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 Page i

ENGINEERING
COMPUTATIONS
An Introduction Using
MATLAB® and Excel®

Joseph C. Musto
Milwaukee School of Engineering

William E. Howard
East Carolina University

Richard R. Williams
Auburn University
 Page ii

ENGINEERING COMPUTATION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY
10121. Copyright ©2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited
to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not
be available to customers outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 QVS 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-57071-7
MHID 1-260-57071-1
Cover Image: ©Ingram Publishing
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are
considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of
publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an
endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-
Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information
presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
 Page iii

CONTENTS

Preface v

PART 1
Computational Tools 1

CHAPTER 1
Computing Tools 3
Introduction 3
1.1 Analytic and Algorithmic Solutions 4
1.2 Approaches to Engineering Computation 11
1.3 Data Representation 13

CHAPTER 2
Excel Fundamentals 21
Introduction 21
2.1 The Excel Interface 21
2.2 Tutorial: Entering and Formatting Data With Excel 24
2.3 Tutorial: Entering and Formatting Formulas With Excel 29
2.4 Tutorial: Using Built-in Functions 37
2.5 Tutorial: Performing Logical Tests Using the IF Statement
42
2.6 Tutorial: Using Lookup Tables 49
2.7 Tutorial: Interpolating With Excel 53

CHAPTER 3
MATLAB Fundamentals 63
Introduction 63
3.1 The MATLAB Interface 63
3.2 Tutorial: Using the Command Window for Interactive
Computation 65
3.3 Tutorial: Using MATLAB Script Files 74
3.4 Tutorial: Using MATLAB Function Files 81
3.5 Tutorial: Computing With One-Dimensional Arrays 85
3.6 Tutorial: Computing With Two-Dimensional Arrays 92
3.7 Tutorial: Saving a MATLAB Session 96

CHAPTER 4
MATLAB Programming 103
Introduction 103
4.1 Flowcharts 103
4.2 Tutorial: Loop Commands 106
4.3 Tutorial: Logical Branching Statements 115
4.4 Tutorial: Combining Loops and Logic 125
4.5 Tutorial: Formatting MATLAB Output 134

CHAPTER 5
Plotting Data 143
Introduction 143
5.1 Types of Graphs 143
5.2 XY Graphs 147
5.3 Guidelines for Producing Good Graphs 178
5.4 Tutorial: Creating Other Types of Graphs With Excel 180
Page iv

PART 2
Engineering Applications 193

CHAPTER 6
Finding the Roots of Equations 195
Introduction 195
6.1 Motivation 196
6.2 Roots of Equations: Theory 197
6.3 Tutorial: Solution of General Nonlinear Equations Using
MATLAB 207
6.4 Tutorial: Solution of Polynomial Equations Using MATLAB
210
6.5 Tutorial: Solution of General Nonlinear Equations Using
Excel 213

CHAPTER 7
Matrix Mathematics 219
Introduction 219
7.1 Properties of Matrices 219
7.2 Tutorial: Matrix Operations Using Excel 223
7.3 Tutorial: Matrix Operations Using MATLAB 228

CHAPTER 8
Solving Simultaneous Equations 237
Introduction 237
8.1 Systems of Linear Equations 237
8.2 Tutorial: Solutions of Linear Equations Using Excel 238
8.3 Tutorial: Solutions to Simultaneous Linear Equations Using
MATLAB 244
8.4 Tutorial: Solving Nonlinear Simultaneous Equations Using
Excel 248
8.5 Tutorial: Solving Nonlinear Simultaneous Equations Using
MATLAB 250

CHAPTER 9
Numerical Integration 263
Introduction 263
9.1 Concepts From Calculus 263
9.2 Tutorial: Numerical Integration of Functions 267
9.3 Tutorial: Numerical Integration of Measured Data 279

CHAPTER 10
Optimization 289
Introduction 289
10.1 Engineering Optimization 290
10.2 Formulating an Optimization Problem 292
10.3 Solution of an Optimization Problem 294
10.4 Solution of an Optimization Problem Using MATLAB 302
10.5 Solution of an Optimization Problem Using Excel 309
10.6 Tutorial: Engineering Application of Linear Constrained
Optimization 317
INDEX 327
 Page v

PREFACE

This text has grown out of the authors’ experiences teaching

introductory computation courses to engineering students from a
variety of disciplines at three different institutions. The integration of
computational tools in engineering programs is a constant challenge
for educators. The broad goals associated with an introductory
course in computer applications often include:

▪ Teaching the concept of “procedural thinking” and algorithm

development.

▪ Teaching the mechanics of the computational tools required in

both the subsequent academic program and professional
practice.

▪ Teaching the techniques for developing a computational solution

to a physical problem.

▪ Providing the context for the selection of a computational tool

appropriate for the task at hand.

▪ Teaching the accepted techniques for documenting and verifying

computer-based solutions to engineering problems.

▪ Stimulating interest in upper-division coursework by introducing

the students to realistic, interesting, and exciting problems and
applications.
This text will emphasize these concepts, using MATLAB® and Excel®
as the software packages of choice. These packages were chosen
because:

▪ MATLAB is widely accepted as a first computation tool in

numerous engineering programs.

▪ MATLAB has the unique ability to be both used as an

introductory programming tool and a high-level computational
tool; the programming constructs (loops and logic) allow it to be
used as a first programming language for engineering students,
while the numerous mathematical and analysis “toolboxes” allow
it to be readily applied to high-level engineering applications.

▪ Excel is a ubiquitous spreadsheet application, which nearly every

engineering student will have access to during their academic
and professional careers. Excel has powerful built-in functions
that allow it to be applied to high-level engineering problems.

▪ Since spreadsheet solutions are so fundamentally different than

the procedural solutions developed using programming tools like
MATLAB, the contrasting approach allows for demonstration and
discussion about implication of the choice of software tool on the
type and complexity of the solution technique.

Philosophy of the Text

The underlying philosophy behind the approach taken in this text is:

▪ Computer tools will change during the professional careers of a

freshman engineering student. While it is important to teach the
mechanics of using the relevant tools, the focus of this text
should be on the fundamentals of engineering computing:
 algorithm development, selection of appropriate tools,
documentation of solutions, and verification and interpretation of
results.

▪ Programming is a fundamental concept for engineers; while

“shortcut” solutions (such as implied loops in MATLAB) and
“canned” software are certainly appropriate for upper-division
students and practicing engineers, introductory students should
be focused on the basics of structured programming: loops,
logic, and array structures. These basic concepts, which are
language-independent, are the critical building blocks for
programming, and should be introduced early.

With this in mind, the text was developed in two parts. The Page vi
first part generally covers the mechanics of programming
and spreadsheet usage; including:

▪ An introduction to computational theory,

▪ An introduction to number representation (scalars, arrays, and

matrices),

▪ An introduction to programming constructs, including algorithm

development and flowcharting,

▪ The mechanics of MATLAB and Excel usage, and

▪ Best practices in computer tool usage, including tool selection,

documentation of solutions, and checking of results.

These chapters include detailed “keystroke-level” instructions, which

will guide the reader through the use of the MATLAB and Excel tools.
The second part focuses on typical applications of engineering
computation; these applications are motivated with engineering
problems, and include:

▪ Root finding,

▪ Matrix methods,

▪ Simultaneous equations,

▪ Numerical integration, and

▪ Optimization.

These applications are intended to motivate not only engineering

computation, but the use of concepts from upper-division
engineering courses as well. Both theoretical concepts and
“keystroke-level” tutorials are presented in these applications
chapters.

New In This Edition

This edition has been updated for the latest versions of MATLAB and
Excel. In addition, many new end-of-chapter problems have been
created, and a tutorial involving symbolic computation in MATLAB
has been developed.

