to their existing knowledge, a process called
categorization, and how they make sense of or comprehend Pedagogical Advantages
them on a deeper level. Also, because consumers often
must remember the information they have previously Based on our extensive teaching experience, we have
stored in order to make decisions, this chapter examines incorporated a number of features that should help stu-
the important topic of consumer memory. In Chapters dents learn about consumer behavior.
5 and 6, we see how attitudes are formed and changed
depending on whether the amount of effort consumers
devote to forming an attitude is high or low and whether
Chapter Opening Model
attitudes are cognitively or affectively based. Each chapter begins with a conceptual model that shows
Whereas Part II examines some of the internal factors the organization of the chapter, the topics discussed, and
that influence consumers’ decisions, a critical domain of how they relate both to one another and to other chapters.
consumer behavior involves understanding how consum- Each model reflects an expanded picture of one or more
ers make acquisition, consumption, and disposition deci- of the elements presented in the overall conceptual model
sions. Thus, in Part III, “The Process of Making Decisions,” for the book (described in Chapter 1).
we examine the sequential steps of the consumer deci-
sion-making process. In Chapter 7, we examine the initial
process—problem recognition and information
steps of this process—
Marketing Implication Sections
search. Similar to the attitude change processes described Numerous Marketing Implications sections are interspersed
earlier, we next examine the consumer decision-making throughout each chapter. These sections illustrate how various
process, both when effort is high (Chapter 8) and when consumer behavior concepts can be applied to the practice
PREFACE xvii
of marketing, including such basic marketing functions as The University of Texas at Austin authors the digital
market segmentation, target market selection, positioning, content and has revised and updated the instructor’s
market research, promotion, price, product, and place teaching manual. She brings a modern approach, and
decisions. An abundance of marketing examples (from many includes experiential aspects of consumer behavior in the
countries and many industries) provide concrete applications supplements. Her objective in this project is twofold:
and implementations of the concepts to marketing practice. ▪ Give students digital content so they can have more
real-world examples of the theoretical content and
Marginal Glossary opportunities for self-assessment and more critical
thinking, while enhancing the student learning expe-
Every chapter contains a set of key terms that are both high- rience via more interactive and visually engaging
lighted in the text and defined in margin notes. These terms supplements.
and their definitions should help students identify and
remember the central concepts described in the chapter. ▪ Help instructors, especially newer instructors, by
giving modern supplements that are synergistic with
each other. That is, the text, the Instructor’s Manual,
Rich Use of Full-Color Exhibits Test Bank, PowerPoint presentations, and quizzes
Each chapter contains a number of illustrated examples, reinforce the same learning objectives and content.
including photos, advertisements, charts, and graphs. ▪ MindTap for Marketing: Consumer Behavior
These illustrations help to make important topics person-
ally relevant and engaging, help students remember the As authors, one frustration we’ve had in the past is
material, and make the book more accessible and aesthet- providing current examples. Every day, new and inter-
ically pleasing, thereby increasing students’ motivation to esting video, audio, and print content that relates to
learn. All diagrams and charts employ full color, which consumer behavior is covered in the media. Now
serves to both highlight key points and add to the aes- technology helps us make such content immediately
thetic appeal of the text. Each model, graph, ad, and photo accessible to students. We have partnered with Cen-
also has an accompanying caption that provides a simple gage Learning to provide students with access to cur-
description and explanation of how the exhibit relates to rent issues in Consumer Behavior through the content
the topic it is designed to illustrate. of Business Insights. We have selected exciting content
from Business Insights which contains readings and
videos from sources like The New York Times, The
End-of-Chapter Summaries Economist magazine, and Marketing News and related
it to the concepts in each chapter. We have also created
The end of each chapter provides students with a simple
assessments to provide assurances to both students
and concise summary of topics. These summaries are a
and instructors that learning objectives are being met.
good review tool to use with the conceptual model to help
students to get the big picture.
MindTap
End-of-Chapter Questions
The seventh edition of Consumer Behavior offers two exciting
Each chapter includes a set of review and discussion alternative teaching formats. Instructors can choose between
questions designed to help students recall and more either a hybrid print and digital offering or a version that
deeply understand the concepts in the chapter. provides completely integrated online delivery through a
platform called MindTap. MindTap is a fully online, highly
personalized learning experience built upon authoritative
Complete Teaching Package content. By combining readings, multimedia, activities, and
assessments into a singular Learning Path, MindTap guides
with Online Content students through their course with ease while promoting
engagement. Instructors personalize the Learning Path by
In addition to online content for students including customizing Cengage Learning resources and adding their
self-assessments, polls, and short videos for self-reflection, own content via apps that integrate into the MindTap frame-
a variety of ancillary materials have been designed to help work seamlessly. Instructors are also able to incorporate the
the instructor in the classroom. All of these supplements online component of Consumer Behavior into a traditional
have been carefully coordinated to support the text and Learning Management System (e.g., Blackboard, Canvas,
provide an integrated and synergistic set of materials D2L, etc.) providing a way to manage assignments, quizzes,
for the instructor. Dr. Angeline Close Scheinbaum of and tests throughout the semester.
xviii PREFACE
How to Access the Supplements Likert, essay, and custom), unlimited metadata, ability
to print professional paper tests with multiple styles
Consumer Behavior 7e’s Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and versions, and more.
and PowerPoint supplements, are available on the Instruc-
tor’s Resource companion site. ▪ Class Management and Assignments. Manage your
students, classes, and assignments with the ease of
simple drag-and-drop. You can build or import ros-
Instructor’s Manual ters, have students self-register for a class, and move
The Instructor’s Manual is updated to be synergistic with students easily from class to class. Once your roster is
all other supplements. Each chapter includes a summary, set, simply drag a test to a class to schedule and put
learning objectives, chapter outline, review/discussion your students to work.
answers discussion questions, and experiential learning ▪ Secure Online Testing. Cognero has an integrated
exercises to enhance student learning. secure online testing center for your students. Along
with delivering traditional tests, your students can
Test Bank receive immediate feedback on each question and/or
receive a detailed end-of-assignment report to help
A new test bank is available for CB 7e, also updated to be them know exactly how they are doing.
synergistic with the text and other supplements. Each test
bank question has a new system of potential choices. There ▪ Complete Reporting System. What is the use of assess-
is one clearly defined correct choice. There are two or three ment without being able to disseminate the data
other choices that are clearly incorrect for a precise rea- derived from it? Cognero allows you to analyze how
son (as indicated by the readings). Then, there is a choice your students are performing on a real-time basis
that is not relevant at all. The number of “all of the above” and from multiple approaches to allow for immediate
and “none of the above” choices has been reduced. The intervention. You can also quickly analyze your ques-
new CB 7e test bank includes AACSB requirement tags tions and perform a gap analysis of student testing.
(e.g., ethics). ▪ Content Management System. Cognero has a unique set
of tools to allow for the creation of products (groups of
Test Bank, Cognero Format question sets and tests) for distribution to other users.
This system includes workflow management for the
The Cognero Testing system is a full-featured, online shared authoring environment, the ability to authorize
assessment system that allows you to manage content, cre- specific users to access your content, and the ability to
ate and assign tests, deliver tests through a secure online edit content and push changes through to subscribers.
test center, and have complete reporting and data dissem- There are also a number of design features to make high
ination at your fingertips. The following are some of the volume authoring within Cognero very efficient. All
features of the Cognero Testing System: content created in this system has built-in digital rights
▪ Access from anywhere. Web-based software that runs management, meaning that your content is protected
in a Web browser. No installs are required to start against unauthorized use.
using Cognero. Works in Windows, Mac, and Linux
browsers. PowerPoint Presentation Package
▪ Desktop-like interface looks and feels like a desktop A package of professionally developed PowerPoint slides
application. Uses the latest Web functionality to imi- is available for use by adopters of this textbook. These lec-
tate desktop usability features like drag-and-drop and ture PowerPoint slides outline the text content, including
wizards. key figures and tables. CB 7e will have more user friendly,
▪ Full-featured test generator. Author and manage your experiential presentations to enhance student learning
assessment content as well as build tests using the only and break up the monotony of text-based lectures.
online test generator that supports all of the major
functionality of its desktop competitors. Cognero is
complete with a full-featured word processor, multil-
Videos
anguage support, Math-ML compliant equation edi- A video package has been provided to supplement and
tor, algorithmic content support, native support for 15 enliven class lectures and discussion. Videos contain real-
question types (true/false, modified true/false, yes/no, world scenarios that illustrate certain concepts in a given
multiple choice, multiple response, numeric response, chapter. The clips are intended to be interesting, to ground
completion, matching, objective short answer, subjec- the concepts in real life for students, and to provide an
tive short answer, multi-mode, ordering, opinion scale/ impetus for stimulating student input and involvement.
PREFACE 1
Acknowledgments Phillip Lewis

Rowan College of New Jersey
Gregory M. Rose
The University of Mississippi
Special recognition is extended to Marian Wood, whose Kenneth R. Lord Mary Mercurio Scheip
assistance was crucial to the completion of this project. SUNY, Buffalo Eckerd College
Her tireless work on this project is greatly appreciated. Peggy Sue Loroz Marilyn Scrizzi
We have also been extremely fortunate to work with a Gonzaga University New Hampshire Technical
wonderful team of dedicated professionals from Cengage College
Learning. We are very grateful to Jason Fremder, Michael Bart Macchiette
Roche, and Bethany Sexton whose enormous energy and Plymouth State College John Shaw
Providence College
enthusiasm spurred our progress on this seventh edition. Michael Mallin
We also appreciate the efforts of Angeline Close Schein- Kent State University C. David Shepherd
baum of the University of Texas at Austin for her work University of Tennessee,
Lawrence Marks Chattanooga
on the online content and Instructor’s Manual. The qual-
Kent State University
ity of this book and its ancillary package has been helped Robert E. Smith
immensely by the insightful and rich comments of a set of David Marshall Indiana University
researchers and instructors who served as reviewers. Their University of Edinburgh
thoughtful and helpful comments had real impact in shap- Eric Richard Spangenberg
Ingrid M. Martin Washington State University
ing the final product. In particular, we wish to thank: California State University,
Long Beach Bruce Stern
Larry Anderson Richard Elliott Portland State University
Long Island University Lancaster University Anil Mathur
Hofstra University Barbara Stewart
Mike Ballif Abdi Eshghi University of Houston
University of Utah Bentley College A. Peter McGraw
University of Colorado, Boulder Jane Boyd Thomas
Sharon Beatty Frank W. Fisher Winthrop University
University of Alabama Stonehill College Matt Meuter
California State University, Chico Phil Titus
Sandy Becker Ronald Fullerton Bowling Green State University
Rutgers Business School Providence College Martin Meyers
University of Wisconsin, Stevens Carolyn Tripp
Russell Belk Philip Garton Point Western Illinois University
University of Utah Leicester Business School
Vince Mitchell Rajiv Vaidyanathan
Joseph Bonnice Peter L. Gillett UMIST University of Minnesota,
Manhattan College University of Central Florida Duluth
Lois Mohr
Timothy Brotherton Debbora Heflin Georgia State University Stuart Van Auken
Ferris State University Cal Poly, Pomona California State University,
Risto Moisio Chico
Carol Bruneau Elizabeth Hirschman California State University,
University of Montana Rutgers University Long Beach Kathleen D. Vohs
University of Minnesota
Margaret L. Burk Raj G. Javalgi Rebecca Walker Naylor
Muskingum College Cleveland State University University of South Carolina Janet Wagner
University of Maryland
Carol Calder Harold Kassarjian James R. Ogden
Loyola Marymount University UCLA Kutztown University John Weiss
Colorado State University
Paul Chao Patricia Kennedy Thomas O’Guinn
University of Northern Iowa University of Nebraska, Lincoln University of Illinois Tommy E. Whittler
University of Kentucky
Dennis Clayson Robert E. Kleine Marco Protano
University of Northern Iowa Arizona State University New York University Carolyn Yoon
University of Michigan
Joel Cohen Stephen K. Koernig Judith Powell
University of Florida DePaul University Virginia Union University
Sally Dibb Scott Koslow Michael Reilly

University of Warwick University of Waikato Montana State University
Richard W. Easley Robert Lawson Anja K. Reimer

