CO1 CO2 CO3

Hydrologic Cycle Methods of Determining Surface Water

Missing Rainfall Data

Philippine Weather and Methods of Averaging Philippine Watersheds

Climate Rainfall Data

Water Budget & Mass Subsurface Water Streamflow

Balance

Precipitation Aquifer

Well Hydraulics

CO1 TOPICS

A. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Introduction
● Hydrology “Hudor” - water, “Logy” - study of
● Study of water and its properties, distribution, and effects on the Earth’s surface, soil,
and atmosphere.
● The total amount of water on the earth and its atmosphere does not change, but the
earth’s water is always moving.
● The process of circulation and conservation of earth’s water as it circulates from the land
to the sky and back again is called the “Hydrologic Cycle”.
 Terminologies

Precipitation - is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor

that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of
precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, and hail.

Interception - is precipitation caught by plant surfaces and evaporates back

into the atmosphere. This part of precipitation does not reach the
soil surface.
- This chain of transportation events also leads to streams.
- Can take pace by the vegetal cover or depression storage in
puddles and i land formations such as rills and furrows.

Evaporation - is water extracted from the soil by the plant roots and evaporates
from within plant leaves is transpiration.
- Solar radiation, air tenperature, vapor pressure, wind, and
atmospheric pressure effect the amount of natural evaporation t
hat akes place in any geographic area

Evapotranspiration - is the total amount of water that evaporates from a

watershed—Sum of interception, transpiration, and evaporation
from soils and water bodies.

Condensation - is the process where water vapor becomes liquid. It is the

reverse of evaporation, where liquid eater becomes vapor.

Transpiration - Biological process that occurs mostly in the day

- Reading of water through the aerial parts, such as leaves, stems,
and flowers.

Depression Three basic locations of water storage:

strorage - Water stored in the atmosphere, surface of the earth, and ground
 Infiltration - Physical process involving the movement of water through the
boundary are where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil
- Can be later evapotranspired or subsurface runoff

Percolation - Movement of water through the soil, and its layers by gravity and
capillary forces.
- The prime moving force of ground water is gravity

● Water in the zone of aeration - VADOSE WATER

● Water in the zone of saturation - GROUNDWATER
B. PHILIPPINE WEATHER AND CLIMATE
● Precipitation falling on a watershed that is not returned to the atmosphere via
evapotranspiration can either flow over the soil surface, reaching stream channels as
overland flow or surface runoff, or it infiltrates into the soil.
● The fate of the infiltrated water depends on:
1. The moisture status of the soil
2. The water-holding capacity of the soil
3. The network and size of pores within the soil matrix
● Infiltrated water that is more than the soil water capacity can flow downward under the
influence of gravity until reaching underwater.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF HYDROLOGY CYCLE

● Water is neither lost nor gained from ● Solar energy provides the energy that
Earth over time. drives and sustains the cycling of
● The quantities of water in the water on earth
atmosphere, soils, groundwater, ● There is no beginning or end to the
surface water, glaciers, and other cycle
components are constantly changing ● The water supply on earth is constant,
because of the dynamic nature of the but the allocation of water in storage
hydrologic cycle. in circulation can vary with time.

● Climate - is defined as briefly as the average long-term weather of a place. It is usually