Instructor Resources
Additional resources for instructors are available on the web at
www.mhhe.com/musto2e. These resources include solutions to the
end-of-chapter problems and book figures in PowerPoint format.
Instructors can contact a McGraw-Hill representative for a password.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to our friends at McGraw-Hill for their support and
encouragement during this project. Theresa Collins, our production
developer, has provided invaluable support and guidance during this
project. We wish to thank Fleck’s Communications for page layout,
and Kim Haas for copyediting. Additionally, the cooperation and
support of the MathWorks Book Program was invaluable.
Feedback provided during the review process was greatly
appreciated, and helped to shape the final form of this text. We wish
to thank the following reviewers for their careful reviews of the initial
manuscript:
Ali Elkamel, University of Waterloo
Bill Elmore, Mississippi State University
Howard Fulmer, Villanova University
Brian Grady, Oklahoma University
Mark Kerstetter, Western Michigan University
Leo Pérez y Pérez, California State University at Long Beach
Michael Robinson, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
David Rockstraw, New Mexico State University
Scott Short, Northern Illinois University
Elisa H. Barney Smith, Boise State University
J. Steven Swinnea, University of Texas at Austin
Michael Weinstein, University of Rochester
Students in the Computing Applications in Engineering course at East
Carolina University class tested an early version of this text; their
feedback was appreciated. Also at East Carolina University, Scott
Martin provided a thorough reading and review of this text, and we
thank him for his insight and input.
Joe Musto
Ed Howard
Rick Williams
MATLAB is a registered trademark of TheMathWorks, Inc.
Excel is a registered trademark of The Microsoft Corporation.
 Page 1
PART 1
COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS
Chapter 1: Computing Tools
Chapter 2: Excel Fundamentals
Chapter 3: MATLAB Fundamentals
Chapter 4: MATLAB Programming
Chapter 5: Plotting Data
Page 2
 Page 3
CHAPTER 1

Computing Tools
Introduction
The engineering profession is a discipline devoted to problem
solving, applying principles of mathematics and science to develop
solutions to practical problems involving structures, machines,
electrical circuits, and various other physical systems and devices.
With their ability to perform numerical analysis and data handling,
computers are important tools for practicing engineers. Engineering
graduates from all disciplines are expected to have proficiency in a
wide range of computational tools and software. New engineering
graduates should expect to have proficiency in:

▪ communication tools (for e-mail and messaging),

▪ Internet search tools (for research),

▪ word processing tools (for report preparation and memo writing),

▪ presentation tools (for audiovisual presentation),

▪ data acquisition tools (for running and reading data from

experiments), and

▪ computational tools (for programming, data analysis, equation

solving, and plotting).
In addition to these basic tools that cross all engineering disciplines,
there are specific computer tools that are considered part of the core
skill set for each engineering discipline. Examples of these tools
include:

▪ solid modeling and computer-aided design/drafting software (for

mechanical and civil engineers),

▪ electric circuit simulation software (for electrical and computer

engineers),

▪ finite element analysis software (for mechanical, civil, and

electrical engineers),

▪ advanced programming languages (for computer and software

engineers), and

▪ statistical analysis software (for industrial engineers).

This text is devoted to an introduction to the application of Page 4

computational tools to the solution of engineering problems.
These are the types of tools used for mathematical analysis and data
processing across a wide variety of engineering disciplines. While no
individual software product can truly be considered a “standard” for
all engineers, two widely available and widely used software
packages are introduced in this text: MATLAB® and Excel®. Besides
being two of the most popular computational packages for
engineers, they also provide the opportunity to demonstrate two
very different approaches to engineering computation: programming
tools and spreadsheet tools. While these two platforms offer very
different ways to approach the solution of engineering problems,
there are some similarities between them, particularly in the way
data is represented, stored, and handled. These similarities are
important to understand, in that they offer a common language for
these, and other, computational tools.
In this chapter, you will:

▪ learn the difference between an analytic and an algorithmic

solution,

▪ learn the essentials of algorithm development and pseudocode,

▪ learn the basic difference between programming tools and

spreadsheet tools,

▪ learn the basic terminology of data storage and handling, and

▪ learn the difference between accuracy and precision, and the

implications of both in engineering computation.

1.1 Analytic and Algorithmic Solutions

The computational tools introduced in this text allow us to automate
the mathematical analysis required to solve an engineering problem.
In order to understand both the advantages and limitations of the
application of computational tools to engineering problems, we must
first understand the essential difference between the analytic
solution and the algorithmic solution to an engineering problem.
Consider the classic projectile motion problem addressed in
introductory physics classes. A ball will be fired from a toy cannon,
with an initial speed of 10.0 meters per second at an angle of 35.0°,
as shown in Figure 1.1. An engineer has been asked to predict the
peak height that the cannonball will reach, the location at which the
cannonball will hit the ground, and the total flight time of the
projectile.
 Figure 1.1
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. Excel® is a trademark of the
Microsoft group of companies.

1.1.1 The Mathematical Model Page 5

The first step in the solution of this problem is the development of
the mathematical model that the engineer will use to predict the
behavior of the system. In this case, it requires the application of the
principles of the physics of mechanics. The engineer creates a sketch
of the system, as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2

In developing the mathematical equations that will be used to

predict the behavior of the system, the engineer must make some
decisions as to what to include in the model. In doing so, the
engineer balances the accuracy of the model (the ability of the
equations to properly predict the behavior of the system) and the
simplicity of the model. In this case, the engineer makes the
following decisions:
▪ The ground will be considered flat and level.

▪ The launch point will be considered to be at ground level.

▪ Wind resistance will not be considered in the equations.

These decisions, called simplifying assumptions, require considerable

engineering judgment. The engineer must decide that the
complexity introduced by including these effects into the equations
will not lead to any significant increase in the accuracy of the
solution. In this case, with these assumptions made, principles of
physics can be used to write the following equations for height and
horizontal distance as functions of time:

(1.1)

(1.2)
where h is the height of the cannon ball, x is the horizontal distance
travelled, ν is the initial speed of the cannonball, θ is the launch
angle, g is gravitational acceleration, and t is the time after launch
(in seconds). With this model in place, the engineer must now select
a solution technique to solve the equations. We will now contrast the
analytic solution to the algorithmic solution of this problem.

1.1.2 The Analytic Solution

An analytic solution is an exact solution, based on the application of
the mathematical principles of algebra, calculus, etc. In the model
we have developed, an analytic solution is possible. In order to find
the peak height the ball will reach, the engineer uses principles of
calculus to take the first derivative of Equation 1.1:
 (1.3)

When this derivative is equal to zero, the height is at an Page 6

extreme (maximum or minimum) value. Setting the
derivative equal to zero and solving for t yields:

(1.4)

Substituting in the known values for launch speed, angle, and

gravitational acceleration and carrying out the arithmetic yields:

(1.5)

or t = 0.585 seconds. This indicates that the ball will reach its peak
height after 0.585 seconds of flight time. Substituting this value for
time into Equation 1.1 yields:

(1.6)

or the peak height is determined to be hmax = 1.68 meters.

To determine the total flight time and horizontal distance travelled,
the engineer uses Equation 1.1 to determine the time at which the
height of the ball is zero:

(1.7)

The engineer uses algebra to factor out t, leading to two solutions:

 (1.8)

The engineer recognizes that t = 0 corresponds to the launch time,

and t = 1.17 seconds corresponds to the time at which the ball hits
the ground again. This value can be substituted into Equation 1.2 to
determine the horizontal distance travelled during 1.17 seconds of
flight: Page 7

(1.9)

yielding a horizontal distance travelled of 9.58 meters.

The engineer reports the results in Table 1.1, with appropriate units:

Table 1.1 Results of the Analytic Solution

1.1.3 The Algorithmic Solution

An algorithmic solution is an approximate solution, based on the
application of a computational procedure. In an algorithmic solution,
the engineer will define a series of steps or rules to be followed that
will lead to the discovery of the solution of the problem. The
algorithm will generally rely on principles of arithmetic only to solve
the problem; therefore, while the solution is approximate, it also
eliminates the need to apply more complicated mathematics to the
problem. An algorithmic approach will be demonstrated in our
sample problem.
The engineer has an equation to compute the height of the ball at
any time t. The engineer recognizes that the cannonball starts and
ends at a height of zero, and will reach its peak somewhere in the
middle. For the first part of the flight, height is increasing; during the
second part of the flight, height is decreasing. If the engineer can
identify the point where the height stops increasing and starts
decreasing, the point of peak height will be identified. The engineer
constructs the following algorithm for identifying the peak height;
the solution steps, provided in verbal descriptions called
pseudocode, are as follows:

▪ Step 1: Start at a time value of t = 0 and h = 0.

▪ Step 2: Increase time by adding some small value ∆t to t (e.g.,

tnew = t + ∆t).

▪ Step 3: Plug the new value of tnew into Equation 1.1 to get a new
value of h, which we will call hnew.

▪ Step 4: Compare h and hnew:

▪ If h < hnew, then the height is still increasing, and the peak
has not been reached. Set t = tnew, h = hnew, and return to
Step 2.