Baylor University William Patterson University University of Miami
The
Psychological Core
2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity
3 From Exposure to Comprehension
4 Memory and Knowledge
5-6 Attitudes Based on Effort
An Introduction
to The Process of
Consumer Behavior Making Decisions
1 Understanding Consumer 7 Problem Recognition and
Behavior Information Search
8-9 Judgment and Decision-
Making Based on Effort
10 Post-Decision Processes
The
Consumer’s Culture
11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior
Consumer Behavior
12 Consumer Diversity
Outcomes and Issues
13 Household and Social Class 15 Innovations: Adoption,
Influences Resistance, and Diffusion
14 Psychographics: Values, 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior
Personality, and Lifestyles 17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social
Responsibility in Today’s
Consumer Society
iSto
ckp
hoto.
com
/Os
till
2
Part 1
An Introduction to
Consumer Behavior
I
1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4 N PART ONE, you will learn that consumer behavior
involves much more than purchasing products. In
Appendix: Developing Information About
addition, you will find out that marketers continuously
Consumer Behavior 28
study consumer behavior for clues to who buys, uses,
and disposes of what goods and services, as well as clues
to when, where, why, and how they make decisions.
Chapter 1 defines consumer behavior and examines
its importance to marketers, advocacy groups, public
policy makers, and consumers. The chapter also pres-
ents the overall model that guides the organization of
this book. As this model indicates, consumer behavior
covers four basic domains: (1) the psychological core,
(2) the process of making decisions, (3) the consum-
er’s culture, and (4) consumer behavior outcomes and
issues. In addition, you will read about the implica-
tions of consumer behavior for marketing activities.
The Appendix focuses on consumer behavior
research and its special implications for market-
ers. You will learn about various research methods,
types of data, and ethical issues related to consumer
© mrcmos / iStock # 85556337
research. With this background, you will be able to

understand how consumer research helps market-
ers develop more effective strategies and tactics for
reaching and satisfying customers.
3
CHAPTER 1
Understanding
Consumer
Behavior LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
▸ Define consumer behavior and explain the
components that make up the definition.
▸ Identify the four domains of consumer behavior
that affect acquisition, usage, and disposition
decisions.
▸ Discuss the benefits of studying consumer
behavior.
▸ Explain how companies apply consumer
behavior concepts when making marketing
iStockphoto.com/Ostill
decisions.
INTRODUCTION
From Starbucks to Samsung and Apple to Amazon, all businesses
know that their success depends on understanding consumer behav-
ior and trends so they can create goods and services that consum-
ers will want, like, use, and recommend to others. Charities, schools,
government agencies, and other organizations are also interested in
how consumers behave and how marketing can influence consum-
ers’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.
This chapter provides an overview of (1) what consumer behav-
ior is, (2) what factors affect it, (3) who benefits from studying it,
ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo

and (4) how marketers apply consumer behavior concepts. Because
you are a consumer, you probably have some thoughts about these
issues. However, you may be surprised at how broad the domain of
consumer behavior is, how many factors help explain it, and how
important the field is to marketers, ethicists and consumer advo-
cates, public policy makers and regulators, and consumers like
yourself. You will also get a glimpse of the marketing implications
of consumer behavior, previewing how we will connect consumer
behavior concepts with practical applications throughout this book.
4
CHAPTER 1 | UNDERSTANDING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 5
1-1 Defining Consumer Behavior activities, experiences, and ideas such as going to the den-
tist, attending a concert, taking a trip, and donating to
If you were asked to define consumer behavior, you might UNICEF.2 In addition, consumers make decisions about
say it refers to the study of how a person buys products. people, such as voting for politicians, reading books by
However, consumer behavior really involves certain authors, streaming movies or TV shows
quite a bit more, as this more complete definition Consumer behav- starring certain actors, and attending concerts
indicates: ior The totality of featuring favorite bands.
consumers’ decisions
Consumer behavior reflects the totality of con- with respect to the Another example of consumer behavior
sumers’ decisions with respect to the acquisi- acquisition, consump- involves choices about the consumption of time, a
tion, consumption, and disposition of goods,
tion, and disposition of scarce resource. Will you check to see what’s hap-
goods, services, time,
services, activities, experiences, people, and and ideas by human pening on Facebook, search for a YouTube video,
ideas by (human) decision-making units [over decision-making units watch a sports event live, or record a program
(over time). and watch it later, for instance? 3 How we use time
time]. 1
Offering A product, reflects who we are, what our lifestyles are like,
This definition has some very important ele- service, activity, experi-
and how we are both the same as and different
ence, or idea offered by
ments, summarized in Exhibit 1.1. The following a marketing organiza- from others.4 Because consumer behavior includes
sections present a closer look at each element. tion to consumers. the consumption of so many things, we use the
simple term offering to encompass these entities.
1-1a CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES
GOODS, SERVICES, ACTIVITIES, 1-1b CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES
EXPERIENCES, PEOPLE, AND IDEAS MORE THAN BUYING
Consumer behavior means more than just the way that Marketers are intensely interested in consumer behavior
a person buys tangible products such as bath soap and related to using and disposing of a product, not just the
automobiles. It also includes consumers’ use of services, way that consumers make acquisition decisions. They
Exhibit 1.1 ▸ What Is Consumer Behavior?

Consumer behavior reflects more than the way that a product is acquired by a single person at any one point in time. Think
of some marketing strategies and tactics that try to influence one or more of the dimensions of consumer behavior shown
in this exhibit.
Consumer Behavior Reflects:

The totality About the Of an offering By decision- Over time
of decisions consumption making units
Whether Products Information Hours

gatherer
What
Services
Why Acquisition Days
Influencer
How Activities
Weeks
When Usage Decider
Experiences
Where
Purchaser Months
How much/ Disposition People
How often/
How long Ideas User Years
Marketing Strategies and Tactics
6 PART ONE | AN INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
P
also study how consumers make decisions about personal

finances.
Acquiring an Offering
Buying represents one type of acquisition behavior. As
shown later in this chapter, acquisition includes other
ways of obtaining goods and services, such as renting,
leasing, trading, and sharing. It also involves decisions
about time as well as money.5 Consumers sometimes find
themselves interrupted during a consumption experience;
studies show interruption actually makes a pleasant expe-
rience seem more enjoyable when resumed.6 Deadlines
can also affect acquisition behavior: Consumers tend to
procrastinate in redeeming coupons and gift cards with
far-future deadlines, but move more quickly when dead-
lines are closer. Why? Because they do not want to regret
Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives

having missed out and they expect to have more time to
enjoy and indulge themselves with the acquisition in the
future.7 Obviously, attitudes toward materialism, status,
and self-concept play a role in acquisition behavior, as dis-
cussed in later chapters.
Using an Offering
After consumers acquire an offering, they use it, which
is why usage is at the very core of consumer behavior.8
Whether and why we use certain products can symbolize
xhibit 1.2 ▸ Disposition
Exhibit
something about who we are, what we value, and what we
believe. The products we use on Thanksgiving (e.g., mak- Consumers dispose of old products they acquired in a number
of ways, oftentimes through recycling or vintage shops.
ing desserts from scratch or buying them in a bakery) may
symbolize the event’s significance and how we feel about
our guests. The music we enjoy (Lady Gaga or Mark Ron- used packaging and recycled materials. In North and
son) and the jewelry we wear (nose rings or engagement South America, Europe, and the Baltic, the company part-
rings) can also symbolize who we are and how we feel. ners with firms such as PepsiCo to collect mountains of
Moreover, marketers must be sensitive to when consum- discarded packaging and turn them into usable products
ers are likely to use a product,9 whether they find it effec- for sale.16
tive,10 whether they control their consumption of it,11 and
how they react after using it—do they spread positive or
Managing Money and Making Financial
Decisions
negative word-of-mouth reviews about a new movie, for
How do consumers make financial decisions before,
instance?12
during, and after acquiring an offering? What are their
Disposing of an Offering attitudes toward money and prices? These topics are the
Disposition, how consumers get rid of an offering they focus of much study because consumers don’t always do
have previously acquired, can have important implica- a good job of managing money. For example, consumers
tions for marketers.13 Consumers can give away their used generally know how to budget and plan for ordinary pur-
possessions, sell them on eBay or on consignment to vin- chases, but they tend to underestimate spending on out-
tage stores, rent them via sharing websites, or lend them of-the-ordinary purchases and, in particular, spend more
to others. As discussed in detail in Chapter 17, than anticipated on individual purchases.17 On
environmental concerns are growing among Acquisition The
the other hand, consumers do adjust their bud-
consumers and marketers. Eco-minded consum- process by which a gets in some situations. For example, perhaps
ers often seek out biodegradable products made consumer comes to because the price of gas is very salient (with
own an offering.
from recycled materials or choose goods that do prices displayed on store signs and discussed in
Usage The process by
not pollute when disposed of (see Exhibit 1.2).14 which a consumer uses
the news), when gas prices rise, consumers do
Municipalities are also interested in how to moti- an offering. tend to shop less frequently, switch to one-stop
vate earth-friendly disposition.15 Marketers see Disposition The shopping at low-price retail establishments, and
profit opportunities in addressing disposition process by which a reduce overall spending to compensate.18
concerns. TerraCycle, for example, markets tote consumer discards an Consumer behavior also affects decisions
offering.
bags, pencil cases, and other products made from about managing debt. For instance, consumers
are likely to make higher repayments when credit card phone, via social media, or by e-mail or text message.
statements make no mention of a mandatory minimum Moreover, the individuals engaging in consumer behavior
monthly repayment. 19 Another study found that con- can take on one or more roles. In the case of a car pur-
sumers who close a credit account are more likely to be chase, for example, one or more family members might
successful at eliminating their debt, because taking this take on the role of information gatherer by researching
step motivates them to persist in pursuit of their goal.20 different models. Others might assume the role of influ-
When consumers feel powerful and in control of their encer and try to affect the outcome of a decision. One
resources, they will put more money in the bank in order or more members may take on the role of purchaser by
to maintain that state of power.21 actually paying for the car, and some or all may be users.
Finally, several family members may be involved in the
1-1c CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IS A disposal of the car.
DYNAMIC PROCESS
The sequence of acquisition, consumption, and disposi- 1-1e CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES
tion can occur over time in a dynamic order—hours, days, MANY DECISIONS
weeks, months, or years, as shown in Exhibit 1.1. To illus- Consumer behavior also involves understanding whether,
trate, assume that a family has acquired and is using a new why, when, where, how, how much, how often, and for
car. Usage provides the family with information—whether how long consumers will buy, use, or dispose of an offer-
the car drives well and is reliable—that affects when, ing (look back at Exhibit 1.1).
whether, how, and why members will dispose of the car by
selling, trading, or junking it. Because the family always Whether to Acquire/Use/Dispose of an
needs transportation, disposition is likely to affect when, Offering
Consumers must decide whether to acquire, use, or dis-
whether, how, and why its members acquire another car
pose of an offering. They may need to decide whether
in the future.
to spend or save their money when they earn extra cash.
Entire markets are designed around linking one con-
How much they decide to spend may be influenced by
sumer’s disposition decision to other consumers’ acqui-
their perceptions of how much they recall spending in the
sition decisions. When consumers buy used cars, they
past.24
are buying cars that others have disposed of. From eBay’s
They may need to decide whether to order a pizza,
online auctions to Goodwill Industries’ secondhand
clean out a closet, or download a movie. Some consum-
clothing stores, from consignment shops to used books
ers collect items, for example, a practice that has created
sold online, many businesses exist to link one consumer’s
a huge market for buying, selling, transporting, storing,
disposition behavior with another’s acquisition behavior.
and insuring collectible items.25 Decisions about whether
Environmental attitudes and actions are changing, which
to acquire, use, or dispose of an offering are often related
means marketers must take into account consumers’ goals
to personal goals, safety concerns, or a desire to reduce
and priorities, perceptions of brands, and internal pro-
economic, social, or psychological risk. However, such
cesses when planning marketing efforts.
decisions can also be affected by subtle cues in our envi-
Broader changes in consumer behavior occur over time,
as well. Fifty years ago, consumers had far fewer brand ronment. Did you know that the mere act of hand washing
can affect people’s decisions to relinquish their own pos-
choices and were exposed to fewer marketing messages. In
sessions?26 Also, simply entering a lottery can undermine
contrast, today’s consumers (particularly millennials) are
someone’s self-control—making a person more likely, for
more connected, easily able to research offerings online,
example, to give in to indulgent purchases.27 Self-control
access communications and promotions in multiple
is an important factor in many consumer behavior situa-
media, and check what others think of brands with a quick
tions, as you’ll see in later chapters.
search or social media post. Later chapters examine these
influences in more detail. Consumers can also work with What Offering to Acquire/Use/Dispose Of
marketers or with each other to collaboratively create new Consumers make decisions every day about what to buy;
products.22 For example, thousands of consumers partic- in fact, U.S. consumers spend an average of about $90 per
ipate when Mountain Dew uses crowdsourcing to request day on goods and services in a typical month.28 In some
ideas for new soft-drink flavors, product logos, and ads.23 cases, we make choices among product or service catego-
ries such as buying food versus downloading new music.
1-1d CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CAN In other cases, we choose between brands such as whether
INVOLVE MANY PEOPLE to buy an Apple iPhone or a Samsung Galaxy phone. Our
Consumer behavior does not necessarily reflect the action choices multiply daily as marketers introduce new prod-
of a single individual. A group of friends, a few coworkers, ucts, sizes, and packages. Exhibit 1.3 shows how much,
or an entire family may plan a birthday party or decide on average, U.S. consumers spend for major categories of
where to have lunch, exchanging ideas in person, on the goods and services every year.
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electronics product because they believe that the prod-

Average annual uct will soon be outdated or that some firms will leave
Item expenditure by consumers this market, leaving them without after-sale support or
Housing $17,148 service. At times, consumers who want to acquire or con-
sume an offering are unable to do so because what they
Transportation 9,004
want is unavailable. Ethics and social responsibility can
Food 6,602 also play a role. Some consumers may want to avoid prod-
Personal insurance, pensions 5,528 ucts made in factories with questionable labor practices
Health care 3,631 or avoid movies downloaded, copied, and shared without
permission.30 This is why transparency is increasingly of
Entertainment 2,482
concern when consumers want to know what a brand or
Cash contributions 1,834 company stands for.
Clothing and services 1,604
How to Acquire/Use/Dispose of an Offering
All other expenditures 3,267 Marketers gain a lot of insight by understanding how con-
TOTAL $51,100 sumers acquire, consume, and dispose of an offering.
Source: Adapted from “Consumer Expenditures—2013,” Economic Ways of Acquiring an Offering

