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To Beloved Bhagwan Sri Sathya Sai Baba, the very source
of my thoughts, words, and deeds
To my Graduate Teaching Assistants and students,
the very source of my inspiration
To my dear children, Sharda and Kausik, always concerned
about their dad overworking
To my dear wife Lalitha, a pillar of courage I always lean on
Uma
There is a verse that says

Focus on what I’m doing right now
And tell me that you appreciate me
So that I learn to feel worthy
And motivated to do more
Led by my family, I have always been surrounded by people
(friends, teachers, and students) who
With their kind thoughts, words, and deeds treat me in this way.
This book is dedicated to these people.
Richard
Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Chapter 1
Database Systems: Architecture and Components 1
Part I: Conceptual Data Modeling
Chapter 2
Foundation Concepts 30
Chapter 3
Entity-Relationship Modeling 79
Chapter 4
Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Modeling 141
Chapter 5
Modeling Complex Relationships 197
Part II: Logical Data Modeling
Chapter 6
The Relational Data Model 280
P a r t I I I : N o rm a l i z a t i o n
Chapter 7
Functional Dependencies 358
Chapter 8
Normal Forms Based on Functional Dependencies 395
Chapter 9
Higher Normal Forms 467
viii Brief Contents
P a r t I V : D a t a b a s e I mp l e me n t a t i o n U s i n g th e R e l a t i o n a l
Data Model
Chapter 10
Database Creation 506
Chapter 11
Relational Algebra 539
Chapter 12
Structured Query Language (SQL) 567
Chapter 13
Advanced Data Manipulation Using SQL 635
Appendix A
Data Modeling Architectures Based on the Inverted Tree
and Network Data Structures 719
Appendix B
Object-Oriented Data Modeling Architectures 731
Selected Bibliography 739
Index 743
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Chapter 1 Database Systems: Architecture and Components 1

1.1 Data, Information, and Metadata 1
1.2 Data Management 3
1.3 Limitations of File-Processing Systems 3
1.4 The ANSI/SPARC Three-Schema Architecture 6
1.4.1 Data Independence Defined 8
1.5 Characteristics of Database Systems 10
1.5.1 What Is a Database System? 11
1.5.2 What Is a Database Management System? 12
1.5.3 Advantages of Database Systems 15
1.6 Data Models 17
1.6.1 Data Models and Database Design 17
1.6.2 Data Modeling and Database Design in a Nutshell 19
Chapter Summary 25
Exercises 25
Chapter 2 Foundation Concepts 30

2.1 A Conceptual Modeling Framework 30
2.2 ER Modeling Primitives 30
2.3 Foundations of the ER Modeling Grammar 32
2.3.1 Entity Types and Attributes 32
2.3.2 Entity and Attribute-Level Data Integrity Constraints 35
2.3.3 Relationship Types 38
2.3.4 Structural Constraints of a Relationship Type 43
2.3.5 Base Entity Types and Weak Entity Types 52
2.3.6 Cluster Entity Type: A Brief Introduction 57
2.3.7 Specification of Deletion Constraints 58
Chapter Summary 70
Exercises 71
Chapter 3 Entity-Relationship Modeling 79

3.1 Bearcat Incorporated: A Case Study 79
3.2 Applying the ER Modeling Grammar to the Conceptual Modeling Process 81
3.2.1 The Presentation Layer ER Model 82
3.2.2 The Presentation Layer ER Model for Bearcat Incorporated 85
x Table of Contents
3.2.3 The Design-Specific ER Model 104

3.2.4 The Decomposed Design-Specific ER Model 111
3.3 Data Modeling Errors 119
3.3.1 Vignette 1 120
3.3.2 Vignette 2 127
Chapter Summary 134
Exercises 134
Chapter 4 Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Modeling 141

4.1 Superclass/subclass Relationship 142
4.1.1 A Motivating Exemplar 142
4.1.2 Introduction to the Intra-Entity Class Relationship Type 143
4.1.3 General Properties of a Superclass/subclass Relationship 145
4.1.4 Specialization and Generalization 146
4.1.5 Specialization Hierarchy and Specialization Lattice 154
4.1.6 Categorization 157
4.1.7 Choosing the Appropriate EER Construct 160
4.1.8 Aggregation 166
4.2 Converting from the Presentation Layer to a Design-Specific EER Diagram 168
4.3 Bearcat Incorporated Data Requirements Revisited 170
4.4 ER Model for the Revised Story 171
4.5 Deletion Rules for Intra-Entity Class Relationships 182
Chapter Summary 188
Exercises 188
Chapter 5 Modeling Complex Relationships 197

5.1 The Ternary Relationship Type 198
5.1.1 Vignette 1—Madeira College 198
5.1.2 Vignette 2—Get Well Pharmacists, Inc. 203
5.2 Beyond the Ternary Relationship Type 205
5.2.1 The Case for a Cluster Entity Type 205
5.2.2 Vignette 3—More on Madeira College 206
5.2.3 Vignette 4—A More Complex Entity Clustering 212
5.2.4 Cluster Entity Type—Additional Examples 212
5.2.5 Madeira College—The Rest of the Story 216
5.2.6 Clustering a Recursive Relationship Type 221
5.3 Inter-Relationship Integrity Constraint 224
5.4 Composites of Weak Relationship Types 230
5.4.1 Inclusion Dependency in Composite Relationship Types 230
5.4.2 Exclusion Dependency in Composites of Weak Relationship Types 231
5.5 Decomposition of Complex Relationship Constructs 234
5.5.1 Decomposing Ternary and Higher-Order Relationship Types 234
5.5.2 Decomposing a Relationship Type with a Multi-Valued Attribute 235
5.5.3 Decomposing a Cluster Entity Type 240
5.5.4 Decomposing Recursive Relationship Types 241
5.5.5 Decomposing a Weak Relationship Type 244
Table of Contents xi
5.6 Validation of the Conceptual Design 246

5.6.1 Fan Trap 246
5.6.2 Chasm Trap 251
5.6.3 Miscellaneous Semantic Traps 253
5.7 Cougar Medical Associates 257
5.7.1 Conceptual Model for CMA: The Genesis 259
5.7.2 Conceptual Model for CMA: The Next Generation 265
5.7.3 The Design-Specific ER Model for CMA: The Final Frontier 266
Chapter Summary 273
Exercises 273
Chapter 6 The Relational Data Model 280

6.1 Definition 280
6.2 Characteristics of a Relation 282
6.3 Data Integrity Constraints 283
6.3.1 The Concept of Unique Identifiers 284
6.3.2 Referential Integrity Constraint in the Relational Data Model 290
6.4 A Brief Introduction to Relational Algebra 291
6.4.1 Unary Operations: Selection (s) and Projection (p) 292
6.4.2 Binary Operations: Union ([), Difference (−), and Intersection (\) 293
6.4.3 The Natural Join (*) Operation 295
6.5 Views and Materialized Views in the Relational Data Model 296
6.6 The Issue of Information Preservation 297
6.7 Mapping an ER Model to a Logical Schema 298
6.7.1 Information-Reducing Mapping of ER Constructs 298
6.7.2 An Information-Preserving Mapping 315
6.8 Mapping Enhanced ER Model Constructs to a Logical Schema 320
6.8.1 Information-Reducing Mapping of EER Constructs 321
6.8.2 Information-Preserving Grammar for Enhanced ER Modeling Constructs 328
6.9 Mapping Complex ER Model Constructs to a Logical Schema 336
Chapter Summary 345
Exercises 347
P a r t I I I : N o rm a l i z a t i o n
Chapter 7 Functional Dependencies 358

7.1 A Motivating Exemplar 359
7.2 Functional Dependencies 365
7.2.1 Definition of Functional Dependency 365
7.2.2 Inference Rules for Functional Dependencies 366
7.2.3 Minimal Cover for a Set of Functional Dependencies 367
7.2.4 Closure of a Set of Attributes 372
7.2.5 When Do FDs Arise? 374
xii Table of Contents
7.3 Candidate Keys Revisited 374

7.3.1 Deriving Candidate Key(s) by Synthesis 375
7.3.2 Deriving Candidate Keys by Decomposition 379
7.3.3 Deriving a Candidate Key—Another Example 382
7.3.4 Prime and Non-prime Attributes 386
Chapter Summary 390
Exercises 390
Chapter 8 Normal Forms Based on Functional Dependencies 395

8.1 Normalization 395
8.1.1 First Normal Form (1NF) 396
8.1.2 Second Normal Form (2NF) 398
8.1.3 Third Normal Form (3NF) 401
8.1.4 Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) 404
8.1.5 Side Effects of Normalization 407
8.1.6 Summary Notes on Normal Forms 418
8.2 The Motivating Exemplar Revisited 420
8.3 A Comprehensive Approach to Normalization 424
8.3.1 Case 1 424
8.3.2 Case 2 431
8.3.3 A Fast-Track Algorithm for a Non-Loss, Dependency-Preserving
Solution 436
8.4 Denormalization 442
8.5 Role of Reverse Engineering in Data Modeling 443
8.5.1 Reverse Engineering the Normalized Solution of Case 1 445
8.5.2 Reverse Engineering the Normalized Solution of URS2 (Case 3) 451
8.5.3 Reverse Engineering the Normalized Solution of URS3 (Case 2) 453
Chapter Summary 457
Exercises 458
Chapter 9 Higher Normal Forms 467