determined over a period of 30 years or more.
● Weather - is the short-time atmospheric condition of a place. It may occur and change
within minutes, days, or months.
 Philippine Climate
● tropical and maritime Two Major Seasons
● It is characterized by ● Rainy Season
relatively high (June to November)
temperature, high
humidity, and
abundant rainfall.
● Its climate largely
similar to those of
countries in Central
America.
CLIMATE TYPES IN THE PHILIPPINES, ANNUAL
RAINFALL AND TYPHOON FREQUENCY BY REGION
Type I Two pronounced seasons:
- Dry from November to April
- Wet during the rest of the year;
Maximum rain period from June to
September
Type II - No dry month/season with a very
pronounced maximum rain period
from December to February
- Minimum monthly rainfall occurs
during the period from March to May
Type III - No very pronounced maximum rain
period, with a short dry season lasting
1-3 months (December to February)
(March to May)
- Resembles Type 1 for its short dry
season
Type IV - Rainfall is more or less evenly
distributed throughout the year
- Resembles Type II due to no dry
season
● Dry Season
(December to May)
Further subdivided to
● Cool dry season
(December to
February)
● Hot dry season
(March to May)
FACTS
According to the Modified
Corona’s CLassification of
Climate, four climate types
exist.
Fr. J. Corona devised the
climate classification system
in 1920(Latocan 2001) based
on average monthly rainfall.
A dry month has less than
50mm of rainfall, but having
more than 100mm of rainfall
after three or more parched
months is also considered a
dry month.
C. WATER BUDGET & MASS BALANCE

D. PRECIPITATION

PRECIPITATION

It occurs when: The ff are the general classes of precipitation:

● Small particles or nuclei Snow - Also known as complex ice

such as dust and ocean crystals.
salt are present in the - Consists of agglomerated ice
atmosphere upon which crystals
condensation or - The average water content of
sublimation can take place snow is 10% of an equal volume of
water

● Water or ice particles grow Hailstones - Balls of ice about 5-125mm in

large enough to reach the diameter.
earth against updrafts. - Specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9
- It has the potential for agricultural
and other property damage

● The atmosphere becomes Sleet - Comes from freezing raindrops

Saturated - Usually a combination of snow and
rain
 Rain - Consists of liquid water drops of
size 0.5-7mm in diameter

Drizzle - Small water drops less than

0.5mm in diameter
- Its settling velocity is slow, with
intensity rarely exceeding 1mm/hr

CO2 TOPICS

METHODS OF MISSING RAINFALL DATA

Arithmetic Average Method Normal Ratio Method

If the average annual precipitation at each of If the difference between the average annual
the three adjacent stations differs from the precipitation at any of the adjacent stations
average at the missing data station LESS and the missing data station is GREATER
THAN 10% THAN 10%

Average Watershed Precipitation

● Precipitation levels are variable over a large geographical ares, such as the United
States or Europe.
● Air mass movements, topography, and water/land locations are a few more
important reasons for differences.

A. METHODS OF AVERAGING RAINFALL DATA

Arithmetic Average Theissen Polygons Isohyetal Method

- Gages must be - Areal weighting of - Most accurate method

uniformly distributed rainfall from each - Extensive gage
- Individual variations gage network required can
must not be far from - Does not capture include orographic
mean rainfall orographic effects effects and storm
- Not accurate for large - Most widely used morphology
areas where rainfall method
distribution is variable
 B. SUBSURFACE WATER
Subsurface Water
- All water occurring beneath the
earth’s surface, including soil
moisture, in the vadose zone and
groundwater
- Includes all water located in the
pore spaces of soil and rocks
- About 30% of all readily available
freshwater in the world is
groundwater
GROUNDWATER IS FOUND IN TWO
ZONES:
Unsaturated Flow
Groundwater
- It is a major contributor to flow in many
streams and rivers and has a strong
influence on river and wetland habitats
for plants and animals
- Flows underground at different rates
- If the water meets the water table (below
which the soil is saturated), it can move
both VERTICALLY AND
HORIZONTALLY.
- Groundwater recharge or deep
percolation is a hydrologic process
where water moves downward from
surface water to groundwater.
1. Unsaturated zone - immediately below
the land surface, contains water and air
in the open spaces or pores.
2. Saturated zone - zone in which all the
pores and rock fractures are filled with
water underlies the unsaturated zone.
3. Water table - top of the saturated zone
Saturated Flow
 - Often called vadose zone, it is the
subsurface portion above the water
table.
- The spaces between particle grains
and cracks in rocks contain some air
and water in the pores.
- The water in this zone cannot be
pumped by wells because capillary
forces hold it too tightly
Infiltration
- Is the process by which water on the
ground surface enters the soil.
Percolation
- Is the downward movement of water
through the soil itself
What is difference between the Infiltration
and Percolation?
- Infiltration occurs in the topmost zone
of soil; percolation occurs when water
passes through soil and rock
- Driving forces of percolation: gravity
and capillary forces
- The initial surface entry of water is
called Infiltration.
- The voids in this zone is completely
filled with water
- Aquifers - saturated zones that lie
directly beneath the vadose zone, and
are composed of porous parent
materials that are saturated with
water.
- Rock with characteristics that allow
water to move freely through it, and
groundwater can move significantly
within days.
- But groundwater can also sink into
deep aquifers and deep groundwater
storage. Moving back into the
environment or even staying may take
longer or years.
Groundwater
- Gravity and pressure move water
downward and sideways underground
through spaces between rocks
- It then emerges back to land surfaces
such as rivers and oceans, to keep
the water cycle going.
- The various characteristics of aquifers
and confining layers of subsurface
rocks in the ground determine the
direction and speed of groundwater
movement.
- Water moving below ground depends
on the permeability and porosity of the
subsurface rock
- The amount of water that an aquifer
may yield depends upon the porosity
and permeability of the material in the
earth layer.
Permeability
- How easy or difficult it is for water to
move.
Porosity
- The amount of open space in the
material
- Usually expressed as a fraction of the
volume of void space divided by the
total volume and written as a
percentage between 0-100%