News Release, September 9, 2014, U.S. Department of Labor, U.S. How do consumers decide whether to acquire an offer-
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table A, www.bls.gov. ing in a store or mall, online, or at an auction?31 How do
they decide whether to pay with cash, a check, a debit
xhibit 1.3 ▸ Average Annual U.S. Consumer
Exhibit card, a credit card, an electronic system such as PayPal,
Spending, By Category or a “mobile wallet” smartphone payment app such as
On average, U.S. consumers spend more for basics like
housing, transportation, and food than for other categories of
expenditures.
Acquisition
Method Description
Why Acquire/Use/Dispose of an Offering Buying Buying is a common acquisition method used
Consumption can occur for a number of reasons. Among for many offerings.
the most important reasons, as you will see later, are the Trading Consumers might receive a good or service as
ways in which an offering meets someone’s needs, val- part of a trade.
ues, or goals. Some consumers acquire tattoos as a form Renting or Instead of buying, consumers rent or lease
of self-expression, to fit into a group, or to express their leasing cars, furniture, vacation homes, and more.
feelings about someone or something. Taking the self- Bartering Consumers (and businesses) can exchange
expression of tattoos into the automotive arena, 3M makes goods or services without having money
a series of vinyl wrap “tattoos” for car owners to use in change hands.
personalizing the look of their vehicles.29 Acquisition may
Gifting Each society has many gift-giving occasions as
be related to a consumer’s attitudes toward money, mate- well as informal or formal rules dictating how
rialism, status, emotions, and self-control, as discussed in gifts are to be given, what is an appropriate
other chapters. gift, and how to respond to a gift.
Sometimes our reasons for using an offering are filled Finding Consumers sometimes find goods that others
with conflict, which leads to some difficult consumption have lost (hats left on a bus) or thrown away.
decisions. Teenagers may smoke cigarettes or e-cigarettes,
Stealing Because various offerings can be acquired
even though they know it is harmful, because they think through theft, marketers have developed
smoking will help them gain acceptance. Some consum- products to deter this acquisition method, such
ers may be unable to stop acquiring, using, or disposing as alarms to deter car theft.
of products. They may be physically addicted to products
Stealing Another method of acquisition is by sharing or
such as cigarettes, or they may have a compulsion to eat, borrowing. Some types of “sharing” are illegal
gamble, or buy. and border on theft, as when consumers copy
and share movies.
Why an Offering Is Not Acquired/Used/
Disposed Of
Marketers also try to understand why consumers do Exhibit
xhibit 1.4 ▸ Eight Ways to Acquire an
not acquire, use, or dispose of an offering. For exam- Offering
ple, consumers may delay buying a particular consumer There are many ways that consumers can acquire an offering.
Apple Pay?32 These examples relate to consumers’ buy- “time for me” or “time for others” and whether acquiring
ing decisions, but Exhibit 1.4 shows that consumers can or using an offering is planned or spontaneous.38 In cold
acquire an offering in other ways. As the cost of cars and weather, our tendency to rent movies, call for a tow truck,
car insurance rises, some consumers are choosing not to or shop for clothes is greatly enhanced. At the same time,
buy cars, but to instead use services like Zipcar or Uber.33 we are less likely to eat ice cream, shop for a car, or look
for a new home during cold weather. Time of day influ-
Ways of Using an Offering ences many consumption decisions, which is why Panera
In addition to understanding how consumers acquire an Bread is adding drive-throughs to accommodate breakfast
offering, marketers want to know how consumers use an customers in a hurry and McDonald’s now serves break-
offering. For obvious reasons, marketers want to ensure fast all day, every day.39
that their offering is used correctly. Improper usage of Our need for variety can affect when we acquire, use,
offerings like cough medicine or alcohol can create health or dispose of an offering. We may decide not to eat a
and safety problems.34 Because consumers may ignore label sandwich for lunch today if we have already had it every
warnings and directions on potentially dangerous products, other day this week. Transitions such as graduation, birth,
marketers who want to make warnings more effective have retirement, and death also affect when we acquire, use,
to understand how consumers process label information. and dispose of offerings. For instance, we buy wedding
Using an offering can include what we use with the rings when we get married. When we consume can be
offering (e.g., chips with salsa) as well as how we store affected by traditions influenced by our families, our cul-
and organize the items in our homes. Some interesting ture, and the area in which we live.
research suggests that we like to have things organized in Decisions about when to acquire or use an offering are
our homes because we feel less anxiety and a greater sense also affected by knowing when others might or might not
of control over our lives when things are structured.35 be buying or using it. Thus, we might choose to go to the
Notably though what seems organized to one person may gym when we know that others will not be doing so. In
seem messy to another. Whereas you might think about addition, we may wait to buy until we know something
the items in your room in finely grained categories (e.g., will be on sale; even if we have to line up to buy something
black shirts are different from white shirts, and pants, popular, we are likely to continue waiting if we see many
shoes, and belts are in a different categories altogether), people joining the line behind us.40 Also, waiting to con-
your roommate might have broader categories for think- sume a pleasurable product such as candy increases our
ing of items in their closet (they’re all just “my clothes”). enjoyment of its consumption, even though we may be
You may think her closet is messy; your roommate may frustrated by having to wait.41
think the organization of her closet is perfectly fine.36 Another decision is when to acquire a new, improved
Ways of Disposing of an Offering version of a product we already own. This can be a diffi-
Sometimes nothing but the packaging remains of an offer- cult decision when the current model still works well or
ing (such as food) after it has been consumed. This leaves has sentimental value. However, marketers may be able to
only a decision about whether to recycle or not, and how. affect whether and when consumers buy upgrades by pro-
Consumers who want to dispose of a tangible product viding economic incentives for replacing older products.42
have several options:37 Even the first letter of our last name can impact when
we acquire products. If your last name begins with a let-
▪ Find a new use for it. Using an old toothbrush to clean ter that’s later in the alphabet (i.e., W, X, Y, or Z) you may
rust from tools or making shorts out of an old pair be faster in buying the product than consumers whose
of jeans shows how consumers can continue using an last name begins with a letter that’s in the beginning of
item instead of disposing of it. the alphabet. Why? One reason is that as a kid you were
▪ Get rid of it temporarily. Renting or lending an item is always last when lines or roll calls were alphabetical. If
one way of getting rid of it temporarily. you’ve learned to wait, you may develop a desire not to
wait, which leads to buying more quickly.43
▪ Get rid of it permanently. Throwing away an item,
sending it to a recycling center, trading it, giving it Where to Acquire/Use/Dispose of an Offering
away, or selling it are all ways to get rid of it perma- In addition to acquisition decisions, consumers also make
nently. However, some consumers refuse to throw decisions about where to consume various products. For
away things that they regard as special, even if the example, the need for privacy motivates consumers to
items no longer serve a functional purpose. stay home when using products that determine whether
they are ovulating or pregnant. On the other hand, wire-
When to Acquire/Use/Dispose of an Offering less connections allow consumers in public places to make
The timing of consumer behavior can depend on many phone calls, post messages and photos to social media
factors, including our perceptions of and attitudes toward sites, play computer games, and download photos or
time itself. Consumers may think in terms of whether it is music from anywhere in the world.
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Finally, consumers make decisions regarding where to Russian consumers eat 10 times as much chocolate as con-
dispose of goods. Should they toss an old magazine in the sumers in Mexico.48 The amount we are willing to spend
trash or the recycling bin? Should they store an old photo on items certainly depends on the state of our economy
album in the attic or give it to a relative? Older consum- and whether or not we are in a recession.49 But even if we
ers, in particular, may worry about what will happen to try to be careful spenders, on the whole we tend to under-
their special possessions after their death and about how estimate our spending. And we often don’t budget for
to divide heirlooms without creating family conflict.44 A exceptional purchases.50
growing number of consumers are recycling unwanted Sales of a product can be increased when the consumer
goods through recycling agencies or nonprofit groups or (1) uses larger amounts of the product, (2) uses the prod-
giving them directly to other consumers through web- uct more frequently, or (3) uses it for longer periods of
sites like The Freecycle Network (www.freecycle.org) (see time. Bonus packages may motivate consumers to buy
Exhibit 1.5). more of a product, but does this stockpiling lead to higher
consumption? In the case of food products, consumers are
How Much, How Often, and How Long to more likely to increase consumption when the stockpiled
Acquire/Use/Dispose of an Offering item requires no preparation.51 Usage may also increase
Consumers must make decisions about how much of a when consumers sign up for flat-fee pricing covering
good or service they need; how often they need it; and unlimited consumption of telephone services or other
how much time they will spend in acquisition, usage, and offerings. However, because many consumers who choose
disposition.45 In general, consumers don’t like to waste flat-fee programs overestimate their likely consumption,
things, and therefore will consider whether they are buy- they often pay more than if they had chosen per-usage
ing more of a product than what they will use.46 Interest- pricing.52
ingly though, we can sometimes mispredict how happy Some consumers experience problems because they
we will be from usage. Although we might want to binge- engage in more acquisition, usage, or disposition than
watch eight episodes of a favorite TV show we’ve down- they should. For example, they may have a compulsion to
loaded or streamed, research shows that longer breaks overbuy, overeat, smoke, or gamble too much. Research-
between episodes (e.g., watching one episode a night) will ers are also investigating what affects consumers’ abilities
actually make us enjoy the series more.47 Usage decisions to control consumption temptations and what happens
can vary widely from person to person and from culture when self-control falters, an issue for anybody who has
to culture. For example, consumers in Switzerland eat tried to diet or make other changes to consumption
twice as much chocolate as consumers in Russia—and habits.53 NetPhotos/Alamy Stock Photo
xhibit 1.5 ▸ Where to Dispose

Exhibit
Consumers have a number of options of places to dispose of goods, such as this recycling website.
1-1f CONSUMER BEHAVIOR INVOLVES In the following overview, we illustrate the interrelation-
EMOTIONS AND COPING ships among the domains with an example of a vacation
decision.
Consumer researchers have studied the powerful role that
emotions play in consumer behavior.54 Positive and nega-
tive emotions as well as specific emotions like loneliness,55 1-2a THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE:
hope,56 fear,57 regret,58 guilt,59 embarrassment,60 and gen- INTERNAL CONSUMER PROCESSES
eral moods61 can affect how consumers think, the choices Before consumers can make decisions, they must have
they make, how they feel after making a decision, what some source of knowledge or information upon which
they remember, and how much they enjoy an experience. to base their decisions. This source—the psychological
Emotions like love sometimes describe how we feel about core—covers motivation, ability, and opportunity; expo-
certain brands, possessions, and experiences.62 Consum- sure, attention, perception, and comprehension; memory
ers often use products to regulate their feelings—as when and knowledge; and attitudes about an offering.
a scoop of ice cream seems like a good antidote to a bad
quiz score.63 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity
Because issues related to consumer behavior can Consider the case of a consumer named Jason who is
involve stress, consumers often need to cope in some deciding on a ski vacation. In Jason’s mind, the vacation
way. 64 Researchers have studied how consumers cope decision is risky because it will consume a lot of money
with difficult choices and an overwhelming array of goods and time, and he does not want to make a bad choice.
from which to choose;65 how consumers use goods and Therefore, Jason is motivated to learn as much as he can
services to cope with stressful events66 like having cancer; about various vacation options, think about them, and
and how they cope with losing possessions due to divorce, imagine what they will be like. He has put other activities
natural disasters, moving to a residential-care facility, aside to give himself the opportunity to learn and think
and other significant events.67 They have even studied about this vacation. Because Jason already knows how to
the coping behavior of certain market segments, such as ski, he has the ability to determine what types of ski vaca-
low-literacy consumers, who often find it challenging to tions he would find enjoyable. Whether he focuses on
understand the marketplace without being able to read.68 concrete things (how much the trip will cost) or abstract
In later chapters, you’ll learn more about how emotions things (how much fun he will have) depends on how soon
affect goal pursuit, reactions to marketing stimuli, and he plans to travel and how well the place he plans to visit
other aspects of consumer behavior. fits with his self-concept.69
Exposure, Attention, Perception, and

1-2 What Affects Consumer Comprehension
Behavior? Because Jason is motivated to decide where to go on vaca-
tion and has both the ability and opportunity to do so, he
The many factors that affect acquisition, usage, and dispo- will make sure he is exposed to and attends to any infor-
sition decisions can be classified into four broad domains, mation relevant to his decision. He might look at travel
as shown in the model in Exhibit 1.6: (1) The psycho- ads and websites, read travel-related articles, check Twit-
logical core, (2) the process of making decisions, (3) the ter for special deals, browse photos on Pinterest, and talk
consumer’s culture, and (4) consumer behavior outcomes. with friends and travel agents. Jason will probably not
Although the four domains are presented in separate sec- attend to all vacation information; in fact, he is likely to be
tions of this book, each domain is related to all the oth- exposed to information he will never consciously perceive
ers. For example, to make decisions that affect outcomes or pay attention to. He must identify what he has per-
like buying new products, consumers must first engage ceived—is it an ad or something else?—and then deter-
in processes described in the psychological core. They mine what country or mountain resort is involved, all as
need to be motivated, able, and have the opportunity to part of the comprehension process. He might infer that
be exposed to, perceive, and attend to information. They Kitzbühel, Austria, is a reasonably priced vacation des-
need to think about and comprehend this information, tination because a website shows information consistent
develop attitudes about it, and form memories they can with this interpretation, for example.
retrieve during the decision process.
The cultural environment also affects what motivates Memory and Knowledge
consumers, how they process information, and the kinds Whether Jason can store what he learns about ski resorts
of decisions they make. Age, gender, social class, ethnic- in his memory—and whether he can recall that infor-
ity, families, friends, and other factors affect consumer mation later—depends, in part, on his motivation, abil-
values and lifestyles and, in turn, influence the decisions ity, and opportunity. As he learns something new about
that consumers make and how and why they make them. ski resorts, he will organize that knowledge according to
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Exhibit 1.6 ▸ A Model of Consumer Behavior

Consumer behavior encompasses four domains: (1) The consumer’s culture, (2) the psychological core, (3) the process of
making decisions, and (4) consumer behavior outcomes and issues. As the exhibit shows, Chapters 2–17 of this book relate
to the four parts of this overall model.
The
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Psychological Core
2 Motivation, Ability,
Ability and Opportunity
3 From Exposure to Comprehension
4 Memory and Knowledge
5-6 Attitude Formation and Change
The Process of Consumer

nsumer Behavior
Makin
aking Decisions Outcomes
tcomes and Issues
I
7 Problem Recognition and 15 Innovations:
ations: Adoption,
Information Search Resistance, and Diffusion
Resistance
8-9 Judgment and 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior
Decision-Making 17 Marketing
Marketing, Ethics, and Social
10 Post-Decision Responsibility in Today’
T s
Processes Consumer Society
The
Consumer’s
mer’ss Culture
mer’
11 Social Influences
on Consumer Behavior
12 Consumer Diversity
iStockphoto.com/Ostill
13 Household and Social