9.1 Multi-Valued Dependency 467
9.1.1 A Motivating Exemplar for Multi-Valued Dependency 467
9.1.2 Multi-Valued Dependency Defined 469
9.1.3 Inference Rules for Multi-Valued Dependencies 470
9.2 Fourth Normal Form (4NF) 472
9.3 Resolution of a 4NF Violation—A Comprehensive Example 476
9.4 Generality of Multi-Valued Dependencies and 4NF 478
9.5 Join-Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form (5NF) 480
9.6 A Thought-Provoking Exemplar 490
9.7 A Note on Domain Key Normal Form (DK/NF) 497
Chapter Summary 498
Exercises 498
Table of Contents xiii
P a r t I V : Da t a b a s e I m p l e m e n t a t i o n U s i n g th e R e l a t i o n a l
Data Model
Chapter 10 Database Creation 506

10.1 Data Definition Using SQL 507
10.1.1 Base Table Specification in SQL/DDL 507
10.2 Data Population Using SQL 524
10.2.1 The INSERT Statement 525
10.2.2 The DELETE Statement 528
10.2.3 The UPDATE Statement 530
Chapter Summary 532
Exercises 532
Chapter 11 Relational Algebra 539

11.1 Unary Operators 542
11.1.1 The Select Operator 542
11.1.2 The Project Operator 544
11.2 Binary Operators 546
11.2.1 The Cartesian Product Operator 546
11.2.2 Set Theoretic Operators 549
11.2.3 Join Operators 551
11.2.4 The Divide Operator 557
11.2.5 Additional Relational Operators 560
Chapter Summary 563
Exercises 563
Chapter 12 Structured Query Language (SQL) 567

12.1 SQL Queries Based on a Single Table 569
12.1.1 Examples of the Selection Operation 569
12.1.2 Use of Comparison and Logical Operators 572
12.1.3 Examples of the Projection Operation 578
12.1.4 Grouping and Summarizing 580
12.1.5 Handling Null Values 583
12.1.6 Pattern Matching in SQL 593
12.2 SQL Queries Based on Binary Operators 597
12.2.1 The Cartesian Product Operation 597
12.2.2 SQL Queries Involving Set Theoretic Operations 599
12.2.3 Join Operations 602
12.2.4 Outer Join Operations 608
12.2.5 SQL and the Semi-Join and Semi-Minus Operations 612
12.3 Subqueries 613
12.3.1 Multiple-Row Uncorrelated Subqueries 613
12.3.2 Multiple-Row Correlated Subqueries 625
12.3.3 Aggregate Functions and Grouping 628
Chapter Summary 631
Exercises 631
xiv Table of Contents
Chapter 13 Advanced Data Manipulation Using SQL 635

13.1 Selected SQL:2003 Built-In Functions 635
13.1.1 The SUBSTRING Function 636
13.1.2 The CHAR_LENGTH (char) Function 639
13.1.3 The TRIM Function 640
13.1.4 The TRANSLATE Function 643
13.1.5 The POSITION Function 644
13.1.6 Combining the INSTR and SUBSTR Functions 645
13.1.7 The DECODE Function and the CASE Expression 646
13.1.8 A Query to Simulate the Division Operation 649
13.2 Some Brief Comments on Handling Dates and Times 651
13.3 Hierarchical Queries 656
13.3.1 Using the CONNECT BY and START WITH Clauses with
the PRIOR Operator 658
13.3.2 Using the LEVEL Pseudo-Column 660
13.3.3 Formatting the Results from a Hierarchical Query 661
13.3.4 Using a Subquery in a START WITH Clause 661
13.3.5 The SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH Function 663
13.3.6 Joins in Hierarchical Queries 664
13.3.7 Incorporating a Hierarchical Structure into a Table 665
13.4 Extended GROUP BY Clauses 668
13.4.1 The ROLLUP Operator 668
13.4.2 Passing Multiple Columns to ROLLUP 669
13.4.3 Changing the Position of Columns Passed to ROLLUP 671
13.4.4 Using the CUBE Operator 672
13.4.5 The GROUPING () Function 674
13.4.6 The GROUPING SETS Extension to the GROUP BY Clause 676
13.4.7 The GROUPING_ID () 677
13.4.8 Using a Column Multiple Times in a GROUP BY Clause 679
13.5 Using the Analytical Functions 681
13.5.1 Analytical Function Types 682
13.5.2 The RANK () and DENSE_RANK () Functions 684
13.5.3 Using ROLLUP, CUBE, and GROUPING SETS Operators with
Analytical Functions 687
13.5.4 Using the Window Functions 688
13.6 A Quick Look at the MODEL Clause 692
13.6.1 MODEL Clause Concepts 693
13.6.2 Basic Syntax of the MODEL Clause 693
13.6.3 An Example of the MODEL Clause 694
13.7 A Potpourri of Other SQL Queries 700
13.7.1 Concluding Example 1 700
Chapter Summary 706
Exercises 707
SQL Project 711
Table of Contents xv
Appendix A Data Modeling Architectures Based on the Inverted Tree

and Network Data Structures 719
A.1 Logical Data Structures 719
A.1.1 Inverted Tree Structure 719
A.1.2 Network Data Structure 721
A.2 Logical Data Model Architectures 722
A.2.1 Hierarchical Data Model 722
A.2.2 CODASYL Data Model 726
Summary 729
Appendix B Object-Oriented Data Modeling Architectures 731

B.1 The Object-Oriented Data Model 731
B.1.1 Overview of OO Concepts 732
B.1.2 A Note on UML 735
B.2 The Object-Relational Data Model 737
Summary 738

Index 743
PREFACE
QUOTE
Everything should be made as simple as possible—but no simpler.
—Albert Einstein
Popular business database books typically provide broad coverage of a wide variety of
topics, including data modeling, database design and implementation, database
administration, the client/server database environment, the Internet database envi-
ronment, distributed databases, and object-oriented database development. This is
invariably at the expense of deeper treatment of critical topics, such as principles of
data modeling and database design. Using current business database books in our
courses, we found that in order to properly cover data modeling and database design,
we had to augment the texts with significant supplemental material (1) to achieve
precision and detail and (2) to impart the depth necessary for the students to gain a
robust understanding of data modeling and database design. In addition, we ended up
skipping several chapters as topics to be covered in a different course. We also know
other instructors who share this experience. Broad coverage of many database topics
in a single book is appropriate for some audiences, but that is not the aim of this
book.
The goal of Data Modeling and Database Design, Second Edition is to provide
core competency in the areas that every Information Systems (IS), Computer Science
(CS), and Computer Information Systems (CIS) student and professional should
acquire: data modeling and database design. It is our experience that this set of
topics is the most essential for database professionals, and that, covered in sufficient
depth, these topics alone require a full semester of study. It is our intention to
address these topics at a level of technical depth achieved in CS textbooks, yet make
palatable to the business student/IS professional with little sacrifice in precision. We
deliberately refrain from the mathematics and algorithmic solutions usually found in
CS textbooks, yet we attempt to capture the precision therein via heuristic
expressions.
Data Modeling and Database Design, Second Edition provides not just hands-on
instruction in current data modeling and database design practices, it gives readers a
thorough conceptual background for these practices. We do not subscribe to the idea
that a textbook should limit itself to describing what is actually being practiced.
Teaching only what is being practiced is bound to lead to knowledge stagnation.
Where do practitioners learn what they know? Did they invent the relational data
model? Did they invent the ER model? We believe that it is our responsibility to
present not only industry “best practices” but also to provide students (future practi-
tioners) with concepts and techniques that are not necessarily used in industry today
xviii Preface
but can enliven their practice and help it evolve without knowledge stagnation. One
of the coauthors of this book has worked in the software development industry for
over 15 years, with a significant focus on database development. His experience indi-
cates that having a richness of advanced data modeling constructs available enhances
the robustness of database design and that practitioners readily adopt these techni-
ques in their design practices.
In a nutshell, our goal is to take an IS/CS/CIS student/professional through an
intense educational experience, starting at conceptual modeling and culminating in a
fully implemented database design—nothing more and nothing less. This educational
journey is briefly articulated in the following paragraphs.
STRUCTURE
We have tried very hard to make the book “fluff-free.” It is our hope that every sen-
tence in the book, including this preface, adds value to a reader’s learning (and foot-
notes are no exception to this statement).
The book begins with an introduction to rudimentary concepts of data, metadata,
and information, followed by an overview of data management. Pointing out the limita-
tions of file-processing systems, Chapter 1 introduces database systems as a solution to
overcome these limitations. The architecture and components of a database system that
makes this possible are discussed. The chapter concludes with the presentation of a
framework for the database system design life cycle. Following the introductory chapter
on database systems architecture and components, the book contains four parts.