▪ If h > hnew, then the height has started decreasing. This tells
us that the ball reached its peak somewhere in the
neighborhood of h (either in the interval between h and hnew,
or in the previous interval).

▪ Step 5: Assume that the maximum height occurs at the height at

the start of the interval, or hmax = h.
The algorithmic solution is a “road map” to the solution of Page 8
the problem; it is not an answer itself, but is a series of
specified steps that will lead to an answer. The main computational
part of the algorithm, embodied in Steps 2 through 4, may need to
be repeated multiple times before a solution is reached; there is no
particular way to tell ahead of time how many times the algorithm
will “loop” back to Step 2 before a solution is found. Note that this
algorithmic solution uses arithmetic operations only; unlike the
analytic approach, no principles of calculus or algebra are required.
However, note that there is a critical approximation used in the
algorithm; the height is only computed for specific values of t, but it
is likely that the actual peak value occurs at some intermediate
value.
The engineer carries out the algorithmic solution, using a time step
value of ∆t = 0.1 seconds. The values of each variable at each
“loop” through Steps 2 through 4 are shown in Table 1.2:

Table 1.2 Step-by-Step Solution Algorithm

for Finding hmax

The algorithm leads to a solution value of hmax = 1.68 meters.

The engineer proceeds to construct a solution algorithm for finding
the point at which the cannonball strikes the ground. The engineer
recognizes that a height value of zero indicates the point at which
the cannonball hits the ground, and the time at which this happens
is the total flight time. The algorithm is as follows:
▪ Step 1: Start at a time value of t = 0 and h = 0.

▪ Step 2: Increase time by adding some small value ∆t to t (e.g.,

tnew = t + ∆t).

▪ Step 3: Plug the new value of tnew into Equation 1.1 to get a new
value of h, which we will call hnew.

▪ Step 4: Check the value of hnew:

▪ If hnew > 0, then the cannonball is still in flight. Set t = tnew,

h = hnew, and return to Step 2.

▪ If hnew < 0, then the cannonball hits the ground somewhere

between h and hnew.

▪ Step 5: Approximate the total flight time by setting Page 9

▪ Step 6: Find the horizontal distance travelled during the flight by

substituting tflight into Equation 1.2. End the algorithm.

The engineer again executes the algorithm, with ∆t = .1 seconds.

The values at each step of the algorithm are shown in Table 1.3:

Table 1.3 Step-by-Step Solution Algorithm

for Finding Flight Time and Distance Travelled
The results from these two algorithms are reported by the engineer,
as shown in Table 1.4:

Table 1.4 Results of the Algorithmic

Solution

1.1.4 Comparison of the Analytic and the

Algorithmic Solutions
Examining both the process and results of the analytic and
algorithmic solutions can tell us much about the nature of each
solution. The most important differentiation between the two
solutions is that the analytic solution is exact. As long as the
mathematical techniques of algebra and calculus were properly
applied, and the arithmetic computation was performed correctly,
the result is valid to the appropriate number of significant digits
allowed by the given data. The algorithmic solution is Page 10
approximate; the equations are not solved exactly, but are
merely evaluated at specified values of the independent time
variable. These specified values of time, known as discrete values,
limit the accuracy of the final solution. By the nature of the
algorithm, the only possible solutions occur at time values at, or
midway between, our discrete points. However, while the algorithm
will always produce an approximate solution, the spacing between
the discrete points is under the engineer’s control; the solution can
be made more accurate by decreasing the value of ∆t used in the
algorithm. For example, if the algorithm was repeated, but with a
value of ∆t = 0.001 seconds, the results would be the same as those
reported for the analytic solution to three significant digits. However,
to achieve this increased accuracy, the algorithm would need to
“loop” through Steps 2 through 4 many more times (1680 times to
find hmax, instead of seven).
While algorithmic solutions are approximate by their nature, we can
increase their accuracy by decreasing the interval between discrete
points and simply running through the algorithm more times.
Approaching an algorithmic solution “by hand” would prove
impractical if increased accuracy was required. Within practical limits,
however, it is no more difficult to run through the algorithm tens,
hundreds, or even thousands of times. This is because algorithmic
solutions lend themselves readily to implementation with computer
tools. The algorithms developed in this chapter were presented as
verbal descriptions of the step-by-step problem-solving strategy;
these verbal descriptions are known as pseudocode. A computer
programming language, such as the MATLAB software introduced in
this text, can be readily used to translate our software-independent
pseudocode into software-specific computer code, providing clear
instructions that the computer can follow. While computers can be
applied to automate the arithmetic part of an analytic solution, it is
in the implementation of algorithmic solutions where computational
tools are best suited.
Since analytic solutions are exact, and algorithmic solutions are
approximate, why should algorithmic solutions be used at all? In our
example case, there is really no need for an algorithmic solution,
since the problem is readily solved using analytic techniques. An
engineer with a background in differential calculus and algebra could
readily arrive at an analytic solution. When this is the case, an
analytic solution is the preferred approach. However, in the
professional practice of engineering, this is not always the case.
Even in your undergraduate studies, you will soon encounter
problems that you lack the mathematical background to solve, and
even some where no analytic solution exists. It is at these times that
algorithmic solutions become an important option. You have likely
already used algorithmic solutions to solve otherwise difficult or
unsolvable problems; if you have used a root finding function on
your programmable graphic calculator to find the roots of a higher-
order algebraic equation, you have used an algorithmic solution
technique derived and implemented by the calculator’s manufacturer.
(Did you realize that the answers you obtained with your calculator
were approximate?) Page 11
Another hallmark of an algorithmic solution is that there is
not one unique algorithm that will solve a specific problem.
Development of solution algorithms requires a combination of
mathematical reasoning and creativity. Computer scientists focus on
the development of efficient computational algorithms that minimize
the computer time and memory used when running a program
based on their algorithm. In this text, we will focus on implementing
and using many standard solution algorithms; however, there is still
much room in the field of engineering computation for the
development of new and creative algorithms for solving engineering
problems.

1.2 Approaches to Engineering Computation

In this text, we will contrast two distinct approaches to the
implementation of engineering computation: programming tools and
spreadsheet tools.
Programming tools allow the translation of pseudocoded algorithms
into instruction sets that can be followed by the computer. These
instruction sets are called computer programs or computer code.
There are many programming languages used by practicing
engineers; we will use the MATLAB platform to introduce the concept
of programming tools in this text. As an example, the MATLAB
implementation of the pseudocoded algorithm for finding maximum
height is shown below. The details of developing your own MATLAB
code will be covered in Chapters 3 and 4 of this text.

Programming tools allow us to specify the logic and Page 12

decision-making structure that the computer will follow in
the implementation of an algorithm. From the earliest days of
computing, users communicated with the machines through
instruction sets provided by the programming tools available. While
the look of the programming languages and the interface used to
communicate with the machine have evolved significantly, the idea
of translating an algorithm into software-specific instructions is a
classic paradigm for computation.
A spreadsheet tool is a completely different paradigm for
computation; a spreadsheet resembles a large data table. The user
of a spreadsheet tool fills some of the cells of the table with data,
and fills other cells with mathematical equations and logical
expressions that use the data cells as their input. This tabular
structure provides an intuitive graphical approach to data
manipulation and computation, but it differs significantly from the
step-by-step instruction sets used in programming approaches.
While the graphical approach to computation is appealing, the direct
link with pseudocoded algorithms is sometimes lost with spreadsheet
implementations. Although other spreadsheet products do exist, we
will use the Excel product from Microsoft Corporation as the
spreadsheet platform in this text. As an example, a spreadsheet
used to implement the maximum height algorithm and generate the
data shown in Table 1.1 is shown in Figures 1.3 (with numerical
values shown) and 1.4 (with formulas relating the cells shown).

Figure 1.3
 Figure 1.4

As we introduce the various problem-solving approaches in this text,

we will highlight the advantages and disadvantages of these two
approaches to engineering computation. Some problems are best
suited to solution by programming, while others are best suited to
spreadsheet solutions. That said, the MATLAB and Excel tools that
we introduce in this text are very advanced and capable
computational tools, and have to some extent adapted the best
features of each approach into their functionality. Excel has
implemented a programming interface, where more traditional
computer code can be developed to operate on and fill cells in the
spreadsheet. MATLAB has developed an array editing interface that
looks and acts similar to a spreadsheet. Both have developed
preprogrammed utilities for plotting, root finding, Page 13
optimization, and other common operations that allow the
user access to advanced algorithms for engineering problem solving.
The goals of this text involve both proficiency with the computational
tools and the insight into selection of an appropriate tool for a given
engineering application.