Class Influences
14 Psychographics: Values,
Personality, and Lifestyles
Personality
categories such as “places to stay on a ski vacation.” Jason information. Attitudes do not always predict behavior.
will also associate each new piece of information with For example, although many of us have a positive attitude
other concepts he knows, such as “expensive” or “eco- toward working out, our attitude and our good intentions
friendly.” Note that Jason may store information in mem- do not always culminate in a trip to the gym. For this
ory, but his choices will be based only on the information reason, attitudes and choices are considered as separate
that can be retrieved from memory—a key point for mar- topics.
keters seeking to create strong brand images and develop
memorable communications (see Exhibit 1.7). 1-2b THE PROCESS OF MAKING
Forming and Changing Attitudes DECISIONS
Jason is likely to form attitudes toward the vacations As shown in Exhibit 1.6, the processes that are part of the
he has categorized and comprehended. He may have a psychological core are intimately tied to the process of
favorable attitude toward Kitzbühel because a website making decisions. This domain involves four stages: Prob-
describes it as affordable, educational, and fun. How- lem recognition, information search, decision-making,
ever, his attitudes might change as he encounters new and postpurchase evaluation.
educational, and affordable. Not all decisions involve a

lot of effort. Jason also faces low-effort decisions such as
what brand of toothpaste to take on the trip.
Again, the psychological core is invoked in making
decisions. With a high-effort decision, Jason will be
motivated to be exposed to lots of information, think
about it deeply, analyze it critically, and form attitudes
about it. He may have lasting memories about this infor-
mation because he has thought about it so much. Con-
sumers are not always aware of what they are thinking
and how they are making their choices, so Jason might
not be able to explain what affected his choices (back-
ground music in a travel agency might even be an influ-
ence).70 Yet the emotions he thinks he will experience
from different options (excitement, relaxation) may well
influence his ultimate choice.71 With a low-effort deci-
sion, such as what brand of toothpaste to buy, he would
probably engage in less information search and process
information less deeply, resulting in less enduring atti-
Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives

tudes and memories.
Making Postdecision Evaluations

This step allows the consumer to judge, after the fact,
whether the decision made was the correct one and
whether to purchase that offering again. When he
returns from his vacation, Jason will probably evaluate
the outcome of his decisions. If his expectations were
met and if the vacation was everything he thought it
would be, he will feel satisfied. If the vacation exceeded
his expectations, he will be delighted. If it fell short of
xhibit 1.7 ▸ Forming and Retrieving Memories
Exhibit
them, he will be dissatisfied. Once again, aspects of the
Ads that make consumers form and retrieve memories can be
psychological core are invoked in making postdecision
effective if the memories are of a positive experience.
evaluations. Jason may seek out information that vali-
dates his experiences, he may update his attitudes, and
Problem Recognition and the Search for he may selectively remember aspects of his trip that were
Information extremely positive or negative.
Problem recognition occurs when we realize that we have
an unfulfilled need. Jason realized that he needed a vaca- 1-2c THE CONSUMER’S CULTURE:
tion, for example. His subsequent search for information EXTERNAL PROCESSES
gave him insight into where he might go, how Why did Jason decide to go on a skiing trip in
much the vacation might cost, and when he Culture The typical
or expected behaviors,
the first place? In large part, our consumption
might travel. He also examined his financial norms, and ideas that decisions and how we process information are
situation. Elements of the psychological core characterize a group of affected by our culture.72 Culture refers to the typ-
people.
are invoked in problem recognition and search ical or expected behaviors, norms, and ideas that
because once Jason realizes that he needs a Reference group characterize a group of people. It can be a pow-
A group of people
vacation and begins his information search, he consumers compare erful influence on all aspects of human behav-
is exposed to information, attends to and per- themselves with for ior. Jason had certain feelings, perceptions, and
ceives it, categorizes and comprehends it, and information regarding attitudes because of the unique combination of
behavior, attitudes, or
forms attitudes and memories. values. groups to which he belongs and the influence
they have on his values, personality, and lifestyle.
Making Judgments and Decisions
Jason’s decision is characterized as a high-effort decision, Reference Groups and Other Social Influences
meaning that he is willing to invest a lot of time and to When Jason sees groups of others he perceives as similar
exert mental and emotional energy in making it. He to himself, he regards them as reference groups, people
identifies several criteria that will be important in mak- whose values he shares and whose opinions he respects.
ing his choices: The trip should be fun and exciting, safe, He might also want to emulate the behavior of people
P
whom he admires and to listen to the advice they offer shown in Exhibit 1.9, and try to imagine the background
through word of mouth (in person, on Facebook, on Twit- factors that predispose consumers to choose these as vaca-
ter, etc.). Athletes, musicians, or movie stars sometimes tion options.
serve as reference groups, influencing how we evaluate
information and the choices we make (see Exhibit 1.8). Household and Social Class Influences
Reference groups can also make us feel as if we should Because Jason is a member of the upper middle class and
behave in a certain way. Jason may feel some pressure to lives with his parents, these household and social class
go to Kitzbühel because his friends think that doing so is influences may affect his decision to go to a luxurious
cool. European ski resort with friends rather than join his fam-
ily at a rustic ski area near home.
Diversity Influences
Jason is a member of many regional, ethnic, and religious Values, Personality, and Lifestyle
groups that directly or indirectly affect the decisions he The choices Jason makes are based, in part, on his beliefs,
makes. For example, although his decision to ski at a place his personality, and his activities, interests, and opinions.
far from home is fairly typical for a North American man Thus, he may be attracted to a European ski trip because
launched on his career, a consumer from a developing he wants a vacation that he thinks will be exciting and out
nation or a single woman from a different culture may not of the ordinary. He also anticipates that this vacation will
have made the same choice. Also, his age, gen- test his ability to manage on his own and give himself a
der, and educational background may all affect sense of accomplishment.
Symbols External
his impressions of what constitutes a good signs that consumers
vacation, accounting for his interest in a Euro- use to express their 1-2d CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
identity.
pean ski trip. Consider the vacation choices OUTCOMES AND ISSUES
As Exhibit 1.6 shows, the psychological core, deci-
sion-making processes, and the consumer’s culture affect
consumer behavior outcomes through the symbolic use of
products and the diffusion of ideas, products, or services
through a market. They also influence and are influenced
by issues of ethics and social responsibility.
Consumer Behaviors Can Symbolize Who

We Are
The groups we belong to and our sense of self can affect
the symbols or external signs we use, consciously or
unconsciously, to express our actual or desired identity.
For example, while skiing, Jason may wear a North Face
parka and Bollé goggles to communicate his status as an
experienced skier. He might use his phone to snap a selfie
and take home souvenirs, such as postcards and T-shirts,
which symbolize his vacation.
Consumer Behaviors Can Diffuse Through

a Market
After Jason makes his vacation decision, he may tell others
about his prospective trip, which, in turn, could influence
their vacation decisions. In this way, the idea of going to
Kitzbühel on vacation may diffuse, or spread, to others.
Had Jason resisted going to Kitzbühel (perhaps because he
thought it was too expensive or too far away), he might
have communicated information that would make others
Source: MilkPEP
less likely to vacation there. Thus, the diffusion of infor-

mation can have both negative and positive effects for
marketers.
xhibit 1.8 ▸ Influence of Reference Groups
Exhibit Consumer Behavior, Ethics, and Social
Reference groups are people whose values we share and Responsibility
whose opinions we value, as evidenced in the Got Milk? Sometimes consumers face potentially conflicting priori-
campaigns. ties: They try to balance an immediate outcome against a
Exhibit 1.9 ▸ Vacation Choices