AQUIFER
Aquifer
- Layer of earth material that is capable
of yielding a useable quantity of water
- The amount of water it can yield is
dependent on the porosity and
permeability of the material found in
the earth layer
- Drilling and digging allows access to
groundwater sources and into an
aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers
Confined aquifers
- Groundwater flows through the open
pores in sediment and rock
- Layers with high permeability allow
water to move more freely between
pore spaces
- Gravel layers have high permeability,
thus making them better groundwater
sources compared to clay
- Bedrock layers can make acceptable
groundwater sources due to cracks
that allow water to flow and supply
water to a well.
Two general types:
1. Confined aquifers - has a layer of
impenetrable rock or clay above
2. Unconfined aquifer - lies below a
permeable layer of soil
- Many different types of sediments and
rocks can form aquifers such as
gravel, sandstone, conglomerates,
and fractured limestone.
- Those into which water seeps from
the ground surface directly above the
aquifer
- Groundwater aquifer is said to be
unconfined when its upper surface
water is open to the atmosphere
through permeable material
- Also called a water table; has water
table as an upped boundary
- Occur near the ground surface
- Are overlain by low permeability,
confining layer, often made of clay
- Confining layer may offer some
protection from surface contamination
- Bounded above and below by
confining beds.
- Generally occurs at a significant depth
below the ground surface
 Perched aquifers
Artesian well
- A well that doesn't require a pump to
bring water to the surface; occurs
when there is enough pressure in the
aquifer
- Pressure forces the water to the
surface without any sort of assistance
Vadose zone
- Subsurface zone of soil or rock
containing fluid under pressure that is
less than that of the atmosphere
- Pores spaces in the vadose zone are
partly filled with water and partly with
air
- Limited by the land surface above and
by the water table below
WELL HYDRAULICS
● Is a discipline to understand the process of flow to the well in an aquifer, which is
regarded as a source of groundwater
● Hydraulic head or head - the mechanical energy per unit weight of groundwater
- Sits above another unconfined aquifer
due to the water infiltrating from the
surface is trapped or “perched” on a
shallow aquitard
- Not good groundwater sources
because they do not provide much
water and can easily be pumped dry
or may go dry in the dry season
Aquitard and Aquiclude
1. Aquitard - zone within the earth that
restricts groundwater flow from one
aquifer to another.
- Is any geological formation of
a rather semipervious nature
that transmits water at slower
rates than an aquifer
- Freeze and Cherry (1979)
describe an aquitard as the
less-permeable beds in a
stratigraphic sequence
2. Aquiclude or Aquifuge - completely
impermeable aquitard.
- Is a geological formation which
is impermeable to the flow of
water
- Large amount of water in it but
does not permit water through
it and also does not yield water
- Has high porosity
- Clay is an example of
aquiclude
Phreatic zone
- Subsurface zone of soil or rock in
which all pores and interstices are
filled with fluid
- Due to the weight of the overlying
groundwater, the fluid pressure in the
zone is greater than the atmospheric
pressure.
 ● Groundwater flows from positions of high hydraulics head to positions of lower head

POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE
● It is the level at which groundwater will rise in a well.
● The potentiometric surface will be the same level as the water table in an
unconfined aquifer.
● In a confined aquifer, the potentiometric surface will be higher than the water
level since the water is under pressure.
● The water level in the well will also be higher.
● Pumping wells create a CONE OF DEPRESSION in the water table
 CO3 TOPICS
SURFACE WATER

Surface Water

Definition:
- Any body of water above ground,
including streams, rivers, lakes,
wetlands, reservoirs, and creeks.
- It is located on top of the land, forming
terrestrial waterbodies also referred to
as BLUE WATER
Facts:
- Majority of surface water is produced
by PRECIPITATION
- Level of surface water LESSEN due
to EVAPORATION, as well as water
moving into the ground becoming
groundwater.
- Used for drinking water.
- Used for irrigation, wastewater
treatment, livestock industrial uses,
hydropower, and recreation.

Classification of Surface Water

Spring - A spring is a natural exit point at

which groundwater emerges out of the
aquifer and flows onto the top of the
Earth's crust to become surface water.
- While surface water can seep
underground to become groundwater,
groundwater can resurface on land to
replenish surface water. Springs are
formed in these locations.

Stream - A stream is a continuous body of

surface water flowing within the bed
and banks of a channel.
- Long large streams are usually called
rivers, while smaller, less voluminous
and more intermittent streams are
known as streamlets, brooks or
creeks.
- Streams are important as conduits in
the water cycle, instruments in
groundwater recharge, and corridors
for fish and wildlife migration.

River - A river is a natural flowing

watercourse, usually freshwater
stream, flowing on the surface or
inside caves towards another
waterbody at a lower elevation, such
as an ocean, sea, bay, lake, wetland,
or another river.
- In some cases, a river flows into the
 ground or becomes dry at the end of
its course without reaching another
body of water.

Lake - A lake is a naturally occurring,

relatively large body of water localized
in a basin completely surrounded by
dry land, with much slower-moving
flow than any inflow or outflow
streams that serve to feed or drain it.
- Many lakes form as a result of
volcanoes. After a volcano becomes
inactive, its crater may fill with rain or
melted snow.
- Sometimes the top of a volcano is
blown off or collapses during an
eruption, leaving a depression called
a caldera. It, too, may fill with
rainwater and become a lake.

Sea - A sea is a large body of salty water.

- In general, a sea is defined as a
portion of the ocean that is partly
surrounded by land.
- There are particular seas and the sea.
The sea commonly refers to the
ocean, the wider body of seawater.
Particular seas are either marginal
seas, second-order sections of the
oceanic sea.

Ocean - The ocean is the body of salt water

that covers approximately 70.8% of
the Earth and contains 97% of Earth's
water.
- An ocean can also refer to any of the
large bodies of water into which the
world ocean is conventionally divided.
- Separate names are used to identify
five different areas of the ocean:
Pacific (the largest), Atlantic, Indian,
Southern, and Arctic (the smallest).
 ● Types of Surface Water

Permanent Semi-permanent Man-made

- These are surface - Or EPHEMERAL - Is water that can be

waters that are SURFACE WATER
present year-round refers to bodies of
and are replenished water that are only
with groundwater present at certain
when there is little times of the year
precipitation including seasonally
- Example: Lakes, dry channels
Rivers, wetlands - Examples: Creeks,
Lagoons, and
Waterholes
continued by
infrastructures that
humans have
assembled.
- It includes artificial
lakes, canals, ponds,
or swamps
- Surface water held by
dams can be used for
renewable energy in
the form of
hydropower.
- Hydropower is the
forcing of surface
water sourced from
rivers and streams to
produce energy.