1.3 Data Representation

Despite the differences between various computational platforms,
there are some similarities between packages in the way data is
represented, stored, and manipulated. In this section, the
terminology of data representation will be introduced and related
back to the MATLAB and Excel tools used in this text.

1.3.1 Variables and Functions

A variable is the symbolic representation of a quantity that can take
on more than a single value. Consider the equation:

(1.10)
In this equation, x and y are variables, since they can take on many
values. We often refer to variables as independent or dependent. A
variable is dependent when its value depends on the value of other
variables. Usually we write equations so that the dependent variable
is on the left side of the equal sign. For example, in Equation 1.10,
we would assume that y is the dependent variable, since its value
depends on the value of the independent variable x. Of course, we
could rearrange the equation so that x is on the left side:

(1.11)

Does this mean that y is the independent variable? We must go

beyond the equation and examine the problem that it represents in
order to determine which one is the independent variable. We do
know that both x and y cannot be independent, because when we
assign a value to one of them, the value of the other can be
determined from the equation.
Let’s go back to the example of the cannonball’s trajectory. We wrote
an equation for the height h of the cannonball as:

(1.12)

where ν = initial velocity

t = time
θ = launch angle
 g = gravitational acceleration
There are five quantities related by symbols in this equation;
however, they are not all variables in the problem. We are
considering the initial velocity, launch angle, and gravitational
acceleration to be constants rather than variables. This is Page 14
not evident in the equation, but rather in the problem
statement. Suppose the problem statement was changed so that we
were asked to calculate the height at time t = 2 seconds for various
values of the launch angle. In this case, time would be a constant
and the launch angle a variable, but the equation would be
unchanged. In another version of the problem, we might be asked to
find the maximum height that can be attained for any launch angle.
In this case, height, launch angle, and time would all be variables.
Going back to the original problem, with the initial velocity, launch
angle, and gravitational acceleration all considered to be constants,
we say that the height is a function of time, and will often write the
left side of the equation as h(t), as in Equation 1.1. Therefore, time t
is the independent variable, while height h is dependent on time. To
be more precise, a function is defined as follows: A function is a
mathematical operation that returns a single value for a given input
value or set of values. The input values are called the arguments of
the function.
While not identical, computational functions are similar to
mathematical functions in that they compute an output value from a
number of input arguments. Both Excel and MATLAB have many
built-in functions. Many of these functions require a single argument.
For example, the cos function in MATLAB returns the cosine of an
input value of an angle in radians. Other functions require a specific
number of multiple arguments. For example, Excel has a function
called ROUND which requires two arguments: the number to be
rounded off and the number of decimal places to which the number
is to be rounded. Still other functions have a variable number of
arguments. An example is the AVERAGE function in Excel, which
finds the average of a group of values entered as arguments. In
MATLAB, there are a number of functions that use arrays or matrices
as arguments, which we shall discuss in subsequent chapters. (Note
that the convention in this text is to refer to MATLAB functions in
italics, and Excel functions in capital letters).

1.3.2 Scalars and Arrays

In the algorithmic solution presented in Section 1.1, we chose the
values of the independent variable t (time) to evaluate, and
calculated the value of the height at each increment. We continued
to make calculations until the value of the height began to decrease,
indicating that the peak height was attained. We chose a time
increment of 0.1 seconds. The results of this analysis are repeated in
Table 1.5:

Table 1.5 Algorithmic Solution to

Cannonball Problem

In a spreadsheet solution, the calculations would be Page 15

performed in the cells of the spreadsheet, with the results
shown in a form similar to that of Table 1.5. In a spreadsheet, the
numerical value in a cell is a scalar—a single value that can be
represented on a numerical scale. However, in a computing language
like MATLAB, results of calculations are stored differently. It is
possible that we could have variables named t, tnew, h, and hnew. In
each calculation loop, we could write over the previous value of the
variable. In doing so, we would also be treating each variable as a
scalar, with a single value. But what if we wanted to keep the results
for each loop? We may want to plot height versus time. To do so, we
need to have those values stored in memory. It would be difficult to
give each value a unique name (for example, t1, t2, t3, etc. for time
values), and doing so would require making every calculation
sequentially, rather than in a repeating loop. Instead, we use arrays
to store data. An array is a single variable that has multiple values
associated with it. In our example, time t would be an array with
seven values. The values within an array are referenced by an index.
An index is an integer that refers to the position of the value within
the array. You can think of an index as being an address. Our
variable t has seven addresses, labeled 1–7. Into each address we
place the value of time (as in Table 1.6):

Table 1.6 Structure of Array t

We refer to an individual value of the array by including the index

number in parentheses following the array name, or as a subscript
to the variable name. For example, t (5) = 0.4 seconds, or t3 = 0.2
seconds.
It is very important to remember that index numbers must be
integers, beginning with one and progressing by one for subsequent
values. Some of the common errors that are made by beginning
programmers include:

▪ Trying to use zero as an index. In our example, the first value of

time is zero. Therefore, it is tempting to start an array with t (0)
= 0. This will result in the following error in MATLAB:
▪ Trying to use non-integer indices. For example, the statement “t
(.1) = 0.1” would result in the same error as above.

▪ Progressing index values by increments other than one. For

example, suppose that you are performing an experiment in
which you take temperature readings every 10 seconds. Your
first reading is 100°C, so you enter this as T(10) = 100. Page 16
In this case, there will not be an error, but rather an
array is created with T(1) through T(9) all having values of zero:

In all of these cases, the fundamental error is confusion between

independent variables and indices. Remember that indices are simply
counting values representing addresses within an array, and are not
variables themselves.
The arrays shown above are one-dimensional arrays. That is, a
single index number is used to establish the identity of a value in the
array. Arrays can also be multidimensional. In the example illustrated
in Table 1.5, note that there are two values of time for each loop: t
and tnew. Instead of storing these values in two one-dimensional
arrays, we can store them in a single two-dimensional array. If we
assign the first index a value of 1 or 2, representing t and tnew,
respectively, and assign the second index the value of the loop
number, then all 14 values will be stored in an array. As an example
of this scheme, t (1,5) = 0.4 and t (2,5) = 0.5.

1.3.3 Matrices and Vectors

One- and two-dimensional arrays are often referred to as matrices.
In addition to being an efficient method for storing data, many
mathematical operations can be performed directly with matrices. In
fact, the name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory, and the
program was originally created to perform matrix operations. In
Chapters 7 and 8, we will learn some simple matrix mathematics and
use matrix methods to solve a series of simultaneous equations.
The size of a matrix is defined by its number of rows and columns.
For example, the matrix below is a (3 × 2) matrix (pronounced
“three by two matrix”), with three rows and two columns:

One-dimensional arrays are often called vectors in engineering

computation. If the values are arranged in a single row, then the
array is called a row vector; if the values are arranged in a single
column, the array is called a column vector. One-dimensional arrays
can also be called column matrices and row matrices.
It is important to note here that there is another definition of the
term vector that you will encounter in physics and engineering
mechanics. In that context, a vector quantity is one that is defined
by a magnitude and a direction. For example, velocity is a vector
quantity. In addition to its magnitude (speed), the direction Page 17
of motion is necessary to completely define a velocity. One
method to define a vector quantity is to define its components in the
x, y, and z directions. Of course, these three components can be
placed in a one-dimensional array, fitting the computational
definition of a vector. Because of the confusion that can be created
by the two definitions, in this text we will avoid using the term
vector when referring to a one-dimensional array. Instead, we will
use the more general term array when referring to the storage of
multivalue variables, and matrix when referring to one- and two-
dimensional arrays for which we will perform matrix mathematics
operations.
Excel also has the ability to represent and manipulate arrays. Data
entered into a region of adjacent cells in a spreadsheet can be
interpreted as a matrix, and operated upon using matrix
mathematics. In Excel, these operations are performed using
prewritten functions (like those described in Section 1.3.1)
specifically developed for matrix computation. Unlike MATLAB, which
was developed specifically for matrix operations and where matrix
and scalar computations are performed with the same mathematical
operators, matrices require special handling when using Excel. These
methods will be described in Chapter 7 of this text.