The word “vacation” means different things to different people. Can you see how factors like social class, ethnic status,
lifestyle, economic conditions, group affiliations, and gender affect the kinds of vacations that appeal to us? These
examples show that some marketers are successful because they understand what their customers value.
On vacation, would you like to . . .
Learn how to walk on the moon? Space Camp is the place for you! You’ll experience the weightlessness of space
flight, launch a rocket, and take a simulated trip to Mars or the Moon. The price for would-be astronauts starts at
$499 for a three-day camp experience.
Volunteer to restore parklands? Through the Sierra Club, you can travel to wildlife refuges and parks around the
United States when you help preserve wilderness areas and keep up hiking trails. Along with a reasonable price
tag—a seven-day stay in the Yosemite Valley to fix hiking trails costs $445, not including transportation—you’ll get
an insider’s view of the local area plus the satisfaction of helping the planet.
See where penguins play? On a National Geographic cruise, you’ll start from the tip of South America and sail
through Drake Passage. Then you’ll travel by kayak along Antarctica’s edge, home to penguins, whales, and other
marine life. If your itinerary includes the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, you’ll pay up to $44,550 (airfare is
extra).
Sources: Based on information on www.spacecamp.com; www.sierraclub.org; and www.expeditions.com.
long-term outcome, or try to balance their own interests research: Marketing managers, ethicists and advocates,
against the interests of others. For instance, a consumer public policy makers and regulators, and consumers.
who steals may acquire something right away, but the
long-term outcome is personally risky and also problem- 1-3a MARKETING MANAGERS
atic to society. Many consumers are interested in whether
The study of consumer behavior provides critical infor-
products have been produced in an ethical manner, with
mation to marketing managers for developing marketing
ethically sourced inputs, as discussed in later chapters.
strategies and tactics. The American Marketing
Similarly, marketing decisions may involve con-
Marketing The activ- Association’s definition of marketing shows why
flicting priorities and sometimes lead to ethical ity, set of institutions,
marketing managers need to learn about con-
questions, such as whether marketing efforts and processes for
creating, communi- sumer behavior:
promote obesity, whether advertising affects
cating, delivering, and
self-image, and whether marketing invades con- exchanging offerings Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and
sumers’ privacy. with value for indi- processes for creating, communicating, delivering,
On the other hand, both consumers and mar- viduals, groups, and and exchanging offerings that have value for cus-
society.
keters can and do use marketing for constructive tomers, clients, partners, and society at large.
purposes, balancing short and long-term horizons
As this definition makes clear, marketers need con-
plus the interests of themselves and others. These efforts
sumer behavior insights to understand what consumers
by marketers and consumers may be relatively narrow—
and clients value; only then can they develop, communi-
focusing on satisfying the needs of a particular consumer
cate, and deliver appropriate goods and services. See the
segment—or much broader, such as protecting the environ-
Appendix for more about marketing research.
ment or improving the community. In the example of Jason
choosing a ski vacation, he might decide to stay at an ecof
ecof-
riendly resort that conserves water and uses energy from 1-3b ETHICISTS AND ADVOCACY
clean sources. Or he may decide to buy his gear second- GROUPS
hand on eBay or from a retailer that is transparent about its Marketers’ actions sometimes raise important ethical
environmental impact.73 questions. Concerned consumers sometimes form advo-
cacy groups to create public awareness of inappropriate
1-3 Who Benefits from the Study practices. They also influence other consumers as well as
the targeted companies through strategies such as media
of Consumer Behavior? statements and boycotts. For example, U.S. advocacy
Why do people study consumer behavior? The reasons are groups such as Consumer Watchdog worry about compa-
as varied as the four different groups who use consumer nies tracking what consumers do online. They and other
P
groups support an enforceable “do not track” mechanism 1-3e CONSUMERS AND SOCIETY
that would allow consumers to opt out of online track- Understanding consumer behavior enables marketers and
ing systems. The Federal Trade Commission and Fed- other organizations to provide tools for more informed
eral Communications Commission are weighing input decision-making. For example, research indicates that we
from advertisers and consumers about the privacy issues better understand the differences among brands when we
involved and possible regulatory action.74 We explore var- can view a chart, matrix, or grid comparing brands and
ious ethical issues throughout this book and go into more their attributes.81 Thus, matrices such as those presented
detail in Chapter 17. in the Consumer Reports magazine or on its website are
likely to help many consumers make better decisions.
1-3c PUBLIC POLICY MAKERS AND Product, service, and communications developments to
REGULATORS protect certain consumer segments have also grown out of
Understanding consumer behavior is crucial for legislators, understanding how consumers behave. Many people want to
regulators, and government agencies in developing pol- protect children against inappropriate advertising or guard
icies and rules to protect consumers from unfair, unsafe, themselves against invasion of privacy. Some companies
or inappropriate marketing practices. In turn, marketers’ have changed their marketing voluntarily, whereas others
decisions are affected by these public policy actions. Con- have waited until legislators, regulators, or advocacy groups
sider the regulatory limits on tobacco marketing that are forced them to make changes. Finally, a better understand-
designed to discourage underage consumers from smoking ing of consumer behavior can pave the way for programs
and to inform consumers of smoking’s health hazards. The that benefit society. As discussed in Chapter 17, research on
United States, Canada, and many other nations already disposition behavior has the potential to aid recycling pro-
ban cigarette advertising on television and radio. Canada grams and other environmental activities, just as research on
also requires large graphic warning labels on each pack.75 charitable donations can help nonprofit groups design com-
However, electronic cigarettes and vaping are not yet reg- munications to attract and inform contributors.
ulated as heavily as traditional tobacco products, despite
a steady increase in consumer usage and health concerns
about liquid nicotine poisoning.76 1-4 Making Business Decisions
Understanding how consumers comprehend and cat- Based on the Marketing
egorize information is important for recognizing and Implications of Consumer
guarding against misleading advertising. For instance,
researchers want to know what impressions an ad creates
Behavior
and whether these impressions are true. They also want As you learn about consumer behavior, you may wonder
to know how marketing influences consumers’ decisions how businesses use different consumer behavior insights.
to comply with product usage instructions, such as using Starting with Chapter 2, you will find numerous sections
medical treatments as prescribed.77 Consumer behav- titled Marketing Implications that illustrate how marketers
ior research helps government officials understand and apply consumer behavior concepts in the real world. In gen-
try to improve consumer welfare.78 One example is the eral, consumer research helps marketers to develop prod-
increase in childhood obesity over the past few decades, uct-specific plans, as well as broader strategies for market
which government officials and regulators are working to segmentation, targeting, and positioning, and to make deci-
address through proposals and actions to shape consumer sions about the components of the marketing mix.
behavior and influence marketing activities.79 Even in
developing nations where hunger is an ongoing issue, too 1-4a DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING
many children are overweight, a cause for concern around CUSTOMER-ORIENTED STRATEGY
the world.80 See Chapter 17 for more about this issue.
Marketing is designed to provide value to customers. Thus,
1-3d ACADEMICS marketers must conduct research to understand the various
groups of consumers within the marketplace so that they
Understanding consumer behavior is important in the can develop a strategy and specific offerings that will pro-
academic world for two reasons. First, academics dis- vide such value. Once they develop and implement a suit-
seminate knowledge about consumer behavior when they able strategy, marketers need research to determine how well
teach courses on the subject. Second, academics generate it is working and whether it is delivering the expected results
knowledge about consumer behavior when they conduct (such as increasing market share or improving profits).
research focusing on how consumers act, think, and feel
when acquiring, using, and disposing of offerings. In turn, How Is the Market Segmented?
such academic research is useful to marketing managers, What one consumer values in a product may not be
advocacy groups, policy makers, regulators, and others the same as what another consumer values. Consider
who need to understand consumer behavior. the market for orange juice, which can be offered from
concentrate, fresh squeezed, with other juices, and in decisions. U.S. home builders like Toll Brothers, for exam-
other combinations. For example, Minute Maid, owned by ple, are interested in the trend of multigenerational fam-
Coca-Cola, has increased sales by adding “Pure Squeezed” ilies living in one home. They know that some, if not all,
orange juices to its product line. A Minute Maid executive of the family members will want a say in the home pur-
explains that “there’s a segment of consumers who have chase, and therefore the homes must have features that
an affinity for the not-from concentrate [juice].”82 Clearly, will appeal to all the relatives involved in the decision.87
research helps marketers understand the different groups
that make up a market and whether they can make an 1-4c DEVELOPING PRODUCTS
offering to appeal to one or more of these groups. Developing goods and services that satisfy consumers’
wants and needs is a critical marketing activity. Marketers
How Profitable Is Each Segment?
apply consumer research when making a number of deci-
Consumer research can help marketers identify consum-
sions about products and branding.
ers who have needs that are not being met and can reveal
the size and profitability of each segment. For example, What Ideas Do Consumers Have for New
Daimler has identified a potentially profitable segment of Products?
affluent auto buyers interested in upscale compact vehi- First, marketers need to design an offering that matches
cles. It is introducing a series of Mercedes-Benz compact what consumers in the target market want. As noted ear-
cars and SUVs specifically for this segment, fully equipped lier, sometimes customers collaborate with marketers or
with accessories for consumers’ digital devices, all part of with each other on the development of innovative new
its effort to regain the lead in the premium auto market by offerings. The jewelry firm Swarovski is one of many
2020.83 companies that have used online competitions to tap the
creativity of their customers in designing new products.88
What Are the Characteristics of Consumers The entire inventory of Chicago-based online T-shirt
in Each Segment? company Threadless comes from designs submitted by
After determining how the market is segmented and consumers. After consumers vote (online or via social
whether it is potentially profitable, marketers need to media), Threadless puts the highest-scoring items into
learn about the characteristics of consumers in each seg- production—with a ready segment of buyers who have a
ment, such as their age, education, and lifestyle. This taste for such individualistic designs.89
information helps marketers project whether the segment
is likely to grow or to shrink over time, a factor that affects What Attributes Can Be Added to or Changed
future marketing decisions. For example, sales of fitness in an Existing Offering?
goods and services—as well as fitness tracking devices— Marketers often use research to determine when and how
are increasing as baby boomers, Millennials, and Genera- to modify or tailor a product to meet the needs of new
tion X consumers strive to get and stay in shape.84 or existing groups of consumers. For example, the U.S.
Postal Service (USPS) knows that many engaged couples
Are Customers Satisfied with Existing still send printed wedding invitations through the mail
Offerings? instead of communicating electronically. To supplement
Marketers often do considerable research to learn whether its regularly updated series of stamps, the USPS designed
consumers are currently satisfied with the company’s a stamp specifically for wedding invitations—which gen-
offerings and marketing. For example, Harley-Davidson erated $375 million in sales within a few years. Now the
executives regularly ride with members of the Harley USPS offers a range of wedding-stamp designs and invites
Owners Group to see firsthand what satisfies motorcy- consumers to personalize their own wedding stamps.90
cle buyers and what else they are looking for. They invite
customers to submit their own videos online illustrating How Should the Offering Be Branded?
individual Harley-Davidson experiences, and ask social Consumer research plays a vital role in decisions about
media users to comment on proposed ad campaigns. This choosing a brand and differentiating it from competing
research helps the company come up with new prod- brands and from other brands in the company’s product
uct ideas and new ways to promote bikes to current and portfolio.91 For example, the Japanese automaker Nissan
potential customers.85 once marketed cars under the Datsun brand, but elimi-
nated that brand in favor of its corporate name, Nissan,
in 1981. Later, the company introduced the Infiniti brand
1-4b SELECTING THE TARGET MARKET to distinguish its luxury autos from its other cars. Now
Understanding consumer behavior helps marketers deter- Nissan is bringing back the Datsun brand for small, low-
mine which consumer groups are appropriate targets for priced cars to be sold in emerging markets such as Russia,
marketing tactics and how heavy users of a product differ India, and Indonesia. This strategy allows Nissan to main-
from light users.86 Marketers also need to identify who is tain a separate brand image and positioning for each of
likely to be involved in acquisition, usage, and disposition these product lines.92
P
What Should the Package and Logo Look Should Our Offerings Be Repositioned?
Like? Consumer research can help marketers reposition exist-
Many marketers use consumer research when making ing products (i.e., change their image). Consider how the
decisions about packaging and logos. For example, if Versus sports cable channel was repositioned. Originally
you were to buy a bag of pretzels, you might infer that a introduced as Outdoor Life Network in 1995, the U.S.
bag with 15 pretzels on the package would contain more cable channel was repositioned as Versus in 2006 to reflect
pretzels than one that shows only 3 pretzels on the pack- its broader sports coverage. Even with an audience of 70
age. 93 ConAgra Foods, which makes products such as million households, Versus fell short of rival ESPN’s audi-
Orville Redenbacher popcorn, takes online shopping ence of 100 million households. Knowing that consumers
habits into consideration when designing product pack- are far more familiar with the NBC brand and coverage,
ages. By developing smaller packages that cost less to thanks to the network’s broadcasting of the Olympics and
ship, ConAgra increases the opportunities for selling to other high-profile events, Versus was repositioned as NBC
cost-conscious online shoppers.94 Sports Network, broadcasting round-the-clock sporting
events and related content.100
1-4d POSITIONING
Another strategic choice is deciding how an offering 1-4e MAKING PROMOTION AND
should be positioned in consumers’ minds. The desired MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
image should reflect what the product is and how it dif
dif- DECISIONS
fers from the competition. For example, the Window of Research can help companies make decisions about pro-
the World theme park in Shenzhen, China, is positioned motional/marketing communications tools, including
as a fun place for Chinese consumers who want to see the advertising, sales promotions (premiums, contests, sweep-
world’s most famous sights without leaving the country. stakes, free samples, coupons, and rebates), personal sell-
The park features 130 replicas of well-known landmarks ing, and public relations. One area receiving attention is
such as the pyramids, the White House, and the Eiffel the use of techniques to measure consumers’ physiological
Tower. This positioning is in contrast to Disneyland Hong and neurological responses to marketing communications
Kong and Shanghai Disneyland, which offer rides and and other stimuli.101 The rise of social media adds another
other traditional amusement park attractions.95 twist to promotion and communications decisions.102
Word of mouth—which spreads quickly through social
How Are Competitive Offerings Positioned? media—that is not marketer-controlled, seems more cred-
Marketers sometimes conduct research to see how con- ible to consumers than messages directly controlled by
sumers view other brands in comparison with their own marketers.103
and then plot the results on a graph called a perceptual
map. Brands in the same quadrant of the map are per- What Are Our Communication Objectives?
ceived as offering similar benefits to consumers. The Consumer research can be very useful in determining
closer companies are to one another on the map, the more advertising objectives. It may reveal, for example, that
similar they are perceived to be, and hence, the more likely few people have heard of a new brand, suggesting that the
they are to be competitors. Marketers can use perceptual advertising objective should be to enhance brand-name
maps to determine how their offerings can be positioned awareness. If research indicates that consumers have
as distinct and different from competing offerings, based heard of the brand but don’t know anything about it, the
on appeals that are sustainable over time.96 advertising objective should be to enhance brand knowl-
edge. If consumers know the brand name but don’t know
How Should Our Offerings Be Positioned? the characteristics of the brand that make it desirable, the
Companies use consumer research to understand what advertising should aim to enhance brand knowledge and
image a new offering should have in the eyes of con- encourage positive attitudes about it. And if consumers
sumers and what messages will effectively support this know neither the brand name nor the product’s benefits,
image.97 The positioning should suggest that the product the advertising should educate the target market about
is superior in one or more attributes valued by the tar- both.
get market.98 For example, Procter & Gamble’s research
found that many consumers were dissatisfied with tra- What Should Our Marketing Communications
ditional dry-cleaning establishments, in part because of Look Like?
inconsistent quality and also due to environmental con- Research can help marketers determine what words and
cerns about cleaning chemicals. Seeing this as an oppor- visuals—and what balance of text and images—would be