● WATERSHED AND PHILIPPINE WATERSHED

Watershed

Definition: General characteristics

- The word “Watershed” is sometimes
used interchangeably with drainage
basin or catchment.
- Ridges and hills that separate two
watersheds are called drainage
divide.
- An area of land that drains all the
1. Topographical Information -
includes areas, slopes, depression
areas, and any stream patterns on the
watershed.
2. Infiltration characteristics -
determines the amount of precipitation
stored below the surface of the soil
 streams and rainfall to a common
outlet such as the outflow of a
reservoir; mouth of a bay, or any point
along a stream.
- Consists of surface water: lakes,
streams, reservoirs, wetlands, and all
underlying groundwater
- Larger watersheds contain smaller
watersheds.
Philippine Watersheds
- The following is the list of protected
areas of the Philippines
administered by the Department of
Environment and Natural
Resources Biodiversity
Management Bureau under the
National Integrated Protected Areas
System (NIPAS) Act of 1992.
- As of 2012, there are 240 protected
areas in the Philippines covering a
total area of 35700 square
kilometers - 11.9% of the
Philippines’ total land area.
- Can be characterized by certain
descriptive parameters.
- It will affect the shape and magnitude
of any resulting hydrograph.
- The total amount of runoff resulting
from a precipitation event on a
watershed can be estimated using a
mass balance
R = P-F-A
P= total volume of precipitation
R= total volume of rainfall excess
F= total volume of infiltration
A= total volume of abstraction (surface
storage)
TOP 10
● Loboc river
● Area: 19410 hectares
● Bohol
● Date of Proclamation: 1953
TOP9
 ● Doña Remedios-General Tinio
● Area: 20 760 hectares
● Bulacan- Nueva Ecija
● Date of Proclamation: 1988

TOP8
● Aklan river
● Area: 23 315 hectares
● Aklan
● Date of Proclamation: 1990

TOP7
● Catanduanes watershed
● Area: 26010 hectares
● Catanduanes
● Date of Proclamation: 1987
TOP6
● Talavera watershed
● Area: 37156 hectares
● Nueva Ecija- Nueva vizcaya
● Date of Proclamation: 1938

TOP5
● Lower agno
● Area: 39304 hectares
● Benguet
● Date of Proclamation: 1983
TOP4
● Libungan
● Area: 52820 hectares
● Cotabato
● Date of Proclamation: 1990

TOP3
● Pantabangan-Carranglan
● Area: 84500 hectares
● Nueva ecija
● Date of Proclamation: 1969

TOP2
● Allah watershed
 ● Area: 92450 hectares
● South cotabato
● Date of Proclamation: 1985

TOP1
● Lake Lanao
● Area: 180460 hectares
● Lanao del sur
● Date of Proclamation: 1992

● 18 major river basins in the Philippines

Marikina river basin Magaswang tubig river basin

Cagayan de oror river basin Jalaur river basin

Iligan river basin Ilog-hilabangan river basin

Agno river basin Agus river basin

Pampanga river basin Davao river basin

Bicol river basin Mindanao river basin

Cagayan river basin Tagum-libuganon river basin

Agusan river basin Tagaloan river basin

Panay river basin buayan -malungun river basin

STREAMFLOW

Streamflow

Definition: Characteristics:
 - Also known as DISCHARGE, is the
volume of water that moves over a
designated point over a fixed period of
time.
- It is often expressed as cubic feet per
second (ft3/sec)
- It is always changing, from day to day
and even minute to minute.
- Its main influence is precipitation
runoff in the watershed.
Remember:
- rainfall causes rivers to rise, and a
river can even rise if it only rains very
far up in the watershed.
- Water that falls in a watershed will
eventually drain by the outflow point.
- The flow of the stream is directly
related to the amount of water moving
off the watershed into the stream
channel
- It is affected by weather, increasing
during rainstorms and decreasing
during dry periods.
- FLOW is a function of water volume
and velocity. It is important because of
its impact on water quality and on the
living organisms and habitats in the
stream.