1.3.4 Accuracy and Precision

The terms accuracy and precision are often used interchangeably,
but have different meanings in computing applications. Accuracy
refers to the closeness of the calculated solution to the actual value,
and is a function of the model itself. For example, when finding the
height reached by the cannonball, we noted that if we decreased the
size of the time step, our solution would approach the “exact”
analytical solution. We also noted that there were several
assumptions present in our model. For example, the effects of wind
resistance were neglected. This assumption also affects the accuracy
of the solution.
The precision of the solution depends on how well the input
variables are known, and on how numerical values are stored from
one calculation to another. In the cannonball problem, the launch
angle was given as 35°. But how precise is this value? Depending on
how the cannon’s launch angle is set and measured, the value might
be precise to the nearest degree, the nearest one-tenth of a degree,
or the nearest 5°.
In the sciences, the precision of measured input variables are usually
known, and calculation results are reported based on the number of
significant digits of the input. For numbers containing decimal points,
the number of significant digits of a number is defined as the
number of digits between the first non-zero digit and the last digit.
Consider these examples:
When making calculations, the answer can only be as Page 18
precise as the least precise of the input values. For addition
and subtraction, this means that the number of digits to the right of
the decimal point in the answer must be equal to the least number
of digits to the right of the decimal point in any of the inputs.
Examples include:

For multiplication and division, the number of significant digits in the

answer must equal the least number of significant digits of the input
values. Examples include:

Some quantities are exact. For example, there are exactly 12 inches
in a foot. So if we want to convert 11.556 inches to feet, the answer
is:

In this case, the exact value of 12 inches per foot is considered to

have an infinite number of significant digits.
The precision of quantities without a decimal point is not always
known. For example, as we discussed previously, we may not know
the precision of the 35° elevation angle in the cannonball problem.
This is a typical situation in most engineering problems, with at least
some of the input quantities of unknown precision. Therefore, the
rules for calculations described previously cannot be applied. Rather,
a reasonable number of significant digits should be reported. Many
engineering texts suggest three significant digits for final answers
(some recommend four significant digits if the first significant digit is
a one). When performing calculations by hand, intermediate results
should be carried to more significant digits than will be reported for
the final answer. For example, you cannot round the value of the
sine of 35° to 0.57 and then report the final answer to more than
two significant digits.
With computing solutions, intermediate calculations are not rounded
off, so the precision of the final answer is usually dependent only on
the precision of the input values. The qualifier “usually” in the
previous sentence must be added because there are some instances,
when working with combinations of very large and very small values,
where errors will accumulate in computing solutions as well. For
example, when analyzing mechanical structures using a
computational technique known as finite element analysis, tens or
hundreds of thousands of simultaneous equations are solved. If the
numerical values in these equations differ by orders of magnitude,
then the solution algorithm of the program must be designed in a
way that minimizes computational errors. For the problems Page 19
encountered by most engineering students and practicing
engineers, this is not a concern. How precise are the values stored in
Excel and MATLAB? Excel carries values to 15 significant digits. By
default, MATLAB stores values as double-precision values, which also
have approximately 15 significant digits. The term double-precision
refers to the fact that these values require two 8-bit units of
computer memory to store, while single-precision values are stored
in a single unit of memory. In the early days of computing, storage
space was severely limited, so double-precision values were used
only when necessary to ensure sufficient precision of calculations.
Processing times were also increased when double-precision values
were used. With today’s inexpensive computer hardware and fast
processors, there is rarely a need to use single-precision values,
although MATLAB does support single-precision values for working
with extremely large data sets.
One final thought about accuracy and precision is warranted. When
formulating a computer solution to a problem, many students will
report the final answer to whatever precision is displayed on the
computer screen, even though they routinely round the answers of
hand calculations to a reasonable precision. In doing so, they are
treating the computer solution as a “black box,” with no
consideration of what is happening between the inputs and outputs.
When a computer solution is reported to a reasonable number of
significant figures, a student conveys the impression that he or she
is aware of the assumptions and approximations associated with the
problem. Engineering students and practicing engineers should take
care to interpret the results of their computations, and report the
results to a reasonable level of precision, regardless of the
computer’s output.

Problems
1.1 Describe the differences between analytic and algorithmic
solutions.
1.2 Develop the pseudocode for an algorithmic solution for
finding the two points where the function f(x) = 3x2 –
12.4x + 3 crosses the x-axis.
1.3 Consider the cannon model developed in Section 1.1.1.
a. Using the equations developed and a launch speed of
10.0 m/s, develop the pseudocode for an algorithmic
solution to determine the launch angle required to reach
a peak height of at least 2.5 meters.
b. Using discrete values spaced 5° apart, carry out the
algorithmic solution by hand. Report each step of the
algorithm in a table.
c. Perform an analytic solution for this problem, and
compare the result with your algorithmic solution.
1.4 Consider the cannonball problem described in Section
1.1.1. You have been asked to determine a combination of
launch speed and angle required to clear a 5-meter wall
erected 8 meters from the launch point. The maximum
Another random document with
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advantage over the propeller type in the removal of dust lies in the
fact that they overcome greater internal resistance, and a uniform
high velocity in a complicated system of pipes can thus more easily
be maintained.

Fig. 3 shows adjustable hoods and ducts fitting closely over rollers for mixing
coloured inks, and serving not only to prevent inhalation of lead dust by the
workers, but also the colour from one machine affecting that on another. In the
particular room where the installation is fitted there are thirteen separate sets of
rollers; the diameter of the branch duct of each machine is about 5 inches, and
that of the main duct close to the fan about 20 inches. The special points we
have considered as to entrance of all branch ducts into the main duct
tangentially, gradual tapering of the main trunk, and collection of the dust in
filter-bags, are noticeable. Further, when one set of rollers is not in use the
raising of the hood automatically cuts off the draught through it. (Drawing
supplied by the Sturtevant Engineering Company, Limited, London.)

Ducts.—The main duct should be of metal (steel, sheet-iron, or

zinc); it should be circular in shape, have as straight and short a
course as possible, and be tapered in such manner that the area of
cross-section at any point shall equal the combined areas of all the
branch pipes which have entered it at that point (Fig. 3). Proper
dimensions must be studied in relation to the size of the fan and the
work to be done. Wooden ducts, unless chosen for specific reasons,
such as the presence of acid in the fumes to be removed, are very
unsatisfactory, as it is difficult to maintain them in an air-tight
condition or to make branch pipes enter with rounded junctions.
Where several branch ducts enter a main duct, situation of the fan
midway between them has advantage, not only in saving metal in
piping, but also in causing the distance of the fan from the farthest
branch duct to be only half what it would be were the fan placed at
the end of the system (see Fig. 7, p. 217). Further, the sectional area
of the two collecting ducts will be less than that of one main duct,
and greater uniformity of flow thereby secured. Where the two ducts
join up into the single duct of the fan, the bends must be easy;
otherwise the draughts would collide and neutralize one another.
Branch ducts, if they cannot be made tangential to a rounded curve,
should enter the main duct at an angle of 30 degrees, as by so doing
equalization of the draught at different openings is made fairly
uniform. The very common defect of a right-angle joint diminishes
the draught by nearly one-half. Branch ducts should never be made
to enter a main duct on the outer side of a bend, because at this
point the pressure of the current of air inside the duct is increased.
They should join up on the inside of a bend, where the pressure is
reduced.
Hoods and Air-Guides.—As the object of hoods is to
concentrate the draught on the fumes or dust to be removed from
the worker, position in regard to origin of the fumes or dust requires
first consideration. The more restricted the opening consistent with
unimpeded work, the more effective is the draught, and the less
disturbed will it be by cross-currents in the workroom. Pendock lays
it down as a useful principle that the area of the front opening into
the hood should not be more than four times that of the exhaust
throat—i.e., the point of junction of the hood and duct (Fig. 4). Not
less important is it that the draught should operate below the
breathing level. Preference as to the direction to be given to the
exhaust current should be in the order named: (1) Downwards; (2)
downwards and backwards combined; (3) backwards and upwards
combined; and (4) upwards only. Use should be made, for the
removal of the fumes or dust, of any initial current of hot air set up
from a bath of molten metal or from a heated metallic surface, as in
vitreous enamelling. Hence under such circumstances only (3) and
(4) need be considered. Generally hoods applied err in having too
wide an opening, or they are placed too far away from the source of
danger. They require sometimes to be adjustable to suit different-
sized articles. Care is necessary to see that, when a hood has been
adjusted for large articles, it is readjusted for smaller-sized articles.
The principle of ventilation downwards and backwards is recognized
as right for grinding and polishing on a wheel, since the tangential
current set up by the wheel in its rotation is utilized. Pug-mills in
paint-works are perhaps best ventilated by applying the exhaust to a
dome-shaped hood covering the posterior half of the mill. Edge-
runners must be encased, with an exhaust pipe attached to the
casing and sliding doors or shutters for introduction or removal of
material (Fig. 5). A small negative pressure inside the casing is all
that is necessary, so as to insure passage of air inwards and not
outwards. Branch ducts must protect the casks out of which material
is scooped, and the receptacle into which it is discharged. In
scooping out dry colour from a barrel, it is unwise to attempt to
remove the dust created at every displacement of air on removal of a
scoopful by means of a hood suspended over the barrel. Instead, the
last joint of the duct should be a telescopic one, so that it can be
lowered into the barrel, and be kept at a distance of about 6 inches
above the material. The air is thus drawn downwards into the barrel
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 4 shows a well-designed arrangement of hoods, duct, and fan, in the packing
of white lead, and the filter-bags for collecting the dust so removed. An
additional safeguard is introduced, as the casks stand upon grids through which
a down-draught is maintained by connecting the space underneath with the
exhaust system. (Drawing supplied by the Sturtevant Engineering Company,
Limited, London.)