tunity, P&G positioned its Tide Dry Cleaners chain as most effective for ad and brand recognition and recall.104
clean, green, and friendly—using earth-friendly cleaning A brand name is better remembered when placed in an
products, the power of the Tide brand, and attentive cus- ad that has interesting, unusual, and relevant visuals. If
tomer service.99 the visuals are interesting but unrelated to the product,
consumers may remember the visuals but forget the prod- tracking studies to see whether ads have achieved partic-
uct’s name. ular objectives over time.
Online advertising is also being researched. One find-
ing, for instance, is that customizing e-mail messages for What About Sales Promotion Objectives and
targeted customers is an effective way to boost visits to Tactics?
When developing sales promotions, marketers can use
the brand’s website.105 Another study showed that both
research to identify sales promotion objectives and tactics.
emotion and physiological arousal are factors in whether
For example, when Snack Factory wanted to attract new
an online ad goes viral. Specifically, an ad is more likely
customers to its Pretzel Crisps snacks and increase sales,
to be spread virally when the content evokes a positive
the firm posted a $1 coupon on Facebook for two weeks.
emotional response (such as awe) or a negative emo-
This promotion added 7,000 new Facebook fans and,
tional response (such as anger).106 As an example, Kleen-
more importantly, the rate of redemption of the coupons
ex’s “Unlikely Best Friends” commercial, which featured
was 87 percent. Without fanfare, Snack Factory switched
a man and a dog—both in wheelchairs—attracted tens
to a buy one, get one free coupon on Facebook. The new
of millions of online views due to positive emotional
offer went viral, gaining Pretzel Crisps 15,000 fans in two
response.107
weeks—plus an impressive 95 percent coupon redemption
Where Should Advertising Be Placed? rate. Now the brand has more than 325,000 “likes” and
When marketers select specific media vehicles in which regularly conducts sales promotions on Facebook, Twit-
to advertise, they find demographic, lifestyle, and media ter, Pinterest, and other social media sites.111 Research can
usage data very useful. Research shows that more peo- also prevent such pitfalls as offering coupons to certain
ple split their time among many different media and that consumers who won’t redeem them for fear of looking
many people use recording technology to avoid commer- stingy.112
cials. Knowing this, marketers are choosing media with Have Our Sales Promotions Been Effective?
better targeting or more consumer exposure in mind. For Consumer research can answer this question. Marketers
example, Ford has used video ads on Facebook’s log-out might compare sales before, during, and after a promotion
page to promote its sporty Mustang car, taking advan- to determine changes in sales. Research can also indicate
tage of the ability to target by location, gender, and age.108 whether a free sample has been more effective than a price
A growing number of firms are using sponsorship of promotion, whether a free gift enhances value perceptions
cause-related events (such as the Avon Walk for Breast and purchase intentions, and how consumers react after a
Cancer) that attract the interest of consumers in the tar- sales promotion has been discontinued.113
geted segments.109
How Can Salespeople Best Serve Customers?
When Should We Advertise? Finally, research can help managers make decisions about
Research may reveal seasonal variations in purchases salespeople. By tracking store patronage at different times
due to weather-related needs, variations in the amount of the day or on different days of the week, retailers can
of discretionary money consumers have (which changes, determine the appropriate number of store personnel
for instance, before and after Christmas), holiday buying needed to best serve customers at those times. Research
patterns, and the like. In the weeks leading up to Easter, also offers insights into selecting salespeople and evaluat-
for instance, the chocolate company Cadbury airs TV ing how well they serve customers. For example, similarity
commercials, places print ads, sponsors special events, between the consumer and a salesperson or service pro-
and posts Facebook promotions for its chocolate eggs. In vider can influence whether customers comply with these
Australia, it has targeted 18- to 30-year-old chocolate lov- marketing representatives.114
ers with extensive Facebook advertising for new chocolate
egg products just before Easter, when this segment is most
likely to buy.110 1-4f MAKING PRICING DECISIONS
The price of a product or service can have a critical influ-
Has Our Advertising Been Effective? ence on consumers’ acquisition, usage, and disposition
Finally, advertisers can research an ad’s effectiveness at decisions. It is therefore very important for marketers to
various points in the advertising development process. understand how consumers react to price and to use this
Sometimes marketers or ad agencies conduct advertis- information in pricing decisions, a topic also covered in
ing copy testing or pretesting
pretesting, testing an ad’s effectiveness later chapters.
before it appears in public. If the objective is creating
brand awareness and the tested ad does not enhance What Price Should Be Charged?
awareness, the company may replace it with a new Why do prices often end in 99? Consumer research has
ad. Effectiveness research can also take place after the shown that people perceive $9.99 or $99.99 to be cheaper
ads have been placed in the media, such as conducting than $10.00 or $100.00. Perhaps this is one reason why so
P
many prices end in the number 9.115 Too low a price can Super Bowl every year. Knowing this trend, online and
make consumers suspect the product’s quality.116 In gen- store retailers mount price promotions in the weeks lead-
eral, consumers respond better to a discount presented ing up to the Super Bowl, aiming to get their share of these
as a percentage off the regular price (e.g., 25 percent sub- TV purchases.123
tracted from the price) than to a discount presented as
a specific amount of money subtracted from the regular 1-4g MAKING DISTRIBUTION DECISIONS
price (originally $25, now only $15).117 Another important marketing decision involves how
Also, when making a purchase, consumers consider products are distributed and sold to consumers in retail
how much they must pay in relation to the price of other stores. Here, too, marketers can use consumer research.
relevant brands or to the price they previously paid for
that product, so marketers must be aware of these refer- Where and When Are Target Consumers
ence prices.118 When buying multiple units of a service for Likely to Shop?
one bundled price (such as a multiday ski pass), consum- Marketers who understand the value consumers place
ers may not feel a great loss if they use only some of the on time and convenience have developed distribution
units because they have difficulty assigning value to each channels that allow consumers to acquire or use offerings
unit. In addition, when consumers buy multiple products whenever and wherever it is most convenient for them.
for one bundled price (such as a case of wine), they are For example, 24-hour grocery stores, health clubs, cata-
likely to increase their consumption because unit costs log ordering, and online ordering systems give consum-
seem low.119 How much consumers will pay can even be ers flexibility in the timing of their acquisition, usage, and
affected by the price of unrelated products they happen disposition decisions. Some retailers, including Walmart
to see first. Thus, the price you would be willing to pay and Peapod, are testing virtual “stores,” actually large post-
for a T-shirt may vary, depending on whether the prices ers in transit stations or other busy locations. The post-
you noticed for shoes in the store next door were high or ers depict grocery shelves stocked with specific products,
low.120 each featuring a QR (quick response) code. Consumers
Also, studies indicate that consumers have differing use their smartphones to scan the QR codes of items they
perceptions of what a product is worth, depending on want to buy, complete the transaction, and schedule deliv-
whether they are buying or selling it. Generally people ery for when they know they will be home.124
tend to overestimate how much others will pay for goods,
particularly when they are selling a product they own.121 What Do Customers Want to See in Stores?
Retailers want to carry the assortment of merchan-
Sellers should therefore avoid this endowment effect; that
dise best suited to consumers who shop in their stores.
is, they should not set a higher price than buyers are will-
Target, for instance, is experimenting with a new store
ing to pay.122
concept that will help it determine which "smart home"
How Sensitive Are Consumers to Price and devices, which remotely control lighting and tempera-
Price Changes? ture, among other elements of the home environment,
Research also suggests that consumers have different are of interest to consumers. 125 Assortment size itself
views of the importance of price. Some consumers are can influence consumer behavior, as you’ll see in later
very price sensitive, meaning that a small change in price chapters.
will have a large effect on consumers’ willingness to pur-
chase the product. Other consumers are price insensitive How Should Stores Be Designed?
and thus likely to buy an offering regardless of its price. Supermarkets are generally designed with similar or
Marketers can use research to determine which consum- complementary items stocked near one another because
ers are likely to be price sensitive and when. For fashion or research shows that consumers think about items in terms
prestige goods, a high price symbolizes status. Thus, sta- of categories based on products’ similar characteristics or
tus-seeking consumers may be less sensitive to a product’s use. Thus, stores stock peanut butter near jelly because the
price and pay more than $50 for a T-shirt with a presti- products are often used together. Consumer research can
gious label. also help marketers develop other aspects of their retail
environments. Music, colors, aromas, the ability to touch
When Should Certain Price Tactics Be Used? product, displays, and store organization can affect con-
Research also reveals when consumers are likely to be sumers’ in store behaviors and choices.126
most responsive to various pricing tactics. For example, Store design also depends on whether consumers are
consumers have traditionally been very responsive to price shopping for fun or seeking to quickly accomplish a par-
cuts on bed linens during January. These “white sales” are ticular task like buying a certain item.127 During the back-
effective because consumers have come to anticipate them to-school shopping season, for instance, Target stores
at that time of the year. Similarly, approximately five mil- display dorm-room products together for consumer con-
lion U.S. consumers buy new TVs specifically to watch the venience.128 Knowing that some consumers simply like to
AP Images/Imaginechina
xhibit 1.10 ▸ T
Exhibit Targeting Where Consumers Shop
Marketers need to understand how and when consumers best shop. For instance, busy consum-
ers can grocery shop using their smartphones on these boards in subway or bus stations, which is
very convenient for them.
shop, retailers are increasingly creating more exciting and only use smartphones when buying from the Amazon
aesthetically pleasing store environments.129 For example, retail website, for example; similarly, 44 percent of shop-
in Shanghai, the distinctive glass exterior, spiral staircase, pers only use smartphones when buying from the eBay
and gleaming white logo of the Apple store has made such site.131 Stores and retail websites must not only function
an impression on shoppers that some competitors have well, they can convey a particular image and shopping
opened look-alike stores elsewhere in China.130 atmosphere. To illustrate, the apparel retailer Abercrom-
Given the significant increase in shopping via com- bie & Fitch added an online playlist so customers who
puter and mobile devices, retailers must design websites shop via the Internet can click to hear the same songs that
for friendly functionality on devices used by targeted con- play in its stores.132
sumer groups. Research shows that 38 percent of shoppers
P
Summary:
Consumer behavior involves understanding the set of deci- and tactics. Ethicists and advocacy groups are keenly
sions (what, whether, why, when, how, where, how much, interested in consumer behavior, as are public policy
and how often) that an individual or group of consumers makers and regulators who want to protect consum-
makes over time about the acquisition, use, or disposition ers from unsafe or inappropriate offerings. Consumers
of goods, services, ideas, or other offerings. The psycho- and society can both benefit as marketers learn to make
logical core exerts considerable influence on consumer products more user-friendly and to show concern for
behavior. A consumer’s motivation, ability, and opportu- the environment. Finally, studying consumer behavior
nity affect his or her decisions and influence what a person helps marketers understand how to segment markets
is exposed to, what he or she pays attention to, and what and how to decide which to target, how to position an
he or she perceives and comprehends. These factors also offering, and which marketing-mix tactics will be most
affect how consumers categorize and interpret informa- effective.
tion, how they form and retrieve memories, and how they
form and change attitudes. Each aspect of the psycholog- Questions for Review and Discussion
ical core has a bearing on the consumer decision-making
process, which involves (1) problem recognition, (2) infor-
1. How is consumer behavior defined?
mation search, (3) judgments and decision-making, and
(4) evaluating satisfaction with the decision. 2. What is an offering?
Consumer behavior is affected by the consumer’s cul-
3. What are some of the factors in the psychological core
ture and by the typical or expected behaviors, norms, and that affect consumer decisions and behavior?
ideas of a particular group. Consumers belong to a num-
ber of groups, share their cultural values and beliefs, and 4. What aspects of the consumer’s culture influence deci-
use their symbols to communicate group membership. sions and behavior?
Household and social class influences are involved in con- 5. How is marketing defined?
sumer behavior, as are each individual’s values, person-
6. How can public policy decision makers, advocacy
ality, and lifestyles. Consumer behavior can be symbolic groups, and marketing managers use consumer
and express an individual’s identity. It is also indicative research?
of how quickly an offering spreads throughout a market.
Further, ethics and social responsibility play a role in con- 7. What kinds of marketing questions can companies use
sumer behavior. consumer behavior research to answer?
Marketers study consumer behavior to gain insights 8. How can you benefit from studying consumer
that will lead to more effective marketing strategies behavior?
Endnotes
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2 Karen Page Winterich and Gergana Y. Nenkov, “Save Like 4 See, for example, Wendy Parkins and Geoffrey Craig, “Slow
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2004, pp. 313–323. 21 Emily N. Garbinsky, Anne-Kathrin Klesse, and Jennifer Aaker,
6 Leif D. Nelson and Tom Meyvis, “Interrupted Consumption: “Money in the Bank: Feeling Powerful Increases Saving,” Jour-
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8 Ying-Ching Lin and Chiu-Chi Angela Chang, “Double Stan- pp. 494–500.
dard: The Role of Environmental Consciousness in Green 23 Bradley Reeves, “Co-Creation Nation,” Media Post, March 21,
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“Look at Me! Look at Me! Conspicuous Brand Usage, Self- Decomposition: The Case of Memory-Based Credit Card
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9 Robyn A. LeBoeuf, “Discount Rates for Time Versus Dates: 25 Russell W. Belk, “Ownership and Collecting,” in eds. Randy
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11 Amar Cheema and Dilip Soman, “The Effect of Partitions on ing on the Exchange of Endowed Products,” Journal of Con-
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P
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37 Jacoby, Berning, and Dietworst, “What About Disposition?” Contemporary Approaches,” in ed. Naresh Malhotra, Review
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Down! Insensitivity to Rate of Consumption Leads to Avoid- chology Press, 2008), pp. 273–296.
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Growth,” Confectionery News, August 16, 2011, www.confec- Research 31, no. 2, 2004, pp. 358–367; and Nitika G. Barg, Brian
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49 Wagner A. Kamakura and Rex Yuxing Du, “How Economic Affect on Consumers’ Food Intake,” Journal of Marketing,
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52 Joseph C. Nunes, “A Cognitive Model of People’s Usage Esti- 66 Teresa M. Pavia and Marlys J. Mason, “The Reflexive Rela-
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Another random document with
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one, was a very sensible idea, as I certainly felt I should be much
more comfortable in a house I could call my own, without interfering
with the ways and the convenience of others. Miriam was particularly
anxious that I should make myself as much “at home” with her, as
possible; still I found, that Walderheros and myself occupied the
whole house, to the exclusion of her and her two children. For the
accommodation thus afforded me, I paid a rent treble the amount of
what she would have received from any one else; three ahmulahs a-
week is considered a most extravagant price for lodgings in Shoa,
and I gave Miriam two dollars a month, being ten ahmulahs a-week.
Unfortunately for me, Lieut. Barker had resided in the same house
nearly four months, and having always had a plentiful supply of cash,
I could see my economical housekeeping greatly disappointed the
expectation of Miriam’s friends, who, on my taking up my quarters in
her house had congratulated her on the favour of Allah, which was
so evidently shown to her by another “Gypt” coming to reside with
her.
The poor woman herself, however, was very thankful for the few
salt pieces I could offer her weekly, and being sensible that it was
only because I had not more to give, she never annoyed me with
hints of disappointed expectations, or invidious comparisons with the
habits of my predecessor; although others, who had no business to
expect anything from me, were much less delicate in their allusions
to the liberality of the “Kapitan,” who, to judge by the kind inquiries
respecting him, made by male and female, old and young, seemed
to have been a universal favourite among the inhabitants of Aliu
Amba.
Walderheros, whose greatest weakness was to be considered the
servant of a most powerful and influential master, felt any sneers at
my poverty a great deal more acutely than myself, and which, after
all, he generally excited himself, by his assumption of importance,
and the affectation of swearing by my name, “Ahkeem e moot,” “may
the doctor die,” if a thing was not so and so, as if I had been a
magnate of the land; for besides swearing by the life of the Negoos
upon all important matters, the dependents of Abyssinian noblemen
are accustomed, in private life, or on trivial occasions, to asseverate
the truth of anything by similar imprecations upon the lives of their
masters. This practice has not a bad effect upon a listening stranger,
being a very pleasing characteristic of the natural affection that ought
to exist between master and servant.
Several affronts that Walderheros had received about my
economy, and the small establishment I kept up, determined him at