Part I addresses the topic of conceptual data modeling—that is, modeling at the high-
est level of abstraction, independent of the limitations of the technology employed to
deploy the database system. Four chapters (Chapters 2–5) are used in order to pro-
vide an extensive discussion of conceptual data modeling. Chapter 2 lays the ground-
work using the Entity-Relationship (ER) modeling grammar as the principal means
to model a database application domain. Chapter 3 elaborates on the use of the ER
modeling grammar in progressive layers and exemplifies the modeling technique with
a comprehensive case called Bearcat Incorporated. This is followed by a presentation
in Chapter 4 of richer data modeling constructs that overlap with object-oriented
modeling constructs. The Bearcat Incorporated story is further enriched to demon-
strate the value of Enhanced ER (EER) modeling constructs. Chapter 5 provides
exclusive coverage of modeling complex relationships that have meaningful real-world
significance. At the end of Part I, the reader ought to be able to fully appreciate the
value of conceptual data modeling in the database system design life cycle.
This second edition of Data Modeling and Database Design includes the follow-
ing major enhancements:
• The material in Chapters 2 and 3 has been reorganized and better stream-
lined so that the reader not only learns the ER modeling grammar but is able
to develop very simple applications of ER modeling. In Chapter 3, the model-
ing method steps have been reconfigured across the Presentation Layer and
Preface xix
Design-Specific layer of the ER model. Also, the unique learning technique

via error detection exclusively developed by us is presented at the end of
Chapter 3.
• The intra-entity class relationships are introduced with a new simpler exam-
ple at the beginning of Chapter 4.
• The already extensive coverage of complex relationships in Chapter 5 is aug-
mented by a few newer modeling ideas. Additional examples clarifying
decomposition of complex relationships in preparation for logical model
mapping have also been added to this chapter.

Part II of the book is dedicated to the discussion of migration of a conceptual data
model to its logical counterpart. Since the relational data model architecture forms
the basis for the logical data modeling discussed in this textbook, Chapter 6 focuses
on its characteristics. Other logical data modeling architectures prevalent in some
legacy systems, the hierarchical data model, and the CODASYL data model appear in
Appendix A. An introduction to object-oriented data modeling concepts is presented
in Appendix B. The rest of Chapter 6 describes techniques to map a conceptual data
model to its logical counterpart. An information-preserving logical data modeling
grammar is introduced and contrasted with existing popular mapping techniques that
are information reducing. A comprehensive set of examples is used to clarify the use
and value of the information-preserving grammar.
An important addition to the current edition of the book is a section on mapping
complex relationship types to the logical tier.
Part III: Normalization

Part III addresses the critical question of the “goodness” of a database design that
results from a conceptual and logical data modeling processes. Normalization is
introduced as the “scientific” way to verify and improve the quality of a logical
schema that is available at this stage in the database design. Three chapters are
employed to cover the topic of normalization. In Chapter 7, we take a look at data
redundancy in a relation schema and see how it manifests as a problem. We then
trace the problem to its source—namely, undesirable functional dependencies. To
that end, we first learn about functional dependencies axiomatically and how infer-
ence rules (Armstrong’s axioms) can be used to derive candidate keys of a relation
schema. In Chapter 8, the solution offered by the normalization process to data
redundancy problems triggered by undesirable functional dependencies is presented.
After discussing first, second, third and Boyce-Codd normal forms individually, we
examine the side effects of normalization—namely, dependency preservation and
non-loss decomposition and their consequences. Next, we present real-world scenar-
ios of deriving full-fledged relational schemas (sets of relation schemas), given sets of
functional dependencies using several examples. The useful topic of denormalization
is covered next. Reverse engineering a normalized relational schema to the concep-
tual tier often forges insightful understanding of the database design and enables a
database designer to become a better data modeler. Despite its practical utility, this
xx Preface
topic is rarely covered in database textbooks. Chapter 9 completes the discussion of

normalization by examining multi-valued dependency (MVD) and join-dependency
(JD) and their impact on a relation schema in terms of fourth normal form (4NF) and
Project/Join normal form, viz., PJNF (also known as fifth normal form—5NF)
respectively.
An interesting enhancement in Chapter 8 is the introduction of a fast-track algo-
rithm to achieve a non-loss, dependency-preserving 3NF design. Two distinct exam-
ples demonstrating the use of the algorithm are presented. The discussion of MVD
and 4NF, of JD and 5NF, and their respective expressiveness of ternary and n-ray
relationships is presented in Chapter 9. Additional examples offer unique insights into
apparently conflicting alternative solutions.
Part IV: Database Implementation Using the Relational Database Model

Part IV pertains to database implementation using the relational data model. Spread
over four chapters, this part of the book covers relational algebra and the ANSI/ISO
standard Structured Query Language (SQL). Chapter 10 focuses on the data defini-
tion language (DDL) aspect of SQL. Included in the discussion are the SQL schema
evolution statements for adding, altering, or dropping table structures, attributes,
constraints, and supporting structures. This is followed by the development of SQL/
DDL script for a comprehensive case about a college registration system. The chapter
also includes the use of INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements in populating a
database and performing database maintenance.
Chapters 11, 12, and 13 focus on relational algebra and the use of SQL for data
manipulation. Chapter 11 concentrates on E. F. Codd’s eight original relational alge-
bra operations as a means to specify the logic for data retrieval from a relational
database. SQL, the most common way that relational algebra is implemented for data
retrieval operations, is the subject of Chapter 12. Chapter 13 covers a number of
built-in functions used by SQL to work with strings, dates, and times, and it illustrates
how SQL can be used to do retrievals against hierarchically structured data. This
chapter also provides an introduction to some of the features of SQL that facilitate
the summarization and analysis of data. The chapter ends with an SQL database
project that provides students with a real-life scenario to test and apply the skills and
concepts presented in Part IV.
FEATURES OF EACH CHAPTER

Since our objective is a crisp and clear presentation of rather intricate subject matter,
each chapter begins with a simple introduction, followed by the treatment of the
subject matter, and concludes with a chapter summary and a set of exercises based
on the subject matter.
WHAT MAKES THIS BOOK DIFFERENT?

Every book has strengths and weaknesses. If lack of breadth in the coverage of
database topics is considered a weakness, we have deliberately chosen to be weak in
that dimension. We have not planned this book to be another general book on
Preface xxi
database systems. We have chosen to limit the scope of this book exclusively to data
modeling and database design since we firmly believe that this set of topics is the
core of database systems and must be learned in depth by every IS/CS/CIS student
and practitioner. Any system designed robustly has the potential to best serve the
needs of the users. More importantly, a poor design is a virus that can ruin an
enterprise.
In this light, we believe these are the unique strengths of this book:
• It presents conceptual modeling using the entity-relationship modeling gram-
mar including extensive discussion of the enhanced entity-relationship (ER)
model.
We believe that a conceptual model should capture all possible constraints
conveyed by the business rules implicit in users’ requirement specifica-
tions. To that end, we posit that an ER diagram is not an ER model unless
accompanied by a comprehensive specification of characteristics of and
constraints pertaining to attributes. We accomplish this via a list of
semantic integrity constraints (sort of a conceptual data dictionary) that
will accompany an ER diagram, a unique feature that we have not seen in
other database textbooks. We also seek to demonstrate the systematic
development of a multi-layer conceptual data model via a comprehensive
illustration at the beginning of each Part. We consider the multi-layer
modeling strategy and the heuristics for systematic development as unique
features of this book.
• It includes substantial coverage of higher-degree relationships and other
complex relationships in the entity-relationship diagram.
Most business database books seem to provide only a cursory treatment of
complex relationships in an ER model. We not only cover relationships
beyond binary relationships (e.g., ternary and higher-degree relationships),
we also clarify the nuances pertaining to the necessity and efficacy of
higher-degree relationships and the various conditions under which even
recursive and binary relationships are aggregated in interesting ways to
form cluster entity types.
• It discusses the information-preserving issue in data model mapping and
introduces a new information-preserving grammar for logical data modeling.
Many computer scientists have noted that the major difficulty of logical
database design (i.e., transforming an ER schema into a schema in the lan-
guage of some logical model) is the information preservation issue. Indeed,
assuring a complete mapping of all modeling constructs and constraints
that are inherent, implicit or explicit, in the source schema (e.g., ER/EER
model) is problematic since constraints of the source model often cannot be
represented directly in terms of structures and constraints of the target
model (e.g., relational schema). In such a case, they must be realized
through application programs; alternatively, an information-reducing trans-
formation must be accepted (Fahrner and Vossen, 1995). In their research,
initially presented at the Workshop on Information Technologies (WITS) in
the ICIS (International Conference on Information Systems) in Brisbane,
xxii Preface
Australia, Umanath and Chiang (2000) describe a logical modeling gram-

mar that generates an information preserving transformation. Umanath
further revised this modeling grammar based on the feedback received at
WITS. We have included this logical modeling grammar as a unique com-
ponent of this textbook.
• It includes unique features under the topic of normalization rarely covered in
business database books:
• Inference rules for functional dependencies (Armstrong’s axioms)
and derivations of candidate keys from a set of functional
dependencies
• Derivation of canonical covers for a set of semantically obvious func-
tional dependencies
• Rich examples to clarify the basic normal forms (first, second, third,
and Boyce-Codd)
• Derivation of a complete logical schema from a large set of functional
dependencies considering lossless (non-additive) join properties and
dependency preservation
• Reverse engineering a logical schema to an entity-relationship diagram
• Advanced coverage of fourth and fifth normal form (project-join normal
form, abbreviated “PJNF”) using a variety of examples
• It supports in-depth coverage of relational algebra with a significant number
of examples of their operationalization in ANSI/ISO SQL.
A NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR

The content of this book is designed for a rigorous one-semester course in database
design and development and may be used at both undergraduate and graduate levels.
Technical emphasis can be tempered by minimizing or eliminating the coverage of
some of the following topics from the course syllabus: Enhanced Entity-Relationship
(EER) Modeling (Chapter 4) and the related data model mapping topics in Chapter 6
(Section 6.8) on Mapping Enhanced ER Modeling Constructs to a Logical Schema;
Modeling Complex Relationships (Chapter 5); and higher normal forms (Chapter 9).
The suggested exclusions will not impair the continuity of the subject matter in the
rest of the book.
SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGIES
Any business database book can be effective only when supporting technologies are
made available for student use. Yet, we don’t think that the type of book we are writ-
ing should be married to any commercial product. The specific technologies that will
render this book highly effective include a drawing tool (such as Microsoft Visio), a
software engineering tool (such as ERWIN, ORACLE/Designer, or Visible Analyst),
and a relational database management system (RDBMS) product (such as ORACLE,
SQL Server, or DB2).
Preface xxiii
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS
The following supplemental materials are available to instructors when this book is
used in a classroom setting. Some of these materials may also be found on the
Cengage Learning Web site at www.cengage.com.
• Electronic Instructor’s Manual: The Instructor’s Manual assists in class
preparation by providing suggestions and strategies for teaching the text, and
solutions to the end-of-chapter questions/problems.
• Sample Syllabi and Course Outline: The sample syllabi and course outlines
are provided as a foundation to begin planning and organizing your course.
• Cognero Test Bank: Cognero allows instructors to create and administer
printed, computer (LAN-based), and Internet exams. The Test Bank includes
an array of questions that correspond to the topics covered in this text,
enabling students to generate detailed study guides that include page refer-
ences for further review. The computer-based and Internet testing compo-
nents allow students to generate detailed study guides that include page
references for further review. The computer-based and Internet testing
components allow students to take exams at their computers, and also save
the instructor time by automatically grading each exam. The Test Bank is
also available in Blackboard and WebCT versions posted online at www
.course.com.
• PowerPoint Presentations: Microsoft PowerPoint slides for each chapter are
included as a teaching aid for classroom presentation, to make available to
students on the network for chapter review, or to be printed for classroom
distribution. Instructors can add their own slides for additional topics they
introduce to the class.
• Figure Files: Figure files from each chapter are provided for the instructor’s
use in the classroom.
• Data Files: Data files containing scripts to populate the database tables used
as examples in Chapters 11 and 12 are provided on the Cengage Learning
Web site at www.cengage.com.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We have never written a textbook before. We have been using books written by our
academic colleagues, always supplemented with handouts that we developed our-
selves. Over the years, we accumulated a lot of supplemental material. In the begin-
ning, we took the positive feedback from the students about the supplemental
material rather lightly until we started to see comments like “I don’t know why I
bought the book; the instructor’s handouts were so good and much clearer than the
book” in the student evaluation forms. Our impetus to write a textbook thus origi-
nated from the consistent positive feedback from our students.
We also realized that, contrary to popular belief, business students are certainly
capable of assimilating intricate technical concepts; the trick is to frame the concepts
in meaningful business scenarios. The unsolicited testimonials from our alumni about
xxiv Preface
the usefulness of the technical depth offered in our database course in solving real-
world design problems reinforced our faith in developing a book focused exclusively
on data modeling and database design that was technically rigorous but permeated
with business relevance.
Since we both teach database courses regularly, we have had the opportunity to
field-test the manuscript of this book for close to 10 years at both undergraduate-level
and graduate-level information systems courses in the Carl Lindner College of
Business at the University of Cincinnati and in the C. T. Bauer College of Business at
the University of Houston. Hundreds of students—mostly business students—have
used earlier drafts of this textbook so far. Interestingly, even the computer science
and engineering students taking our courses have expressed their appreciation of the
content. This is a long preamble to acknowledge one of the most important and for-
mative elements in the creation of this book: our students.
The students’ continued feedback (comments, complaints, suggestions, and criti-
cisms) have significantly contributed to the improvement of the content. As we were
cycling through revisions of the manuscript, the graduate teaching assistants of
Dr. Umanath were a constant source of inspiration. Their meaningful questions and
suggestions added significant value to the content of this book. Dr. Scamell was ably
assisted by his graduate assistants as well.
We would also like to thank the following reviewers whose critiques, comments,
and suggestions helped shape every chapter of this book’s first edition:
Akhilesh Bajaj, University of Tulsa
Iris Junlgas, Florida State University
Margaret Porciello, State University of New York/Farmingdale
Sandeep Purao, Pennsylvania State University
Jaymeen Shah, Texas State University
Last, but by no means the least, we gratefully acknowledge the significant contri-
bution of Deb Kaufmann and Kent Williams, the development editors of our first and
second editions, respectively. We cannot thank them enough for their thorough and
also prompt and supportive efforts.
Enjoy!
N. S. Umanath
R. W. Scamell
CHAPTER 1
DATABASE SYSTEMS:
ARCHITECTURE AND
COMPONENTS
Data modeling and database design involve elements of both art and engineering.
Understanding user requirements and modeling them in the form of an effective logical
database design is an artistic process. Transforming the design into a physical database
with functionally complete and efficient applications is an engineering process.
To better comprehend what drives the design of databases, it is important to under-
stand the distinction between data and information. Data consists of raw facts—that is,
facts that have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning. Processing these facts
provides information on which decisions can be based.
Timely and useful information requires that data be accurate and stored in a manner
that is easy to access and process. And, like any basic resource, data must be managed
carefully. Data management is a discipline that focuses on the proper acquisition, storage,
maintenance, and retrieval of data. Typically, the use of a database enables efficient and
effective management of data.
This chapter introduces the rudimentary concepts of data and how information
emerges from data when viewed through the lens of metadata. Next, the discussion
addresses data management, contrasting file-processing systems with database systems.
This is followed by brief examples of desktop, workgroup, and enterprise databases. The
chapter then presents a framework for database design that describes the multiple tiers of
data modeling and how these tiers function in database design. This framework serves as a
roadmap to guide the reader through the remainder of the book.
1.1 DATA, INFORMATION, AND METADATA

Although the terms are often used interchangeably, information is different from data.
Data can be viewed as raw material consisting of unorganized facts about things, events,
activities, and transactions. While data may have implicit meaning, the lack of organiza-
tion renders it valueless. In other words, information is data in context—that is, data that
has been organized into a specific context such that it has value to its recipient.
As an example, consider the digits 2357111317. What does this string of digits
represent? One response is that they are simply 10 meaningless digits. Another might be
Chapter 1
the number 31 (obtained by summing the 10 digits). A mathematician may see a set of
2
prime numbers, viz., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17. Another might see a person’s phone number with
the first three digits constituting the area code and the remaining seven digits the local
phone number. On the other hand, if the first digit is used to represent a person’s gender
(1 for male and 2 for female) and the remaining nine digits the person’s Social Security
number, the 10 digits would mean something else. Numerous other interpretations are pos-
sible, but without a context it is impossible to say what the digits represent. However, when
framed in a specific context (such as being told that the first digit represents a person’s
gender and the remaining digits the Social Security number), the data is transformed into
information. It is important to note that “information” is not necessarily the “Truth” since
the same data yields different information based on the context; information is an inference.
Metadata, in a database environment, is data that describes the properties of data. It
contains a complete definition or description of database structure (i.e., the file structure,
data type, and storage format of each data item), and other constraints on the stored data.
For example, when the structure of the 10 digits 2357111317 is revealed, the 10 digits
become information, such as a phone number. Metadata defines this structure. In other
words, through the lens of metadata, data takes on specific meaning and yields information.1
Metadata may be characterized as follows:
• The lens to view data and infer information
• A precise definition of the context for framing the data
Table 1.1 contains metadata for the data associated with a manufacturing plant. Later
in this chapter, we will see that in a database environment, metadata is recorded in what
is called a data dictionary.
Record
Type Data Element Data Type Size Source Role Domain
PLANT Pl_name Alphabetic 30 Stored Non-key
PLANT Pl_number Numeric 2 Stored Key Integer values

from 10 to 20
PLANT Budget Numeric 7 Stored Non-key
PLANT Building Alphabetic 20 Stored Non-key
PLANT No_of_employees Numeric 4 Derived Non-key
TABLE 1.1 Some metadata for a manufacturing plant
As reflected in Table 1.1, the smallest unit of data is called a data element. A group of
related data elements treated as a unit (such as Pl_name, Pl_number, Budget, Building,
1
With the advent of the data warehouse, the term “metadata” assumes a more comprehensive
meaning to include business and technical metadata, which is outside the scope of the current
discussion.
Database Systems: Architecture and Components
and No_of_employees) is called a record type. A set of values for the data elements con-
3
stituting a record type is called a record instance or simply a record. A file is a collection
of records. A file is sometimes referred to as a data set. A company with 10 plants would
have a PLANT file or a PLANT data set that contains 10 records.
1.2 DATA MANAGEMENT