Processes such as colour-dusting, aerographing, ware-cleaning,

enamel-brushing, and the like, are best carried out at benches under
hoods with glass tops. Air will enter from in front, and carry the dust
or spray away into the exhaust duct placed at the back of the bench.
Fig. 5 shows a pan mill with edge runners fitted with casing (partially open). The
casing is connected to a powerful fan, and branch ducts with telescopic terminal
sections control the dust in scooping out from the barrel, in feeding into the mill,
and at the point where the ground material is discharged.

Collection of Dust.—Frequently no heed is paid to the

collection of the dust. Sometimes a dust chamber is arranged to
intercept it on the far side of the fan, or attempt is made to blow the
dust into a tank of water. The fine dust of which we are speaking
cannot be satisfactorily collected by either of these methods, nor
even by a cyclone separator, so useful for the collection of many
kinds of dust. In lead works generally, the dust removed by the fan is
best collected in filter-bags made of some porous fabric. Various
efficient filters constructed on these lines by Messrs. Henry Simon,
Ltd.; Messrs. Beth and Co., Ltd.; and the Sturtevant Engineering
Company, Ltd., are on the market.
Fig. 6 shows an arrangement of piping with balanced telescopic joints fitted to a
Sirocco dust fan for removal of dust, in an electric accumulator works, when
scooping out litharge from a cask into the receptacle prior to emptying the
weighed quantity into the mixing machine, also under a hood connected with the
exhaust system. (Illustration supplied by Davidson and Company, Limited,
Belfast.)

In collecting the dust, care must be taken to provide an adequate

outlet for the spent air, so as to prevent creation of a source of
friction in front which might destroy the effectiveness of the
installation.
Fig. 7.—Exhaust Ventilation on the Patent “Pentarcomb” Principle applied
to Linotype and Monotype Machines in Printing Works, as installed by
the Zephyr Ventilating Company, Bristol.
P, Patent “pentarcomb” for equalizing exhaust; V, patent “pentarcomb” for general
ventilation; D, main and branch ducts; F, fan; U, upcast from fan; M, hoods over
metal-pots of monotype machines, constructed to raise and lower, and swing out
and in with metal-pot; L, hoods over metal-pots of linotype machines,
constructed to raise and lower.
In the illustration “pentarcomb” grids connect the branch ducts over the metal-pots
of mono and linotype machines with the main duct. The “pentarcomb” grids are
arranged also elsewhere in the main duct itself to assist in the general
ventilation of the workroom. The hoods over the metal-pots are constructed to
be raised and lowered, and to swing out and in radially with the melting-pot arm.
(Drawings supplied by the Zephyr Ventilating Company, Bristol.)

In order to secure equality of flow from a number of branched

ducts, the Zephyr Ventilating Company apply a special grating of
curved and slanting inlets—the “pentarcomb”—to each branch duct.
The air passing through the comb is split up into numerous small
columns, and the inclination of the curve which each is made to take
is such as to reduce friction to a minimum. By means of this device
we have found, in a trunk with twenty branches, the draught at the
one farthest from the fan as serviceable as that next to it. The
method is illustrated applied locally to remove the fumes from
linotype machines, and generally in the main duct for removal of foul
air near the ceiling.
Where electricity is available as a motive power for driving the fan,
some modification in the views expressed as to the curvature of the
pipes and system of installation can be allowed. In a red lead plant,
for instance, it may be desirable to have the pipes leading to the
sifter or packing machine with sharp angles, so as to prevent
tendency of such heavy dust to collect in them. The electric current
allows a fan to be installed at any point desired; and if applied with
knowledge that the increased friction due to an acute angle has to be
overcome, the result may be quite satisfactory.
The various forms of vacuum cleaning apparatus with
mouthpieces designed to aspirate the dust from different surfaces
are sure to be increasingly used. In our opinion, wherever electric
power is available, they will obviate barbarous methods involving use
of hand-brushes to collect dust from machines, such as those for
litho-dusting or for sweeping lead dust from benches and floors, or
use of bellows to blow out the dust from compositors’ cases.
Finally, the carrying out of lead processes by automatic methods
and with the interior of the casing under a negative pressure, so that
the material is transported from one process to another by means of
worms or conveyors, is everywhere to be aimed at. Or, again, it has
been found possible on a commercial scale, by means of
compressed air in a closed system of receivers and pipes, to force
material in very fine state of division from one place to another, as,
for instance, of litharge from the cask into the mixing machine for
preparation of the paste for manufacture of accumulator plates,
without risk of contact.
Indication of the efficiency of the draught may be gained by
holding smoke-paper at the orifice of the hood. The definition of
efficient exhaust in some regulations for the removal of fumes, as in
the Tinning Regulations, is that it shall not be deemed to be efficient
unless it removes smoke generated at the point where the fume
originates. Accurate gauging, however, of the draught can only be
done with an anemometer, so as to determine the number of linear
and cubic feet passing through the throat per minute. Only rarely
does one find an occupier alive to the value of the use of such an
instrument. The importance of this point has been recognized in the
Regulations for Heading of Yarn, by the requirement that the speed
of each exhaust opening shall be determined once in every three
months at least, and recorded in the general register. We prefer to
use Davis’s[A] self-timing anemometer, which gives readings in feet
per second without the need of a watch. Other useful anemometers
—Casella’s or Negretti and Zambra’s—require to be timed.
[A] It is not available for velocities exceeding 1,200 linear feet per minute.

The details of all routine observations on localized exhaust

ventilation might well be entered on a card hung up in the workroom.
Such a card drawn up by our colleagues, Miss Lovibond and Mr. C.
R. Pendock, has the following headings:

FIRM .......... PROCESS ..........

Fans: No. .......... Kind ..........
Motive power ..........
Other load ..........
Screen ..........
Direction ..........
Periodic cleaning ..........
Hoods: No. .......... Kind ..........
Size ..........
Maker ..........
H.P. ..........
Method of driving ...
Condition of driving
Dust collection ..........
Size ..........
 Structure ..........
Distance between each ..........
Ducts: No. .......... Kind ..........
Size .......... Length ..........Section ..........
Structure ..........
Periodic cleaning ..........
Fresh-Air Kind ..........
Inlets: No. .......... Position ..........
Size ..........
Fixed or temporary ..........

Hood: Position Date ..... Date .....

Reference of Anemo- External External
Number. meter. Conditions ..... Conditions ..... Re
Area Volume Area Volume
of Speed C.F. of Speed C.F.
Throat. F. p.m. p.m. Throat. F. p.m. p.m.

Frequent cleaning and inspection of exhaust installations are very

important, as accumulation of dust greatly impedes the flow of air at
all points of the system. The person employed in cleaning the fan
should wear a respirator. Hoods and ducts should always be cleaned
with the exhaust in full action.