length to put it to Tinta himself, if such a scandalous little place I lived
in was fit for a friend of the Negoos, and as I supported this
expostulation by a direct request to have a proper domicile
appointed for me during my stay in Shoa, my worthy balderabah
undertook to see the Negoos next day about the matter. This was so
far satisfactory to Walderheros, who could now talk about nothing
else but my new house, and a large garden which was to be
attached to it, and where, according to his account, teff grass,
jowarhee, and cayenne pepper plants would all flourish most
advantageously, especially as regarded my expenditure. According
to his account, there could be no question about the success of my
housekeeping. Everything was propitious, and he amused me by the
manner in which he used to endeavour to convince me how
comfortable we should be. He had a wife, and he had a slave girl,
caught by himself on some Galla expedition; besides these, I was to
buy a donkey, and then there was himself, all of whom were to work
like horses, and save me three ahmulahs a-week, about seven-
pence halfpenny, and, in fact, my whole expenditure, by his making
out, was to be a dollar a-month, one-half for his wages during that
time, and the remainder for the purchase of poultry and sheep.
Tinta, in two or three days, brought a reply from the Negoos, that I
was to look out what house would suit me, and if I were well enough
to visit him at Ankobar, where he was coming to from Angolahlah, in
the course of the week, he would then give the necessary directions
to put me in possession of my choice.
Night and morning we were now to be seen, Walderheros and
myself, slowly walking along the narrow confined lanes in search of a
house that would suit us. I leaning upon him on one hand, and in the
other, to assist in supporting my weakened frame, I carried a slender
rod, about seven feet long, called a “zank,” in common use, as an
aid when walking, by the people of Shoa. We visited every vacant
house in the town to examine their condition and character, and
occupied ourselves entirely by suggesting alterations and repairs, or
devising sundry projects of domestic comfort, in connexion with the
expected grant by the Negoos of the one which I should prefer. For
five or six days we thus amused ourselves, and when the eve of the
day came on which I was to see the Negoos at Ankobar, we were as
far from having come to a decisive choice, as upon the first day we
commenced the search. Some were too old, some stood in a
crowded neighbourhood, the repairs of others would have required
an outlay of five or six dollars, here the thatch was nearly all gone,
and there the garden was too small, and the last was worse than all,
for, by a curious accident, the roof settled down on the top of us as
we entered, the wattled wall on the outside giving way as we pushed
open the dilapidated door to get in. There was not one, in fact, that I
could fix my mind upon, and Walderheros being equally difficult to
please, we might have continued a long time without coming to a
decision, had not the next day’s visit to the Negoos rendered it
necessary to fix upon some one, that I might be prepared to answer
the Negoos’s usual question, “What is it you desire?” in return for the
memolagee or offering I had prepared for his acceptance, and which,
as it was of a peculiar kind, it shall be treated of in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XIII.
Custom of giving Memolagee.—Sugar boiling.—Success.—Gratify
the Negoos.—Receive house.—Claims of kindred.—Remarks
upon intestate property.—The two brothers of late owner.—
Removal to new residence.
A custom exists in every Abyssinian court, which requires that no
one shall go empty handed into the presence of royalty. Every visitor
to the Negoos of Shoa in this manner brings with him some present,
which, after having been registered by an officer appointed for that
purpose, is deposited at the feet of the monarch. In return, it is
expected that some request on the part of the inferior is to be
graciously acceded to, and if what is asserted be true, the Negoos is
obliged by the law of custom to consent to whatever is asked, should
he accept, in the first instance, the proffered gift. A monstrous
exaggeration of this system of presenting gifts, to be returned by
some greater amount of property, is, at all events, practised very
considerably, by the Abyssinians, upon ignorant strangers, for the
custom is not confined to an interchange of favours with royalty, but
is general also among all classes. I have myself frequently been
imposed upon, or at least have had attempts made to impose upon
me in this manner, when ridiculously small presents were offered,
and then on my acceptance followed some exorbitant request. A
memolagee of eggs, for example, would usher in a modest demand
for as many dollars; when, from a calculation I have frequently made,
one of the latter would purchase one thousand eggs, at the rate of
five eggs for a needle, of which two hundred could be bought for a
dollar. Again, a jar of ale, containing about five gallons, which would
cost the third of an ahmulah, or salt-piece, or the third of two-pence
halfpenny, would be deemed quite a sufficient gift to ask in return a
slave girl, or a mule. To prevent all mistakes, after I had discovered
that I had given considerable offence, in some cases, by refusing
what had been demanded, I made it a rule to know previously to my
accepting it, what was the object for which the memolagee was
offered, and even then it was very seldom I would consent to give
more than the market value of the pumpkins, water melons, and
smuggled honey, which generally constituted these propitiatory
offerings.
The memolagee I had prepared for this visit to the Negoos, at
Ankobar, was about two pounds of sugar which I had managed to
manufacture from cane growing in the neighbourhood of Aliu Amba. I
calculated upon the effect that such a present would have upon the
naturally sagacious mind of the gifted monarch of Shoa, and that the
usefulness of such an article, introduced as a manufactured product
of his own country, would strike him as being of more importance
than many richer presents, the use and value of which he could not,
from the circumstances of his situation, have any idea of.
On my arrival in Shoa, I found that the Wallasmah Mahomed
cultivated sugar-cane in a valley, at the foot of the prison hill of
Guancho, and that he supplied the table of the Negoos with it as a
sweetmeat, small pieces being cut off with a knife, and masticated
as I have seen the inhabitants of Ceylon enjoying it. Whilst staying at
Miriam’s house, I conceived the project of boiling down some sugar
as a mode of employing myself when confined indoors by the fever,
or the wet weather. For this purpose I sent Walderheros to the
Wallasmah with a canister of gunpowder as a memolagee for some
sugar-cane, and got in return as much as my zealous servant could
stand under, considering that he had to carry the bundle upon his
head and shoulders for nearly six miles, along roads of no ordinary
kind in the wet season, for that rich, greasy, slipperiness of surface,
where toes well stuck into the mud, alone admits of any chance of
the barefooted wayfarer, pulling himself up the steep “banks and
braes” he has to surmount.
Possessing no means of crushing the cane properly, I was obliged
to have resort to simply pounding it in a large wooden mortar, two or
three of which, of different sizes, are generally to be found in every
house in Shoa. Miriam, her son, Walderheros, and myself occupied
ourselves one day peeling and slicing the long stalks before we
could place the cut-up cane in the mortar, and then we were
employed two days more in triturating it, during which process a little
water was added to take up the saccharine juice, and to free it,
according to my idea, more readily from the cane. Two handsful of
the beaten mass were then placed at a time, in one of my towels,
which being folded up, the two extremities were collected together,
and by dint of a great deal of twisting and screwing by two of us, we
managed to force out the liquid portion, leaving a hard round ball of
woody fibrous substance, which, however, had been pounded
sufficiently fine to receive and retain, very visibly, the diaper pattern
of the cloth in which it was strained. These refuse cakes were very
greedily eaten by some goats, and I dare say, such food would be
highly nutritious to animals. The expressed juice having been
received into my copper cooking vessels, they were placed
uncovered upon a low fire, where they continued until more than
one-half of the liquid portion was driven off. The remainder was then
poured into some shallow earthenware dishes, which, with stones
carefully placed under the lower edges of the vessels, to obviate the
inconvenient slope, were exposed upon the conical roof of the
house, to the evaporating influence of the temporary and dodging
glimpses of sunshine, that struggled through the vast number of
clouds, which at this season of the year obscured the sky.
How well I recollect my querulous anxiety, and the patient
watchfulness of Walderheros, as all day long we were obliged to be
on the expectant quick move, to bring out of the passing showers
these evaporating dishes, and which, at length, we were obliged to
submit to the continued action of a slow fire indoors to effect our
object, for we discovered, that what between the moisture in the air,
and the frequent falls of rain the season was not at all propitious for
sugar making. In the end we succeeded in obtaining about two
pounds of very excellent brown sugar, as the result of our joint
labours, and very well pleased all parties were with their success.
It was curious to observe the interest that was taken in the
process by the inhabitants of Aliu Amba, nearly all of whom visited
me during the three or four days we were employed, and not a few
insisted upon helping us. Of these latter, Walderheros was especially
jealous, as he wished all the honour and glory as the actual
manufacturer to devolve upon himself, giving me only the credit of
knowing how it should be done, and of directing him. When the
sugar had crystallized and assumed the shape of the much-desired
luxury, a new class of visitors then came begging for a little as a
medicine for their sick children, and these became so numerous, and
I could not well refuse their request, that at last Walderheros, in
despair, complained to Tinta, who had all along been much
interested in the success of the experiment, and who immediately
came, and advised me to put the sugar into his charge, if I wished to
save any for the Negoos.
Here I must observe, that although the very simple art of
extracting the sugar from the cane was unknown to the inhabitants
generally of Shoa, still a few visitors from Ankobar, and a messenger
from the Negoos, who had been sent to Aliu Amba on purpose to
learn if the rumour was true which had reached the palace, that I
was engaged in this manufacture, had seen Shoan sugar before.
These assured me that the French traveller, M. Rochet d’Hericourt,
when he was in Shoa, had made sugar for the Negoos, so that
although I observed on this occasion great ignorance of a simple but
important art among the Shoans, still I do not wish to be understood
as claiming the honour of having first introduced sugar-making into
their country.
It was fortunate for me that I had thus turned my attention to
subjects likely to benefit the good people of Shoa, for as it so
happened, in the middle of the night, I was attacked with a paroxysm
of fever so violent that it quite disabled me for the rest of the next
day, and prevented me making any attempt to proceed to Ankobar.
As, however, I had sent word by the messenger of the Negoos that I
was coming, and my balderabah Tinta had arranged everything for
our starting together by sunrise, I considered that it would be as well
to send my servant with the sugar, and a verbal message to the
Negoos, stating why I could not attend myself in person. Tinta also
considered, that circumstanced as I was, it would be the best plan
for me to adopt, and readily agreed to accompany Walderheros, and
explain my wishes respecting the house. After a little conversation,
we also fixed upon the one most likely to suit me, and they then
departed with the sugar, which I had packed up for them in an old tin
powder-canister.
They returned early in the afternoon attended by a long train of
Tinta’s servants, and three palace affaroitsh, bearing presents of
wheaten bread, honey, and a jar of preserved butter called “natta
kibbee,” the only kind that can be obtained in Shoa during the times
of the rains.
The reception of my balderabah and envoy, Walderheros, at the
palace had been most nattering, and my request for a house
complied with immediately by the gratified monarch, who also
ordered one of the affaroitsh to remain in Aliu Amba to see me
comfortably settled in my new quarters.
The next morning was a very busy one for Walderheros, as from
my illness everything had devolved upon him. He had first to arrange
with two surviving sisters of the late owner of the house, who came
forward to claim sundry articles of furniture that had remained in the
house after the death of their brother. In Shoa, when a man dies,
leaving no male heirs, the King takes all that he died possessed of;
even the widow and female children have no claim to anything but
that which is granted to them by the justice and compassion of the
monarch. These relations are, however, so far considered, that a
small “memolagee” only is expected, and they are then generally
allowed to retain the personal property of the deceased, but the
landed estate is always retained and granted to some other male
servitor capable of bearing arms. This concession, small as it is,
does not extend to other ties of kindred, for a person dying and
leaving only sisters or brothers, all kinds of property possessed by
the deceased is seized by the governor of the town in which he had
resided, for the benefit of the Negoos, and an account of all such
intestate property is annually drawn up by that officer. When a
governor himself dies, before his successor takes office, an
inventory of every thing contained in a large store house is made,
and sometimes all the articles, generally household furniture, are
taken to be examined by the Negoos, who, retaining the most
valuable himself, returns the remainder to the charge of the new
governor. From these repositories are rewarded minor meritorious
acts, and sometimes the things are exposed to sale by a kind of
auction, and thus disposed of. It is not unusual for household
furniture and utensils, instead of being carried to the gimjon bait, the
King’s store house, the only public building found in the towns and
villages of Shoa, to be allowed to remain in the house to which they
have belonged, and in that case, the next holder upon whom the
King has conferred it, comes in for these conveniences. It was so in
my case, for I found that I had not only obtained possession of a
house, but found it ready furnished also. One little drawback from my
apparent good fortune was the circumstance that everything was in
such a dilapidated and rotten condition, that I was not surprised at
the governor not insisting upon such rubbish being taken to that
general repository, the “gimjon bait.” The fact is, the good people of
Shoa manage, as in every other country, to remedy by some
conventional subterfuge any political or social injustice; and here,
where the descent of property is diverted from its natural course by
an arbitrary custom, the evil is counteracted by the exchange, during
illness, of everything valuable in furniture or household utensils with
near relations, for the most worthless description of the same
articles, so that in case of death the Negoos gets a very sorry
collection as the heir-at-law to the deceased.
No sooner did Tinta proceed to the house to put Walderheros in
possession, than the two women, sisters of the late possessor, came
forward, and improving upon the general system, of making the
exchange of old worn out things for nearly new ones, they now
appealed to a cloud of witnesses, who took part with them, to testify
that many of the jars, baking pans, and instruments for clearing and
spinning cotton that were in the house, absolutely belonged to them,
and which at various times they had lent to their deceased brother.
Tinta, to prove his devotion to me, for being now considered to be in
great favour with the Negoos, my friendship was valuable, demurred
to the claims of the women; but Walderheros, who knew me a little
better, put an end to their vociferous claims, and recommending
them to see me upon the subject, said it would probably be all
settled satisfactorily without a complaint being made to the Negoos,
which had been threatened by Tinta.
The market value of every thing that formed their claim did not
amount to half a dollar, but as the matter seemed to interest all the
inhabitants of the town, it must have been considered of some
importance in their eyes, so when they came to appeal to me, and I
fully understood, by the interpretation of some Arabs resident in Aliu
Amba, what it was that was required, I told the two women they had
my consent to take away whatever they chose, only to be quick
about it, so that on the morrow I might enter upon my new
possession without any more trouble.
July 23d.—This morning, my house having been well swept and
dusted, I was summoned by Walderheros to come and superintend
all other arrangements myself. I managed to walk down from
Miriam’s, and a new large alga, or bedstead, had been sent from the
King’s store for my use. It was placed for the present in the garden,
an ox skin, as usual, being spread over it, so I had nothing to do but
to throw myself upon it, and as my boxes and cooking utensils were
brought in, direct Walderheros where to place them. Fortunately, no
rain fell this day, and my new neighbours, anxious to testify their
happiness to have me among them, kept thronging into the garden,
amusing themselves also by surveying the premises, suggesting
repairs and improvements with the most officious good feeling
possible. As all the inhabitants around were Mahomedans, several of
my visitors sent to their houses for their gourd shell water pipes, and
placing large stones beneath them, took up their several positions in
a semicircle around the front of my bed. Miriam, to whom I had given
three dollars, pleasingly surprised at receiving so much, seemed
most anxious that I should be comfortably settled in my new
residence, her son helping Walderheros in arranging everything
properly, whilst she busied herself preparing coffee for my numerous
visitors.
I was tired and worn out by the time sunset sent them to their
several homes, and left me to move into the house, where I sat upon
one of my boxes until the alga had been forced into a narrow recess
between the double walls, and my bed reported by the indefatigable
Walderheros to be at length ready for me to retire to rest. The pretty
wife of Sheik Tigh had brought me some teff bread for supper, as
she expected there would be a deal too much for us to do on the first
day of my removal, not to feel obliged to any one taking the trouble
of baking off our hands. The “wort,” or cayenne soup being also
prepared, after a light Abyssinian supper, I slept better than I
expected, or could have hoped for.
CHAPTER XIV.
Division of time.—My new servant, Goodaloo.—Thatching house.—
Islam assistants.—Kindness of Tinta.—Finish roof.—Feast upon
the occasion.—Remarks upon practice of eating raw meat.
The Abyssinians divide the day and night into eight portions of three
hours each, and as they commence their fasts the evening
preceding, it is to be presumed that they begin a new day at sunset,
like the Jews and Arabs. Three hours after sunset is leilet, “evening,”
all the time intervening between nine o’clock and twelve being so
called. From “night’s noon,” or aculilielet, until duro-oitshiart,
“cockcrow,” is another term of three hours, and from cockcrow to
twart, “sunrise,” is three more; after twart is arrafat, or “nine o’clock;”
then aculican, “mid-day,” between which and sunset is tuzziart, or