HYDROGRAPHS
● Hydrologists study streamflow with hydrographs.
● A hydrograph is a graph of the flow in a stream over a period of time. The figure shown
is a hydrograph, with stream flow (discharge) on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
● Peaks in the hydrograph are usually a result of precipitation events, while troughs
represent drier times.

AREA STORM COVERAGE

● The area coverage of a storm on a watershed also affects the hydrograph shape.
● For a watershed with some directly connected impervious areas, a comparison of
hydrograph shapes resulting from a localized storm and a storm over the entire
watershed.

STREAM ORDER
● To obtain a more accurate hydrograph shape, a watershed can be divided into individual
streams and separate hydrographs computed for each. Then the separate hydrographs
are routed using methods that we have. Stream order is a numbering system for the
surface drainage segments which can assist in the identification of hydrographs.
● The smallest conduit or the only one for a watershed is designated order 1. When two
first-order conduits join, a conduit of order 2 is formed. Two conduits of the same order
must join to increase the order of the new conduit.

STREAMFLOW AND CONTROL DEVICE

WATER STAGE Manual Gage / River stage

- is the elevation above some arbitrary zero datum of the
water surface at a station. The datum is sometimes taken
as mean sea level but more often is slightly below the point
 of zero flow in the stream.
- The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of
staff gage, a scale set so that a portion of it is immersed in
the water at all times.
Recording Gages
- Manual Gages are simple and inexpensive but must be
read frequently to define the hydrograph adequately when
stage is changing rapidly.
- Water-stage recorders consist of a group of instruments
that produce a record of water surface elevation with
respect to time. The output can be analog (providing a
graphical result) or digital (punched paper tape or stored or
transmitted values).
Crest Stage Gages
- provide low-cost, supplementary records of crest stages at
locations where recorders are not justified and where
manually read staff gages are inadequate.
- Small amount of grounded cork is placed in perforated cup.
- As the water level rises in the pipe, the cork floats with the
water and adheres to the staff at the highest level.
- The staff can be removed and the crest reading is recorded.

DISCHARGE Current Meters

- the stage record is transformed to a discharge record by
calibration. Since the control rarely has a regular shape for
which discharge can be computed, calibration is
accomplished by relating field measurements of discharge
with the simultaneous river stage.
- Propeller type current meters employ a propeller turning
about a horizontal axis.

Stage-Discharge Relations
- Periodic meter measurements of flow and simultaneous stage observations provide data
for a calibration curve called a rating curve or stage-discharge relation.
- For most stations a simple plot of stage versus discharge is satisfactory. Such a curve is
approximately parabolic but may show some irregularities if the control changes within
the range of flows experienced or if the cross section is irregular.

Interpretation of Stream flow data

- Hyetograph – a chart showing the distribution of rainfall over a particular period of time
or a particular area.

Develop a Hyetograph for the following rainfall data. Plot the intensity (inches/hour) for
30 minute intervals
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
- A unit hydrograph shows the temporal change in flow, or discharge, per unit of runoff.
- In other words, how the flow of a stream will be affected over time by the addition of one
unit of runoff.
- The unit hydrograph is a useful tool in the process of predicting the impact of
precipitation on streamflow.

BASIN–AVERAGED RAINFALL
- In typical non–snow situations, we begin the hydrologic forecast process with rainfall. In
particular, we start with a basin–averaged rainfall.
- This simply tells us how much rain fell, or is forecast to fall, on a given basin and typically
takes the form of a rainfall depth per time.
- In unit hydrograph theory, we assume that this rainfall has fallen uniformly across the
basin.