REFERENCES.
[1] Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for 1910, p. 172.
[2] Ibid., pp. 172, 173.
[3] G. Elmhirst Duckering: A Report on an Experimental Investigation into
the Conditions of Work in Tinning Workshops, and Appendices. Included in
Special Report on Dangerous or Injurious Processes in the Coating of Metal
 with Lead or a Mixture of Lead and Tin. Cd. 3793. Wyman and Sons, Ltd.
Price 1s.
G. Elmhirst Duckering: The Cause of Lead Poisoning in the Tinning of
Metals. Journal of Hygiene, vol. viii., pp. 474-503, 1908.
G. Elmhirst Duckering: Report on an Investigation of the Air of Workplaces
in Potteries. Included as Appendix XLIX. in Report of the Departmental
Committee appointed to inquire into the Dangers attendant on the Use of
Lead, and the Danger or Injury to Health arising from Dust and Other
Causes in the Manufacture of Earthenware and China, vol. ii., pp. 93-113,
1910. Cd. 5278. Price 1s. 9d.
[4] G. Elmhirst Duckering: Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of
Factories for 1910, p. 47.
[5] C. R. Pendock (one of H.M. Inspectors of Factories): Report on Systems
of Ventilation in Use in Potteries. Included as Appendix XLVIII. in vol. ii. of
Potteries Committee’s Report referred to under[3].
C. R. Pendock: Second Report of the Departmental Committee appointed to
inquire into the Ventilation of Factories and Workshops, part i., and
especially part ii., 1907. Cd. 3552 and 3553. Price together, 4s. 8d.
Other works referred to include—Construction des Usines au Point de Vue de
l’Hygiène, by Ingénieur-Architecte Maniguet. Ch. Béranger, Paris, 1906;
Hygiène Industrielle, by MM. Leclerc de Pulligny, Boulin, and others. J. B.
Baillière et Fils, Paris, 1908; and many excellently illustrated trade
catalogues issued by ventilating engineering firms, such as the Sturtevant
Engineering Company, Ltd., London; Henry Simon, Ltd., Manchester;
Davidson and Company, Ltd., Belfast; John Gibbs and Son, Liverpool.
 CHAPTER XIII
PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST LEAD
POISONING—Continued

Periodical Examination.—In various codes of regulations a

surgeon is required to make periodical medical examination of the
workers. The term “surgeon” is defined as the “Certifying Factory
Surgeon of the district, or a duly qualified medical practitioner,
appointed by written certificate of the Chief Inspector of Factories,
which appointment shall be subject to such conditions as may be
specified in that certificate.” The wording of the regulation varies
somewhat in different codes, but the intention in all is the same, and
the following example from the Tinning Regulations will indicate the
purpose and scope:
“Every person employed in tinning shall be examined by the surgeon once in
every three months (or at such shorter or longer intervals as may be prescribed in
writing by the Chief Inspector of Factories), on a day of which due notice shall be
given to all concerned. The surgeon shall have the power of suspension as
regards all persons employed in tinning, and no such person after suspension
shall be employed in tinning without written sanction from the surgeon entered in
the health register.
“Every person employed in tinning shall present himself at the appointed time for
examination by the surgeon. No person employed in tinning shall, after
suspension, work at tinning without written sanction from the surgeon entered in
the health register.”