This book focuses strictly on management of data, as opposed to the management of
human resources. Data management involves four actions: (a) data creation, (b) data
retrieval, (c) data modification or updating, and (d) data deletion. Two data management
functions support these four actions: Data must be accessed and, for ease of access, data
must be organized.
Despite today’s sophisticated information technologies, there are still only two pri-
mary approaches for accessing data. One is sequential access, where in order to get to the
nth record in a data set it is necessary to pass through the previous n–1 records in the
data set. The second approach is direct access, where it is possible to get to the nth
record without having to pass through the previous n–1 records. While direct access is
useful for ad hoc querying of information, sequential access remains essential for
transaction processing applications such as generating payroll, grade reports, and
utility bills.
In order to access data, the data must be organized. For sequential access, this means
that all records in a file must be stored (organized) through some order using a unique
identifier, such as employee number, inventory number, flight number, account number,
or stock symbol. This is called sequential organization. A serial (unordered) collection of
records, also known as a “heap file,” cannot provide sequential access. For direct
access, the records in a file can be stored serially and organized either randomly or by
using an external index. A randomly organized file is one in which the value of a unique
identifier is processed by some sort of transformation routine (often called a “hashing
algorithm”) that computes the location of records within the file (relative record
numbers). An indexed file makes use of an index external to the data set similar in nature
to the one found at the back of this book to identify the location where a record is
physically stored.
As discussed in Section 1.5, a database takes advantage of software called a database
management system (DBMS) that sits on top of a set of files physically organized as
sequential files and/or as some form of direct access files. A DBMS facilitates data access
in a database without burdening a user with the details of how the data is physically
organized.
1.3 LIMITATIONS OF FILE-PROCESSING SYSTEMS

Computer applications in the 1960s and 1970s focused primarily on automating clerical
tasks. These applications made use of records stored in separate files and thus were
called file-processing systems. Although file-processing systems for information systems
applications have been useful for many years, database technology has rendered them
obsolete except for their use in a few legacy systems such as some payroll and customer
Chapter 1
billing systems. Nonetheless, understanding their limitations provides insight into the
4
development of and justification for database systems.
Figure 1.1 shows three file-processing systems for a hypothetical university. One pro-
cesses data for students, another processes data for faculty and staff, and a third processes
data for alumni. In such an environment, each file-processing system has its own collec-
tion of private files and programs that access these files.
© 2015 Cengage Learning®

FIGURE 1.1 An example of a file-processing environment
While an improvement over the manual systems that preceded them, file-processing
systems suffer from a number of limitations:
• Lack of data integrity—Data integrity ensures that data values are correct,
consistent, complete, and current. Duplication of data in isolated file-
processing systems leads to the possibility of inconsistent data. Then it is
difficult to identify which of these duplicate data is correct, complete, and/
or current. This creates data integrity problems. For example, if an
employee who is also a student and an alumnus changes his or her mailing
address, files that contain the mailing address in three different file-
processing systems require updating to ensure consistency of information
across the board. Data redundancy across the three file-processing
systems not only creates maintenance inefficiencies, it also leads to the
problem of not knowing which is the current, correct, and /or complete
address of the person.
• Lack of standards—Organizations with file-processing systems often lack or
find it difficult to enforce standards for naming data items as well as for
accessing, updating, and protecting data. The absence of such standards can
lead to unauthorized access and accidental or intentional damage to or

5
destruction of data. In essence, security and confidentiality of information
may be compromised.
• Lack of flexibility/maintainability—Information systems make it possible
for end users to develop information requirements that they had never
envisioned previously. This inevitably leads to a substantial increase in
requests for new queries and reports. However, file-processing systems are
dependent upon a programmer who has to either write or modify program
code to meet these information requirements from isolated data. This can
bring about information requests that are not satisfied or programs that are
inefficiently written, poorly documented, and difficult to maintain.
These limitations are actually symptoms resulting from two fundamental problems:
lack of integration of related data and lack of program-data independence.
• Lack of data integration—Data is separated and isolated, and ownership of
data is compartmentalized, resulting in limited data sharing. For example, to
produce a list of employees who are students and alumni at the same time,
data from multiple files must be accessed. This process can be quite complex
and time consuming since a program has to access and perform logical com-
parisons across independent files containing employee, student, and alumni
data. In short, lack of integration of data contributes to all of the problems
listed previously as symptoms.
• Lack of program-data independence—In a file-processing environment, the
structural layout of each file is embedded in the application programs. That
is, the metadata of a file is fully coded in each application program that uses
the particular file. Perhaps the most often-cited example of the program-data
dependence problem occurred during the file-processing era, when it was
common for an organization to expand the zip code field from five digits to
nine digits. In order to implement this change, every program in the
employee, student, and alumni file-processing systems containing the zip
code field had to be identified (often a time-consuming process itself) and
then modified to conform to the new file structure. This not only required
modification of each program and its documentation but also recompiling and
retesting of the program. Likewise, if a decision was made to change the
organization of a file from indexed to random, since the structure of the file
was mapped into every program using the file, every program using the file
had to be modified. Identifying all the affected programs for corrective action
was not a simple task, either. Thus, because of lack of program-data inde-
pendence, file-processing systems lack flexibility since they are not amenable
to structural changes in data. Program-data dependence also exacerbates data
security and confidentiality problems.
It is only through attacking the problems of lack of program-data independence and
lack of integration of related data that the limitations of file-processing systems can be
Chapter 1
eliminated. If a way is found to deal with these problems so as to establish centralized

6
control of data, then unnecessary redundancy can be reduced, data can be shared, stan-
dards can be enforced, security restrictions can be applied, and integrity can be main-
tained. One of the objectives of database systems is to integrate data without programmer
intervention in a way that eliminates data redundancy. The other objective of database
systems is to establish program-data independence, so that programs that access the data
are immune to changes in storage structure (how the data is physically organized) and
access technique.
The Time Life company experienced many of these problems in its early days.
Time Life was established in 1961 as a book-marketing division. It took its name from
Time and Life magazines, which at the time were two of the most popular weeklies
on the market. Time Life gained fame as a seller of book series that were mailed to
households in monthly installments, operating as book sales clubs. Most of the series
were more or less encyclopedic in nature (e.g., The LIFE History of the United States,
The Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening, The Great Cities, The American
Wilderness, etc.), providing the basics of the subjects in the way it might be done in
a series of lectures aimed at the general public. Over the years, more than 50 series
were published.
During the 1970s and first half of the 1980s, Time Life exhibited all of the character-
istics of a file-processing system. A separate collection of files was maintained for each
book series. Thus, when the company sought to promote a new series to its existing cus-
tomer base, a customer who had purchased or was currently subscribing to several book
series already would receive multiple copies of the same glossy brochure promoting the
new series. In addition, it was not uncommon for a customer to receive the same bro-
chure at multiple addresses if that customer had used different mailing addresses when
subscribing to different publications. In the mid-1980s, the company replaced its separate
file-processing systems with an integrated database system that eliminated much of the
data duplication and lack of data integrity that characterized the previous file-processing
environment in which it had been operating.
1.4 THE ANSI/SPARC THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

In the 1970s, the Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC) of the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) offered a solution to these problems by
proposing what came to be known as the ANSI/SPARC three-schema architecture.2 The
ANSI/SPARC three-schema architecture, as illustrated in Figure 1.2, consists of three per-
spectives of metadata in a database. The conceptual schema is the nucleus of the three-
schema architecture. Located between the external schema and internal schema, the
conceptual schema represents the global conceptual view of the structure of the entire
database for a community of users. By insulating applications/programs from changes in
physical storage structure and data access strategy, the conceptual schema achieves
program-data independence in a database environment.
2
In a database context, the word “schema” stands for “description of metadata.”
FIGURE 1.2 The ANSI/SPARC three-schema architecture
The external schema3 consists of a number of different user views4 or subschemas,

each describing portions of the database of interest to a particular user or group of users.
The conceptual schema represents the global view of the structure of the entire database
for a community of users. The conceptual schema is the consolidation of user views. The
data specification (metadata) for the entire database is captured by the conceptual
3
While an external schema is technically a collection of external subschemas or views, the term
“external schema” is used here in the context of either an individual user view or a collection of
different user views.
4
Informally, a “view” is a term that describes the information of interest to a user or a group of
users, where a user can be either an end user or a programmer. See Chapter 6 (Section 6.4) for
a more precise definition of a “view.”
Chapter 1
schema. The internal schema describes the physical structure of the stored data (how the
8
data is actually laid out on storage devices) and the mechanism used to implement the
access strategies (indexes, hashed addresses, and so on). The internal schema is con-
cerned with efficiency of data storage and access mechanisms in the database. Thus, the
internal schema is technology dependent, while the conceptual schema and external
schemas are technology independent. In principle, user views are generated on demand
through logical reference to data items in the conceptual schema independent of the logi-
cal or physical structure of the data.
1.4.1 Data Independence Defined