“afternoon.”
During the first night after taking possession of my new house,
about the hour of “duro-oitshiart,” (here let the reader learn a little
Amharic), I was awakened, by a loud thunder-storm, to the
disagreeable discovery that my new residence was not water-proof,
for the roof admitted a great deal more rain than it threw off, and had
not Walderheros constructed a kind of pent-house over my bed with
a stiffly-dried ox-hide, I should have been very soon wet through.
The necessity, too, of having some kind of candle or other on
emergencies, was forcibly suggested to us, by the difficulty we
experienced in getting the damp fire-wood lighted, by the blaze of
which alone we could see to arrange our substitutes for umbrellas.
Walderheros, however, soon overcame all difficulties, and after
extending his bed, the aforesaid skin, over me for my protection, he
coiled himself up under a huge Amharic shield, tilted upon its edge,
and supported by a stick in that position.
It is unnecessary to say we did not go to sleep again, but kept
talking away about what we would do to the roof, as soon as the sun
had risen, and we could only get out. Accordingly by twart (sunrise),
Walderheros had started on a long walk nearly to Ankobar to get
some straw, and also to engage a “wandum,” that is, a near relation
of his whom I had determined, at his request, to receive as an
additional servant. His wages were to be only five ahmulahs a-
month, about one shilling and a half-penny, and as he was stated to
be the very first of all modern thatchers, I did not consider this an
extravagant demand, particularly as I required his services so much
at this time.
“Wandum” is, strictly speaking, brother, but with the Shoans it is
used as a general term for all male relatives. An uncle is the
“wandum,” of the mother or father, as the case may be, whilst
cousins, especially between opposite sexes, appear to be more
affectionately related than our brothers or sisters. A friend is called
“wordage,” a name derived from some relation between them and
one’s own bowels, “word,” signifying that viscera, which reminded
me of a scriptural passage, where, describing the affection of some
one for another, it is said that “his bowels yearned towards him.”
“Bal-ingero,” is another expressive term for a companion, signifying
“the possessor or sharer of bread.” And as I am on the subject, I may
mention, that an additional term of friendly relationship among this
very social people, is derived from the circumstance of the marriage
tie in this country, being but very loosely observed. “Leech enart,”
mother’s child, is sometimes bestowed upon a very dear friend, as
being expressive of a great deal more affection than “Leech abat,”
father’s child.
By “arrafat,” nine o’clock, a.m., Walderheros, and his wandum,
Goodaloo, appeared at the rude misshapen wicket in the small ring
fence of jowarree stalks, that enclosed my garden. Both were
bending beneath huge bundles of the straw-like cimbyllal grass, but
being too large to admit of passing through the narrow entrance,
they were thrown down in the little lane that led from my house, and
from a few other neighbouring ones, into the principal street on our
side of the town, to the market-place.
Goodaloo, was spare, short, and active, seemingly designed by
nature for the ticklish occupation he professed; for the frail stick
skeleton roof, when divested of the old straw, looked as if it would
have given way beneath the foot of a cat. After a professional
survey, and a most important consultation with Tinta, his deputy, a
Christian like himself, and half-a-dozen rich Islam inhabitants, it was
determined to be most advisable, that only a portion of the roof
should be renewed at once, so that I might have the shelter, either of
the old or of the newly finished roof, to sleep under, during the three
days required to put all to rights. The Governor and his Deputy,
however, were the only useful members of this Council, for the
former directed his servants to supply me with the necessary grass,
whilst the latter assisted Goodaloo in thatching. The Islam
gentlemen, with the cool dignity which, somehow or other, they do
assume most naturally, sat down upon the skins brought for that
purpose, and proceeded to call for coffee, and to give directions to
their Christian superiors, in a manner that would have delighted
Satan himself, to have observed, if he takes any pleasure at all, in
seeing honest, simple humility, treated with the most evident
contempt.
All this time, I was glad to keep out of the way, lying upon the alga
inside; but when actual business commenced, I began to think I must
retreat into the open air. Black, sooty flakes, now began to fall thickly
from the glistening well-smoked roof frame, which consisted of long
bamboo canes, that diverging from an elevated centre spread
around in a wide circumference, to rest upon a round wattled wall of
sticks and mud. To this annoyance, was soon added falling bits of
rotten thatch, that descended upon my bare head and shoulders,
until I could stand it no longer, but rushed out of the dirty mess and
seated myself upon a quantity of clean straw near to my
Mahomedan visitors, who appeared to have made my garden a
public café, for they kept coming and going all day, staying a little to
watch if the proceedings were going on to their satisfaction, and
aiding, to the extent of an “Inshallah” (please God), “it would be
finished by to-morrow.”
Before evening, one-third of the roof was well covered in, for as I
had promised to give a couple of sheep at the conclusion of the
business, to the servants of Tinta, they worked away at his cimbyllal
grass, as if it had been all my own; and had I not inwardly resolved
to return his kindness in some way or other, my conscience would
have often induced me to call out, “Hold! enough!”
July 30th.—By cock-crow again Tinta’s servants were at my gate
with straw, and Walderheros and Goodaloo went out to recommence
upon the roof. We continued to be highly favoured by the weather,
only a slight shower or two interrupting the otherwise bright sunshine
in which I lay basking on my straw couch all day. A thick mist
enveloped the whole length of the Ankobar range in front, which
seemed to attract all the clouds, or at least condensed the moisture
in the atmosphere to the west of Aliu Amba, leaving the more
favoured country to the east beneath a clear and beautiful sky. The
heavy bank of fog, however, prognosticated rain to us, and every
time it caught the eye of Walderheros, he seemed to move as quickly
again, as he supplied with fast filled arms the bundles of cimbyllal to
the two workmen upon the roof. So expeditiously, indeed, did all
proceed, that before sunset the whole was finished, although, for
farther security and ornament, another day’s labour was required,
which was promised with much self-gratulation by Goodaloo, who
confidently asserted that had the house been thatched for the
Negoos himself, it could not have been done more quickly or more
scientifically.
It being too late, and the men too tired to kill and dress sheep,
Tinta’s servants partook, as last evening, of a plain repast with
Goodaloo and Walderheros, consisting only of dry teff pancakes, and
a sop or two in a shallow earthenware vessel of the cayenne soup.
To improve this very poor dinner, I gave Walderheros an ahmulah to
get some “tallah,” and he bought for that sum about fifteen gallons of
excellent ale. This he and two of his companions brought into the
house in three large jars, a girl following with the ahmulah, which, I
expect, she had changed for one of her mother’s smallest, and after
spanning the salt-piece before my face, with a very lackadaisical
look, intimated that it was a very thin one, and she hoped I would
give her a larger one instead. Walderheros, who was just as cunning
as any of his countrymen or women either, always kept the
ahmulahs he received in exchange for dollars in two bags, one
containing the larger, the other the smaller ones. With the former,
sheep and tobacco were purchased, as for these commodities none
but the best ahmulahs are taken, whilst the latter were generally
given in return for services performed by any of the neighbours, and
which I paid for, according to Walderheros’s idea, far too liberally. In
the present case, on my telling the girl she should choose for herself,
down came the bag containing the little ones, the trick of which I was
not then aware, and after a long search, none pleasing the lady, she
withdrew, keeping the one which had been originally given to her.
One of the jars being now placed upon a low chair that had come
to me as a memolagee for some medicine, a long mekanet, or girdle,
from the loins of one of the party was carefully wrapped around the
wide circular mouth of the jar, after the dirty dry seal of cow-dung
and clay had been removed. Over the lip of the vessel, slowly
strained through the cloth, flowed the now released liquor, which was
received into well-shaped drinking-horns of a conical form, and about
nine inches deep. One, full of the sparkling beverage, was handed to
me, Walderheros, in the first place, pouring a little into the hollow of
his hand and drinking it, as the tasters of food and of drink of old are
represented to have done previous to serving their superiors. This
little ceremonial, though its origin is entirely forgotten by the Shoans,
is never omitted by them, and we here find a custom, first
established by a fearful policy, still retained as a matter of form, and
as a dutiful obeisance of inferiors to their masters. The drinking party
sat together in the dark talking for some hours, industriously
replenishing the horns until two of the jars were emptied of their
contents, when, pretty comfortable, no doubt, Walderheros and his
friends quietly subsided upon the ground, where they had been
sitting so long; their busy talk was stayed at once, and all was soon
as still as the night should be.
July 31st.—Long before sunrise I was again disturbed by Tinta’s
servants, who were up and leaving my house to return home, so as
not to be absent at the first call of their master. This day was to be
devoted to the beautifying and adorning the new roof after the most
approved design. The broken neck of an old jar was soon found,
which served as a kind of coronet to gather the loose ends of the
thatch at the apex. Immediately below this were thrust two sticks
across each other, their projecting extremities preventing a tight
band of very pliant twigs from starting, and which beneath it had
been twisted several times around the loose ends, still farther to
secure this part of the roof, that, as the centre of the whole, was
something analogous to the key stone of an arch.
This being finished, the flat hands of Walderheros and Goodaloo
were applied to the irregular projecting straw ends of the lower edge
or circumference of the roof, which were patted gently back into one
even line, with something like the attention to detail of a careful
barber arranging the straggling hairs of a full-bottomed wig. The
circuit of the whole having been made, I was duly called upon to
inspect their work; but as I supposed that it was not so much to give
an opinion as it was to express my approbation, I took care
sufficiently to gratify them, by stating it to be my firm belief that no
“Gypt” could have done it half so well. To subdue unqualified
approbation, and that my praise should have the more importance,
as coming from a man of decidedly good taste, I suggested that a
brightly painted red earthenware crown piece to the whole, like those
used to beautify their churches, would have looked more religious,
and better than the ragged rusty looking neck of the broken jar,
which, not having been put on exactly square, but cocked a little on
one side, gave a rather saucy slovenly finish to my cottage ornée.
My indefatigable Islam friends now came to congratulate me upon
my roof being finished, and began asking about the cow, with the
blood of which I was to sanctify the door-posts, as they said, to keep
“Shaitan” from disturbing me. They contended that, to render the
charm efficacious, the animal must be killed by a Mahomedan. I
shook my head, and denied the necessity of this, or indeed of the
sacrifice at all; but I told them, as they had helped me so much, they
were very welcome to partake of the two sheep Walderheros had
already gone to purchase. They said not a word in reply, and many
of them considered my offer to be a gross insult, and stayed away
several days in consequence. However, as I had now begun to
speak a little Amharic, and did not require their assistance so much
as formerly to interpret for me, I was ungrateful enough to allow them
to come round again in their own good time.
The evening was spent by Walderheros and his friends killing the
sheep; and having boiled the meat in several earthenware vessels,
demonstrated, by a very hearty meal, that on ordinary occasions the
Shoans are as fond of cooked meat as the rest of mankind.
The customary practice of eating it raw, so singular, and
apparently so characteristic of a barbarous and savage disposition,
has, in Abyssinia, a natural inducement for its indulgence, which, I
think, is an apt illustration of the manner, in which man is led
instinctively, to the employment of such means within his reach, to
enable him fully to enjoy life, under whatever circumstances of
situation he may be placed.
The difference of food between the inhabitants of the Arctic region
and those of low intertropical countries is so great, that it has not
failed to strike physiologists, who have, from the comparison, been
led to the knowledge of an important truth in the natural economy of
man. It has been observed that human life is supported in these
opposite extremes of situation by different kinds of food, and that
whilst in the north, blubber and enormous quantities of raw meat are
devoured by the natives, that in the torrid zone, vegetables constitute
the principal diet. The reason is, that during the process of digestion
a considerable amount of natural heat is engendered in the system,
and this is found to be determined in quantity by the nature of the
food. An entirely fleshy diet occasions the development of its
maximum, and contributes materially to the comfort of man in cold
situations, whilst, on the contrary, vegetables are scarcely able to
excite sufficient heat necessary to convert them into nutriment; and,
in fact, beneficent nature has provided for such a want, by supplying
in hot climates a sort of artificial warmth, in the stimulating aromatics
which are the characteristic productions of the torrid zone.
The high table land of Abyssinia, although situated between the
tropic of Cancer and the equator, from its great elevation of ten
thousand feet or more above the level of the sea, possesses a
climate which is not less cold than that of the northern parts of
Scotland. Being a country but poorly wooded, the chief supply of fuel
being the dung of cattle, an instinctive feeling dependent upon the
pleasures of a state of warmth, has taught the Abyssinians that the
flesh of animals eaten raw is a source of great physical enjoyment,
by the cordial and warming effects upon the system produced by its
digestion, and to which I am convinced bon vivants more civilized
than the Abyssinians would resort if placed in their situation.
Travellers who have witnessed their “brunde” feasts can attest the
intoxicating effects of this kind of food, and they must have been
astonished at the immense quantities that can be eaten in the raw
state, compared to that when the meat is cooked, and at the
insensibility which it sometimes produces. Eating raw meat,
therefore, a usual practice with the Esquimaux, and which among
them is an absolute necessity, by the Abyssinians is considered a
luxury, or in fact as a kind of dissipation, for eating it in that state is
only indulged in by them at festivals, and it is then taken as a means
of enjoyment, and is not more barbarous or disgusting than getting
tipsy upon strong drinks.
CHAPTER XV.
Market day in Aliu Amba.—Toll of wares.—Court of Piepoudre.—
Appearance of the market.—The salt money.—Character of the
different vendors.—The prices of several articles.—No Jews in
Abyssinia.
July 29.—The next Friday, feeling somewhat stronger, I determined
to accompany Walderheros to the market-place. As in England, the
days of such weekly meetings, for the convenience of sale or barter,
vary in the towns of Shoa. In Aliu Amba the Mahomedan Sabbath is
found most convenient, whilst Ankobar market is held on Saturdays,
and in other places Mondays or Tuesdays are the appointed days.
Nothing, I think, characterizes a peaceful people, or a healthy social
condition, more than these weekly meetings for the mutual
convenience of buyers and sellers. The security of property is so
apparent, honest industry and prudent economy so evident, that
even in the most unfavourable positions for the increase of
knowledge, and the advance of civilization, wherever these
evidences of a people’s foresight and good disposition exist, I never
despair, but that when other more favourable opportunities are
vouchsafed, the soil will not be found unfruitful of the good seed that
may be scattered upon it. This struck me the more forcibly, from my
previous sojourn in Adal; for with what different feelings did I witness
the busy restlessness, and the not inharmonious murmur, of the
multitude of smiling contented beings that were gathered in the
market-place to-day, from those I have experienced, when startled
by the sudden cry, the confused rush to arms, and the silent
squatting of my Dankalli associates, either in the sullen muttering
calahm circle, or else, as with loud yells of defiance, they formed the
line of immediate fight; either of which characterized the only public
assemblies I ever witnessed among them.

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To Trees who loves me and Thomas who knew everything.

1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28

Part 2 The Psychological Core 43

2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44

3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127

6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154

Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 179

7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180

8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206

9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234

10 Post-Decision Processes 258

Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 291

11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 292

12 Consumer Diversity 321

13 Household and Social Class Influences 346

14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373

Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and

16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 429

17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility

Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3

Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28

Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28 External Marketing Research Firms 35

Part 2 The Psychological Core 43

Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44

Chapter 3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

Chapter 4 Memory and Knowledge 100

Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127

Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154

Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 179

Chapter 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180

Chapter 8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206

Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234

Chapter 10 Post-Decision Processes 258

Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 291

Chapter 11 Social Influences on Consumer Behavior 292

Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 321

Chapter 13 Household and Social Class Influences 346

Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373

14-1 Values 375 14-3 Lifestyles 391

Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 403

Chapter 15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 404