Under the Special Rules for white-lead works, examination is

required at weekly intervals; under the Special Rules for
Earthenware and China, Manufacture of Litho-Transfers and Red
Lead, and under the Regulations for Electric Accumulators, and
Paints and Colours, monthly; under the Regulations for Tinning, Yarn
dyed with Chromate of Lead, and Enamelling, at quarterly intervals,
subject to the limitation or extension specified in the regulation
quoted.
The limitation as to quarterly examination is useful to meet
conditions, on the one hand, where special incidence calls for
increased safeguards; and, on the other, relaxation, by reason of
adoption of special processes or measures lessening risk. Thus, in a
yarn-dyeing factory, in consequence of occurrence of six cases
within five months, a weekly instead of a quarterly examination was
prescribed. After eight months, as no further cases were reported, a
monthly examination was substituted for the weekly, and eventually,
with continued absence of illness, the normal quarterly examination
was resumed.
An appointed time for the surgeon’s attendance at the factory has
been found necessary, because, in conformity with the literal wording
of the regulation, the occupier should not continue to employ a
worker who, for one reason or another, has not been examined by
the surgeon during the prescribed interval. With knowledge of the
date and hour posted in a conspicuous place in the factory, excuse
for absence becomes difficult. Alteration by the surgeon of his
appointed time should, whenever possible, be given beforehand.
Surgeons in the past frequently made examination of the persons
employed with the view of taking them unawares, and so of
precluding special preparation beforehand—a practice which had its
advantages; but they are outweighed by the hardship inflicted on
workers who were unavoidably absent, as, for example, night-
workers. A health register is supplied to all occupiers where
periodical medical examination is enjoined, the headings of which
and manner of entry are indicated later on in this chapter.
The objects which the surgeon should have in mind in making his
examination are:
1. To prevent lead poisoning and minimize lead absorption.
2. To obtain information for the occupier and Inspector of Factories
of the relative danger of one process and another with a view to
adoption of remedial measures.
In safeguarding the health of the workers, he should make effort to
gain their confidence, in order to be able to attach proper value to
statement as to subjective symptoms. Suspicion in their minds that
the examination is made solely in the interests of the employer
militates against success, and increases inclination to conceal
symptoms and to give untruthful answers as to the state of health
since the last examination. In our opinion, the surgeon will best carry
out the first object by attention to the second. The study of
thousands of reports on cases of lead poisoning convinces us that
90 per cent. at least are due to inhalation of dust and fumes. The
surgeon, therefore, should utilize the earliest sign of lead absorption
to warn the occupier and inspector of conditions favourable to the
development of plumbism, and due probably either to some
unguarded spot in the manufacturing process whereby dust or fumes
are not being removed completely, or to ignorance or carelessness
(often excusable in the absence of proper instruction) on the part of
the worker. He should direct, therefore, especial attention to new
workers, not only because of their need for guidance as to
precautions to be observed and greater liability to attack during the
first year of employment, but also because development of signs in
them constitutes the surest guide to defects in the process of
manufacture. Occasionally symptoms in a worker may be so
menacing as to demand immediate suspension, but generally before
the power is exercised attempt to rectify the condition which gives
rise to them should be made. The surgeon can do much by
influencing the foremen and forewomen, who will necessarily come
before him for examination, in insisting on the supervision by them of
care and cleanliness by the workpeople under their charge. Should
suspension, despite attention in the manner suggested, be
necessary, he will recognize that transference to a non-lead process,
if feasible, is preferable to entire cessation from work in very many
cases. The surgeon, therefore, should know what departments are
possible alternatives to lead work.
The fact that an examination is made on factory premises, is
directed to detection and prevention, treatment taking a subordinate
place, and is often made on persons who, unlike hospital patients,
seek to conceal their symptoms, causes it to be an examination sui
generis. Hence the surgeon must trust his sight more than his
hearing. A surgeon with experience of such work has said: “The
worker in lead must be surveyed as an individual, and idiosyncrasies
must be carefully studied and allowed for; the ‘personal equation’ is
of vital importance”[1].
For the examination a well-lighted room affording privacy is
essential. While it is desirable for the surgeon periodically to see the
processes and conditions under which work is carried on, systematic
examinations of workers should not be made elsewhere than in a
private room. The custom of marshalling workers in a queue,
although perhaps unavoidable in many cases, is liable to detract
from the seriousness of the proceedings, a sense of which it should
be one of the aims of the examination to arouse. In discussing the
method of interrogation and usual examination, Dr. King Alcock[2],
Certifying Factory Surgeon of Burslem, says: “Note the general
manner assumed in answering questions and any indications of
carelessness in dress and toilet. Inquire into the state of digestion,
existence of colicky pains, regularity of bowels, menses, history of
pregnancies and miscarriages, whether before, in the intervals of, or
during lead employment; existence of headache, diplopia, or
amaurosis. Note the type, facies, state of teeth and nails,
complexion, speech, tongue, strength of grasp (if possible, with
dynamometer), any tremor in outstretched hand, resistance to
forcible flexion of wrist.... If strabismus is present, note whether of
old standing or recent; and if ocular troubles seem imminent,
examine for optic neuritis, either at once or at home (this is very
important, as cases of acute and serious optic neuritis still baffle
examination by their intermensual development).” He recommends
the surgeon, apart from entry in the health register, which must
necessarily be very brief, to keep a private notebook, and to enter in
it as a matter of routine such details as name, process, age, duration
of employment, condition (married or single), pregnancies, state of
bowels and menses, dental toilet, and any special point worthy of
note in individual workers. A card index, if in use, might conveniently
serve for such entries.
In the actual routine examination it may be useful to describe the
procedure where a large number of workers pass before the surgeon
in a white-lead works every week. The points noted are:
1. The general appearance of the man as he walks forward,
especially the face with regard to anæmia, which in the majority of
cases of early lead absorption is not a true anæmia, but is due to
vaso-motor spasm of the arterioles of the face and eyes. Frequently,
on speaking to a lead-worker, the face, apparently anæmic, flushes
directly.
2. The brightness of the eyes, state of the pupils, and condition of
the conjunctiva and of the ocular muscles.
3. The mouth should next be examined, and search made for any
evidence of blue line around the gum.
4. The gait should be watched both on advancing to, and retiring
from, the surgeon. If necessary, the man should be made to walk a
few steps. Although the peroneal type of palsy is extremely rare, the
possibility of its occurrence should never be absent from the mind of
the surgeon.
5. The man should then be directed to stretch his hands out in
front of him, with wrists extended and fingers widely spread.
Presence or absence of tremor should be looked for, and the
condition of the finger-nails, as to the practice of biting, etc. The
extensor power should then be tested, firstly of the fingers. While the
hands of the workman remain outstretched, the surgeon places the
forefinger of his hand in the outstretched palm of the workman, and
the ball of the thumb upon the extreme tip of each finger, and by
gently pulling it down, noting the spring present in the muscles. This
test is probably the most delicate there is for detection of early
extensor paralysis. The condition of the lumbricals and interossei are
noted on movement of the fingers. The extensors of the wrist are
then further examined, the workman being directed to flex his arm at
the elbow and strongly pronate the wrist, so that the palm of the
hand is directed forwards. He is then told to close the fist when the
surgeon endeavours to flex the wrist, the workman at the same time
resisting by forcible extension of his wrist. Ordinarily the extensor
communis digitorum and minimi digiti are sufficiently powerful to
resist a very powerful pull upon the wrist; and if the wrist is found to
yield, it is a sign that the muscles are affected. Sometimes the
strength of the wrists and fingers is judged by the surgeon placing
his palms on the dorsum of the patient’s outstretched hands, and
seeing whether the patient can be prevented from lifting them
without flexing the wrists or finger-joints.
 The test detects (1) paralysis which has been recovered from to a
large extent; (2) commencing partial paralysis; and (3) weakness of
muscular power, especially in those who have worked in lead for a
number of years. This weakness appears to be an effect of lead
upon the muscular tissue or dependent on debility, the result of lead
absorption, and independent of nerve implication. We have known
the condition to remain unaltered for years, and also to undergo
alteration, being at times absent for months together. Occasionally
reports of definite paralysis refer to pre-existing weakness.
6. The pulse is next noted. The pulse-rate need not ordinarily be
counted, but if it is either very slow or fast careful examination at the
conclusion of the general inspection should be made.
It is well to make all these points before asking any questions.
After they are completed inquiry as to regularity of the bowels,
existence of pain or discomfort, would follow. The speech should be
noted, as slurring or hesitating speech is occasionally associated
with early lead poisoning.
All these points can be gone through quite rapidly, and at the
conclusion of the general examination, if judgment is in suspension,
careful examination in the routine medical manner should be made.
In some factories all new workers are examined by the surgeon
before they commence work in dangerous processes. At any rate, a
list of such persons should be given to the surgeon at his visit, as
naturally the question of personal fitness for employment should be
decided at his first examination. Conditions which should lead to
rejection are tubercular disease of every kind, idiopathic epilepsy, all
forms of mental disease or weakness (hysteria, feeble-mindedness,
and neurasthenia), obvious alcoholism, women who are pregnant or
who give a history of repeated miscarriages prior to work in lead,
persons with marked errors of refraction unless corrected by
glasses, kidney disease of all kinds, evidence of previous chronic
saturnism, and bad oral sepsis. Special attention will have to be paid
to casual labourers, and it should be the aim of the surgeon to
discourage this class of labour in lead industries. Work under special
rules or regulations requires to be carried out under strict discipline,
and this it is extremely difficult to maintain on other than regular
workers, who recognize the need for cleanliness and observance of
regulations.
Other aids to diagnosis cannot be carried out as a matter of
routine, but will necessarily be used in particular cases, such as
ophthalmoscopic examination of the fundus, electrical reactions of
muscles, analysis of the urine, and examination of the blood-
pressure.
A few words may be added on the significance of the two
commonest signs—the blue line and anæmia. It cannot be too
strongly insisted on that presence of the Burtonian line on the gums
is, as a rule, indicative of lead absorption, and not of lead poisoning.
As a danger signal its value is immense, and hardly less so its value
in clinching diagnosis in doubtful cases. Whenever the line is seen
risk is imminent, and poisoning (not necessarily of the individual in
whom it is pronounced) among the workers is inevitable in the
absence of adoption of precautions. Unfortunately, careful dental
toilet, which the surgeon will necessarily lay stress on, may prevent
development, or the practice, when adopted, cause disappearance
of the line after the lapse of a few months. Under these
circumstances, the merest trace will have all the significance of the
fully-developed line in a worker neglectful of care of the teeth.
Among new workers a commencing blue line should be strong
evidence of the need for dust removal at some point in the process
of manufacture. The line, in our experience, is dense in occupations
giving rise to fumes or to dust of compounds of lead, but
comparatively rare in those handling metallic lead or its alloys, as
compositors, tea-lead rollers, solderers, and the like.
Some degree of pallor is so commonly met with in adolescence
that it is the progressive development of the anæmia which the
surgeon must especially watch for. As a danger signal, therefore, it
has the same significance nearly as the blue line; but when lead
absorption has affected the elements in the blood, progressive
anæmia in new workers, attributable to the employment, and
showing no tendency to improve after watching for a few months, is
an indication for suspension or transference to other work. In older
workers, with a duration of employment of five years or more, there
may be a quasi-pathognomonic pallor which does not vary from year
to year. In them it must be supposed that an equilibrium has been
established, and development of other symptoms, such as tremor,
wrist weakness, or albuminuria, becomes significant. Attention has
already been directed to the distinct saturnine facies associated with
anæmia, and characterized by loss of fat, particularly noticeable in
the orbit and buccinator region of the face. “So far as the question of
any worker’s suspension is concerned,” says Dr. King Alcock, “I
prefer to make my instinctive primâ facie distrust of a saturnine pallor
the basis for action. The pallor of plumbism cannot be summed up in
hæmoglobin and corpuscular content; it is the expression of a
complex toxæmia resulting from defective assimilation and
excretion”[3].
The knowledge the surgeon should gain of the idiosyncrasies of
the workers by his periodical examination will enable him to appraise
at their proper value the nature and degree of the symptoms in
notified cases.
Sometimes a rule is made that no lead-worker who has suffered
from an attack of plumbism should be allowed to resume work. This
we consider too harsh a measure. It may be true for painters, but
when remedial measures, such as locally applied exhaust
ventilation, can be applied, with consequent removal of the danger in
the process at which the poisoning has arisen, prohibition of
employment seems an unnecessarily drastic measure.
The health register in general use where periodic medical
examination is required in pursuance of special rules and regulations
is divided into two parts, in each of which entries by the surgeon are
required at each visit.
Part I.

List of Persons Employed in Processes. Particulars of Examina

First Employed
Worker’s Name, in such Process. Date Date Date
No. in full. Process. Age. Date. Result. Result. Result.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
 Part II.

Particulars of any Directions

given by the Surgeon.
Reference to Any Certificate of Suspension
Part 1. Date of Number of or Certificate permitting
Examina- Persons Resumption of Work Signa
Page. Col. tion. Examined. must be entered here in full. of Surg
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

In Part I. of the register the surgeon should, at the times of

examination, enter the date at the head of one of the columns
numbered 6 to 9; and in the space below, opposite the name of each
person examined on that date, a brief note (see next page) of the
condition found.
In Part II. he should again enter, in Column 3, the date of
examination, with a statement of the total numbers examined on that
occasion (Column 4); and in Column 5 any certificate of suspension
from work, or certificate permitting resumption of work, and
particulars of any other direction given by him, appending his
signature in Column 6.
It is the duty of the occupier to enter in Part I. the following
particulars with regard to each person examined: (1) Name in full
(Column 2); (2) the process in which he or she is employed (Column
3); (3) age when first employed (Column 4); and (4) date of first
employment in that process (Column 5); and these particulars, in