Data independence is the central concept driving a database system, and the very purpose
of a three-schema architecture is to enable data independence. The theme underlying the
concept of data independence is that when a schema at a lower level is changed, the
higher-level schemas themselves are unaffected by such changes. In other words, when a
change is made to storage structure or access strategy in the internal schema, there will be
no need to make any changes in the conceptual or external schemas; only the mapping
information—i.e., transforming requests and results between levels of schema—between a
schema and higher-level schemas need to be changed. Only then can it be said that data
independence is fully supported.
For instance, suppose direct access to data ordered by zip code is required. This
may be recorded as “direct access” in the conceptual schema, and a certain type of
indexing technique may be employed in the internal schema. This fact will be available
as the mapping information so that if/when the indexing technique in the internal schema
is changed, only the mapping information gets changed, and the conceptual schema is
unaffected. Incidentally, the external views are completely shielded from even the
knowledge of this change in the internal schema. That is, the specification and implementa-
tion of a change in the indexing mechanism on zip code does not require any modification
and testing of the application programs that use the external views containing zip code.
This capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual
or external schema is sometimes referred to as physical data independence. The internal
schema may be changed when certain file structures are reorganized or new indexes are
created to improve database performance. The physical data independence enables imple-
mentation of such changes without requiring any corresponding changes in the conceptual
or external schemas.
Likewise, enhancements to the conceptual schema in the form of growth or restructur-
ing will have no impact on any of the external views (subschemas) since all external views
are spawned from the conceptual schema only by logical reference to elements in the
conceptual schema. For instance, redefinition of logical structures of a data model (such as
adding or restructuring tables in a relational database) may sometimes be in order. Since
the external views (subschemas) are generated exclusively by logical references, the user
views are immune to such logical design changes in the conceptual schema. This property is
often called logical data independence. Logical data independence also enables a user
(external) view to be immune to changes in the other user views.
A file-processing system, in contrast, may be viewed as a two-schema architecture
consisting of the internal schema and the programmer’s view (external schema), as shown
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
When the abolitionists of Rhode Island were seeking to defeat
the restricted constitution of the Dorr party, already referred to in this
volume, Abby Kelley was more than once mobbed in the old Town
Hall in the city of Providence, and pelted with bad eggs.
And what can be said of the gifted authoress of “Uncle Tom’s
Cabin,” Harriet Beecher Stowe? Happy woman must she be, that to
her was given the power, in such unstinted measure, to touch and
move the popular heart! More than to reason or religion are we
indebted to the influence which this wonderful delineation of
American chattel slavery produced on the public mind.
Nor must I omit to name the daughter of the excellent Myron
Holley, who in her youth and beauty espoused the cause of the
slave; nor of Lucy Stone, and Antoinette Brown; for when the slave
had few friends and advocates they were noble enough to speak
their best word in his behalf.
Others there were, who, though they were not known on the
platform, were none the less earnest and effective for anti-slavery in
their more retired lives. There were many such to greet me, and
welcome me to my newly found heritage of freedom. They met me
as a brother, and by their kind consideration did much to make
endurable the rebuffs I encountered elsewhere. At the anti-slavery
office in Providence, Rhode Island, I remember with a peculiar
interest Lucinda Wilmarth, whose acceptance of life’s duties and
labors, and whose heroic struggle with sickness and death, taught
me more than one lesson; and Amorancy Paine, never weary in
performing any service, however arduous, which fidelity to the slave
demanded of her. Then there was Phebe Jackson, Elizabeth Chace,
the Sisson sisters, the Chases, the Greenes, the Browns, the
Goolds, the Shoves, the Anthonys, the Roses, the Fayerweathers,
the Motts, the Earles, the Spooners, the Southwicks, the Buffums,
the Fords, the Wilburs, the Henshaws, the Burgesses, and others
whose names are lost, but whose deeds are living yet in the
regenerated life of our new Republic, cleansed from the curse and
sin of slavery.
Observing woman’s agency, devotion, and efficiency in pleading
the cause of the slave, gratitude for this high service early moved me
to give favorable attention to the subject of what is called “Woman’s
Rights,” and caused me to be denominated a woman’s-rights-man. I
am glad to say I have never been ashamed to be thus designated.
Recognizing not sex, nor physical strength, but moral intelligence
and the ability to discern right from wrong, good from evil, and the
power to choose between them, as the true basis of Republican
government, to which all are alike subject, and bound alike to obey, I
was not long in reaching the conclusion that there was no foundation
in reason or justice for woman’s exclusion from the right of choice in
the selection of the persons who should frame the laws, and thus
shape the destiny of all the people, irrespective of sex.
In a conversation with Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, when she
was yet a young lady, and an earnest abolitionist, she was at the
pains of setting before me, in a very strong light, the wrong and
injustice of this exclusion. I could not meet her arguments except
with the shallow plea of “custom,” “natural division of duties,”
“indelicacy of woman’s taking part in politics,” the common talk of
“woman’s sphere,” and the like, all of which that able woman, who
was then no less logical than now, brushed away by those
arguments which she has so often and effectively used since, and
which no man has yet successfully refuted. If intelligence is the only
true and rational basis of government, it follows that that is the best
government which draws its life and power from the largest sources
of wisdom, energy, and goodness at its command. The force of this
reasoning would be easily comprehended and readily assented to in
any case involving the employment of physical strength. We should
all see the folly and madness of attempting to accomplish with a part
what could only be done with the united strength of the whole.
Though this folly may be less apparent, it is just as real, when one-
half of the moral and intellectual power of the world is excluded from
any voice or vote in civil government. In this denial of the right to
participate in government, not merely the degradation of woman and
the perpetuation of a great injustice happens, but the maiming and
repudiation of one-half of the moral and intellectual power for the
government of the world. Thus far all human governments have
been failures, for none have secured, except in a partial degree, the
ends for which governments are instituted.
War, slavery, injustice, and oppression, and the idea that might
makes right, have been uppermost in all such governments; and the
weak, for whose protection governments are ostensibly created,
have had practically no rights which the strong have felt bound to
respect. The slayers of thousands have been exalted into heroes,
and the worship of mere physical force has been considered
glorious. Nations have been and still are but armed camps,
expending their wealth and strength and ingenuity in forging
weapons of destruction against each other; and while it may not be
contended that the introduction of the feminine element in
government would entirely cure this tendency to exalt might over
right, many reasons can be given to show that woman’s influence
would greatly tend to check and modify this barbarous and
destructive tendency. At any rate, seeing that the male governments
of the world have failed, it can do no harm to try the experiment of a
government by man and woman united. But it is not my purpose to
argue the question here, but simply to state, in a brief way, the
ground of my espousal of the cause of woman’s suffrage. I believed
that the exclusion of my race from participation in government was
not only a wrong, but a great mistake, because it took from that race
motives for high thought and endeavor, and degraded them in the
eyes of the world around them. Man derives a sense of his
consequence in the world not merely subjectively, but objectively. If
from the cradle through life the outside world brands a class as unfit
for this or that work, the character of the class will come to resemble
and conform to the character described. To find valuable qualities in
our fellows, such qualities must be presumed and expected. I would
give woman a vote, give her a motive to qualify herself to vote,
precisely as I insisted upon giving the colored man the right to vote,
in order that he should have the same motives for making himself a
useful citizen as those in force in the case of other citizens. In a
word, I have never yet been able to find one consideration, one
argument, or suggestion in favor of man’s right to participate in civil
government which did not equally apply to the right of woman.
CHAPTER XIX.
RETROSPECTION.
Meeting of colored citizens in Washington to express their sympathy at the

great national bereavement, the death of President Garfield—Concluding
reflections and convictions.
On the day of the interment of the late James A. Garfield, at

Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio, a day of gloom long to be
remembered as the closing scene in one of the most tragic and
startling dramas ever witnessed in this, or in any other country, the
colored people of the District of Columbia assembled in the Fifteenth
street Presbyterian church, and expressed by appropriate addresses
and resolutions, their respect for the character and memory of the
illustrious deceased. On that occasion I was called on to preside,
and by way of introducing the subsequent proceedings, (leaving to
others the grateful office of delivering eulogies) made the following
brief reference to the solemn and touching event.
“Friends and fellow citizens:
To-day our common mother Earth has closed over the mortal
remains of James A. Garfield, at Cleveland, Ohio. The light of no day
in our national history has brought to the American people a more
intense bereavement, a deeper sorrow, or a more profound sense of
humiliation. It seems only as yesterday, that in my quality as United
States Marshal of the District of Columbia, it was made my duty and
privilege to walk at the head of the column in advance of this our
President-elect, from the crowded Senate Chamber of the National
Capitol, through the long corridors, and the grand rotunda, beneath
the majestic dome, to the platform on the portico, where amid a sea
of transcendent pomp and glory, he who is now dead, was hailed
with tumultuous applause from uncounted thousands of his fellow
citizens, and was inaugurated Chief Magistrate of the United States.
The scene was one never to be forgotten by those who beheld it. It
was a great day for the nation, glad and proud to do honor to their
chosen ruler. It was a glad day for James A. Garfield. It was a glad
day for me, that I—one of the proscribed race, was permitted to bear
so prominent a part in its august ceremonies. Mr. Garfield was then
in the midst of his years, in the fullness and vigor of his manhood,
covered with honors beyond the reach of princes, entering upon a
career more abundant in promise than ever invited president or
potentate before.
Alas, what a contrast, as he lay in state under the same broad
dome, viewed by sorrowful thousands day after day! What is the life
of man? What are all his plans, purposes, and hopes? What are the
shouts of the multitude, the pride and pomp of this world? How vain
and unsubstantial, in the light of this sad and shocking experience,
do they all appear! Who can tell what a day or an hour will bring
forth? Such reflections inevitably present themselves, as most
natural and fitting on an occasion like this.
Fellow citizens, we are here to take suitable notice of the sad
and appalling event of the hour. We are here, not merely as
American citizens, but as colored American citizens. Although our
hearts have gone along with those of the nation at large, with every
expression, with every token and demonstration of honor to the
dead, sympathy with the living, and abhorrence for the horrible deed
which has at last done its final work; though we have watched with
beating hearts, the long and heroic struggle for life, and endured all
the agony of suspense and fear; we have felt that something more,
something more specific and distinctive, was due from us. Our
relation to the American people makes us in some sense a peculiar
class, and unless we speak separately, our voice is not heard. We
therefore propose to put on record to-night our sense of the worth of
President Garfield, and of the calamity involved in his death. Called
to preside on this occasion, my part in the speaking shall be brief. I
cannot claim to have been on intimate terms with the late President.
There are other gentlemen here, who are better qualified to speak of
his character than myself. I may say, however, that soon after he
came to Washington, I had a conversation with him of much interest
to the colored people, since it indicated his just and generous
intentions towards them, and goes far to present him in the light of a
wise and patriotic statesman, and a friend of our race.
I called at the Executive Mansion, and was received very kindly
by Mr. Garfield, who, in the course of the conversation said, that he
felt the time had come when a step should be taken in advance, in
recognition of the claims of colored citizens, and expressed his
intention of sending some colored representatives abroad to other
than colored nations. He enquired of me how I thought such
representations would be received? I assured him that I thought they
would be well received; that in my own experience abroad, I had
observed that the higher we go in the gradations of human society,
the farther we get from prejudice of race or color. I was greatly
pleased with the assurance of his liberal policy towards us. I
remarked to him, that no part of the American people would be
treated with respect, if systematically ignored by the government,
and denied all participation in its honors and emoluments. To this he
assented, and went so far as to propose my going in a
representative capacity to an important post abroad—a compliment
which I gratefully acknowledged, but respectfully declined. To say the
truth, I wished to remain at home, and retain the office of United
States Marshal of the District of Columbia.
It is a great thing for Hon. John Mercer Langston to represent
this republic at Port au Prince, and for Henry Highland Garnet to
represent us in Liberia, but it would be indeed a step in advance, to
have some colored men sent to represent us in white nationalities,
and we have reason for profound regret that Mr. Garfield could not
have lived to carry out his just and wise intentions towards us. I
might say more of this conversation, but I will not detain you except
to say, that America has had many great men, but no man among
them all has had better things said of him, than he who has been
reverently committed to the dust in Cleveland to-day.”
Mr. Douglass then called upon Professor Greener, who read a
series of resolutions eloquently expressive of their sense of the great
loss that had been sustained, and their sympathy with the family of
the late President. Prof. Greener then spoke briefly and was followed
by Prof. John M. Langston and Rev. W. W. Hicks. All the speakers
expressed their confidence in President Arthur and in his ability to
give the country a wise and beneficial administration.
conclusion.
As far as this volume can reach that point I have now brought my
readers to the end of my story. What may remain of life to me,
through what experiences I may pass, what heights I may attain, into
what depths I may fall, what good or ill may come to me, or proceed
from me in this breathing world, where all is change, uncertainty, and
largely at the mercy of powers over which the individual man has no
absolute control, if thought worthy and useful, will probably be told by
others when I have passed from the busy stage of life. I am not
looking for any great changes in my fortunes or achievements in the
future. The most of the space of life is behind me, and the sun of my
day is nearing the horizon. Notwithstanding all that is contained in
this book my day has been a pleasant one. My joys have far
exceeded my sorrows, and my friends have brought me far more
than my enemies have taken from me. I have written out my
experience here, not to exhibit my wounds and bruises to awaken
and attract sympathy to myself personally, but as a part of the history
of a profoundly interesting period in American life and progress. I
have meant it to be a small individual contribution to the sum of
knowledge of this special period, to be handed down to after-coming
generations which may want to know what things were allowed and
what prohibited; what moral, social, and political relations subsisted
between the different varieties of the American people down to the
last quarter of the nineteenth century; and by what means they were
modified and changed. The time is at hand when the last American
slave, and the last American slaveholder will disappear behind the
curtain which separates the living from the dead, and when neither
master nor slave will be left to tell the story of their respective
relations, and what happened in those relations to either. My part
has been to tell the story of the slave. The story of the master never
wanted for narrators. They have had all the talent and genius that
wealth and influence could command to tell their story. They have
had their full day in court. Literature, theology, philosophy, law, and
learning, have come willingly to their service, and if condemned they
have not been condemned unheard.
It will be seen in these pages that I have lived several lives in
one. First, the life of slavery; secondly, the life of a fugitive from
slavery; thirdly, the life of comparative freedom; fourthly, the life of
conflict and battle; and, fifthly, the life of victory, if not complete, at
least assured. To those who have suffered in slavery, I can say I too
have suffered. To those who have taken some risks and encountered
hardships in the flight from bondage, I can say I too have endured
and risked. To those who have battled for liberty, brotherhood, and
citizenship, I can say I too have battled; and to those who have lived
to enjoy the fruits of victory, I can say I too live and rejoice. If I have
pushed my example too prominently for the good taste of my
Caucasian readers I beg them to remember that I have written in
part for the encouragement of a class whose aspirations need the
stimulus of success.
I have aimed to assure them that knowledge can be obtained
under difficulties; that poverty may give place to competency; that
obscurity is not an absolute bar to distinction, and that a way is open
to welfare and happiness to all who will resolutely and wisely pursue
that way; that neither slavery, stripes, imprisonment, or proscription,
need extinguish self-respect, crush manly ambition, or paralyze
effort; that no power outside of himself can prevent a man from
sustaining an honorable character and a useful relation to his day
and generation; that neither institutions nor friends can make a race
to stand unless it has strength in its own legs; that there is no power
in the world which can be relied upon to help the weak against the
strong—the simple against the wise; that races like individuals must
stand or fall by their own merits; that all the prayers of Christendom
cannot stop the force of a single bullet, divest arsenic of poison, or
suspend any law of nature. In my communication with the colored
people I have endeavored to deliver them from the power of
superstition, bigotry, and priest-craft. In theology I have found them
strutting about in the old clothes of the masters, just as the masters
strut about in the old clothes of the past. The falling power remains
among them long since it has ceased to be the religious fashion of
our refined and elegant white churches. I have taught that the “fault
is not in our stars but in ourselves that we are underlings,” that “who
would be free, themselves must strike the blow.” I have urged upon
them self-reliance, self-respect, industry, perseverance, and
economy—to make the best of both worlds—but to make the best of
this world first because it comes first, and that he who does not
improve himself by the motives and opportunities afforded by this
world gives the best evidence that he would not improve in any other
world. Schooled as I have been among the abolitionists of New
England, I recognize that the universe is governed by laws which are
unchangeable and eternal, that what men sow they will reap, and
that there is no way to dodge or circumvent the consequences of any
act or deed. My views at this point receive but limited endorsement
among my people. They for the most part think they have means of
procuring special favor and help from the Almighty, and as their “faith
is the substance of things hoped for and the evidence of things not
seen,” they find much in this expression which is true to faith but
utterly false to fact. But I meant here only to say a word in
conclusion. Forty years of my life have been given to the cause of
my people, and if I had forty years more they should all be sacredly
given to the great cause. If I have done something for that cause, I
am after all more a debtor to it than it is debtor to me.
APPENDIX.
ORATION BY FREDERICK DOUGLASS, DELIVERED ON THE OCCASION
OF THE UNVEILING OF THE FREEDMEN’S MONUMENT, IN MEMORY
OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, IN LINCOLN PARK, WASHINGTON, D. C.,
APRIL 14, 1876.
Friends and fellow citizens:

I warmly congratulate you upon the highly interesting object
which has caused you to assemble in such numbers and spirit as
you have to-day. This occasion is in some respects remarkable.
Wise and thoughtful men of our race, who shall come after us, and
study the lesson of our history in the United States; who shall survey
the long and dreary spaces over which we have traveled; who shall
count the links in the great chain of events by which we have
reached our present position, will make a note of this occasion; they
will think of it and speak of it with a sense of manly pride and
complacency.
I congratulate you, also, upon the very favorable circumstances
in which we meet to-day. They are high, inspiring, and uncommon.
They lend grace, glory, and significance to the object for which we
have met. Nowhere else in this great country, with its uncounted
towns and cities, unlimited wealth, and immeasurable territory
extending from sea to sea, could conditions be found more favorable
to the success of this occasion than here.
We stand to-day at the national center to perform something like
a national act—an act which is to go into history; and we are here
where every pulsation of the national heart can be heard, felt, and
reciprocated. A thousand wires, fed with thought and winged with
lightning, put us in instantaneous communication with the loyal and
true men all over this country.
Few facts could better illustrate the vast and wonderful change
which has taken place in our condition as a people, than the fact of
our assembling here for the purpose we have to-day. Harmless,
beautiful, proper, and praiseworthy as this demonstration is, I cannot
forget that no such demonstration would have been tolerated here
twenty years ago. The spirit of slavery and barbarism, which still
lingers to blight and destroy in some dark and distant parts of our
country, would have made our assembling here the signal and
excuse for opening upon us all the flood-gates of wrath and violence.
That we are here in peace to-day is a compliment and a credit to
American civilization, and a prophecy of still greater national
enlightenment and progress in the future. I refer to the past not in
malice, for this is no day for malice; but simply to place more
distinctly in front the gratifying and glorious change which has come
both to our white fellow-citizens and ourselves, and to congratulate
all upon the contrast between now and then; the new dispensation of
freedom with its thousand blessings to both races, and the old
dispensation of slavery with its ten thousand evils to both races—
white and black. In view, then, of the past, the present, and the
future, with the long and dark history of our bondage behind us, and
with liberty, progress, and enlightenment before us, I again
congratulate you upon this auspicious day and hour.
Friends and fellow citizens, the story of our presence here is
soon and easily told. We are here in the District of Columbia, here in
the city of Washington, the most luminous point of American territory;
a city recently transformed and made beautiful in its body and in its
spirit; we are here in the place where the ablest and best men of the
country are sent to devise the policy, enact the laws, and shape the
destiny of the Republic; we are here, with the stately pillars and
majestic dome of the Capitol of the nation looking down upon us; we
are here, with the broad earth freshly adorned with the foliage and
flowers of spring for our church, and all races, colors, and conditions
of men for our congregation—in a word, we are here to express, as
best we may, by appropriate forms and ceremonies, our grateful
sense of the vast, high, and preëminent services rendered to
ourselves, to our race, to our country, and to the whole world by
Abraham Lincoln.
The sentiment that brings us here to-day is one of the noblest
that can stir and thrill the human heart. It has crowned and made
glorious the high places of all civilized nations with the grandest and
most enduring works of art, designed to illustrate the characters and
perpetuate the memories of great public men. It is the sentiment
which from year to year adorns with fragrant and beautiful flowers
the graves of our loyal, brave, and patriotic soldiers who fell in
defence of the Union and liberty. It is the sentiment of gratitude and
appreciation, which often, in the presence of many who hear me, has
filled yonder heights of Arlington with the eloquence of eulogy and
the sublime enthusiasm of poetry and song; a sentiment which can
never die while the Republic lives.
For the first time in the history of our people, and in the history of
the whole American people, we join in this high worship, and march
conspicuously in the line of this time-honored custom. First things
are always interesting, and this is one of our first things. It is the first
time that, in this form and manner, we have sought to do honor to an
American great man, however deserving and illustrious. I commend
the fact to notice; let it be told in every part of the Republic; let men
of all parties and opinions hear it; let those who despise us, not less
than those who respect us, know that now and here, in the spirit of
liberty, loyalty, and gratitude, let it be known everywhere, and by
everybody who takes an interest in human progress and in the
amelioration of the condition of mankind, that, in the presence and
with the approval of the members of the American House of
Representatives, reflecting the general sentiment of the country: that
in the presence of that august body, the American Senate,
representing the highest intelligence and the calmest judgment in the
country; in presence of the Supreme Court and Chief-Justice of the
United States, to whose decisions we all patriotically bow; in the
presence and under the steady eye of the honored and trusted
President of the United States, with the members of his wise and
patriotic Cabinet, we, the colored people, newly emancipated and
rejoicing in our blood-bought freedom, near the close of the first
century in the life of this Republic, have now and here unveiled, set
apart, and dedicated a monument of enduring granite and bronze, in
every line, feature, and figure of which the men of this generation
may read, and those of after-coming generations may read,
something of the exalted character and great works of Abraham
Lincoln, the first martyr President of the United States.
Fellow citizens, in what we have said and done to-day, and in
what we may say and do hereafter, we disclaim everything like
arrogance and assumption. We claim for ourselves no superior
devotion to the character, history, and memory of the illustrious name
whose monument we have here dedicated to-day. We fully
comprehend the relation of Abraham Lincoln both to ourselves and
to the white people of the United States. Truth is proper and beautiful
at all times and in all places, and it is never more proper and
beautiful in any case than when speaking of a great public man
whose example is likely to be commended for honor and imitation
long after his departure to the solemn shades,—the silent continents
of eternity. It must be admitted, truth compels me to admit, even here
in the presence of the monument we have erected to his memory,
Abraham Lincoln was not, in the fullest sense of the word, either our
man or our model. In his interests, in his associations, in his habits of
thought, and in his prejudices, he was a white man.
He was preëminently the white man’s President, entirely devoted
to the welfare of white men. He was ready and willing at any time
during the first years of his administration to deny, postpone, and
sacrifice the rights of humanity in the colored people to promote the
welfare of the white people of this country. In all his education and
feeling he was an American of the Americans. He came into the
Presidential chair upon one principle alone, namely, opposition to the
extension of slavery. His arguments in furtherance of this policy had
their motive and mainspring in his patriotic devotion to the interests
of his own race. To protect, defend, and perpetuate slavery in the
States where it existed Abraham Lincoln was not less ready than any
other President to draw the sword of the nation. He was ready to
execute all the supposed constitutional guarantees of the United
States Constitution in favor of the slave system anywhere inside the
slave States. He was willing to pursue, recapture, and send back the
fugitive slave to his master, and to suppress a slave rising for liberty,
though his guilty master were already in arms against the
Government. The race to which we belong were not the special
objects of his consideration. Knowing this, I concede to you, my
white fellow citizens, a preëminence in this worship at once full and
supreme. First, midst, and last, you and yours were the objects of his
deepest affection and his most earnest solicitude. You are the
children of Abraham Lincoln. We are at best only his step-children;
children by adoption, children by force of circumstances and
necessity. To you it especially belongs to sound his praises, to
preserve and perpetuate his memory, to multiply his statues, to hang
his pictures high upon your walls, and commend his example, for to
you he was a great and glorious friend and benefactor. Instead of
supplanting you at this altar, we would exhort you to build high his
monuments; let them be of the most costly material, of the most
cunning workmanship; let their forms be symmetrical, beautiful, and
perfect; let their bases be upon solid rocks, and their summits lean
against the unchanging blue, overhanging sky, and let them endure
forever! But while in the abundance of your wealth, and in the
fullness of your just and patriotic devotion, you do all this, we entreat
you to despise not the humble offering we this day unveil to view; for
while Abraham Lincoln saved for you a country, he delivered us from
a bondage, according to Jefferson, one hour of which was worse
than ages of the oppression your fathers rose in rebellion to oppose.
Fellow citizens, ours is no new-born zeal and devotion—merely
a thing of this moment. The name of Abraham Lincoln was near and
dear to our hearts in the darkest and most perilous hours of the
Republic. We were no more ashamed of him when shrouded in
clouds of darkness, of doubt, and defeat than when we saw him
crowned with victory, honor, and glory. Our faith in him was often
taxed and strained to the uttermost, but it never failed. When he
tarried long in the mountain; when he strangely told us that we were
the cause of the war; when he still more strangely told us to leave
the land in which we were born; when he refused to employ our arms
in defence of the Union; when, after accepting our services as
colored soldiers, he refused to retaliate our murder and torture as
colored prisoners; when he told us he would save the Union if he
could with slavery; when he revoked the Proclamation of
Emancipation of General Frémont; when he refused to remove the
popular commander of the Army of the Potomac, in the days of its
inaction and defeat, who was more zealous in his efforts to protect
slavery than to suppress rebellion; when we saw all this, and more,
we were at times grieved, stunned, and greatly bewildered; but our
hearts believed while they ached and bled. Nor was this, even at that
time, a blind and unreasoning superstition. Despite the mist and
haze that surround him; despite the tumult, the hurry, and confusion
of the hour, we were able to take a comprehensive view of Abraham
Lincoln, and to make reasonable allowance for the circumstances of
his position. We saw him, measured him, and estimated him; not by
stray utterances to injudicious and tedious delegations, who often
tried his patience; not by isolated facts torn from their connection; not
by any partial and imperfect glimpses, caught at inopportune
moments; but by a broad survey, in the light of the stern logic of
great events, and in view of that “divinity which shapes our ends,
rough hew them how we will,” we came to the conclusion that the
hour and the man of our redemption had somehow met in the person
of Abraham Lincoln. It mattered little to us what language he might
employ on special occasions; it mattered little to us, when we fully
knew him, whether he was swift or slow in his movements; it was
enough for us that Abraham Lincoln was at the head of a great
movement, and was in living and earnest sympathy with that
movement, which, in the nature of things, must go on until slavery
should be utterly and forever abolished in the United States.
When, therefore, it shall be asked what we have to do with the
memory of Abraham Lincoln, or what Abraham Lincoln had to do
with us, the answer is ready, full, and complete. Though he loved
Cæsar less than Rome, though the Union was more to him than our
freedom or our future, under his wise and beneficent rule we saw
ourselves gradually lifted from the depths of slavery to the heights of
liberty and manhood; under his wise and beneficent rule, and by
measures approved and vigorously pressed by him, we saw that the
handwriting of ages, in the form of prejudice and proscription, was
rapidly fading away from the face of our whole country; under his
rule, and in due time, about as soon after all as the country could
tolerate the strange spectacle, we saw our brave sons and brothers
laying off the rags of bondage, and being clothed all over in the blue
uniforms of the soldiers of the United States; under his rule we saw
two hundred thousand of our dark and dusky people responding to
the call of Abraham Lincoln, and with muskets on their shoulders,
and eagles on their buttons, timing their high footsteps to liberty and
union under the national flag; under his rule we saw the
independence of the black republic of Hayti, the special object of
slaveholding aversion and horror, fully recognized, and her minister,
a colored gentleman, duly received here in the city of Washington;
under his rule we saw the internal slave-trade, which so long
disgraced the nation, abolished, and slavery abolished in the District
of Columbia; under his rule we saw for the first time the law enforced
against the foreign slave-trade, and the first slave-trader hanged like
any other pirate or murderer; under his rule, assisted by the greatest
captain of our age, and his inspiration, we saw the Confederate
States, based upon the idea that our race must be slaves, and
slaves forever, battered to pieces and scattered to the four winds;
under his rule, and in the fullness of time, we saw Abraham Lincoln,
after giving the slaveholders three months’ grace in which to save
their hateful slave system, penning the immortal paper, which,
though special in its language, was general in its principles and
effect, making slavery forever impossible in the United States.
Though we waited long, we saw all this and more.
Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom
of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of
January, 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would
prove to be as good as his word? I shall never forget that memorable
night, when in a distant city I waited and watched at a public
meeting, with three thousand others not less anxious than myself, for
the word of deliverance which we have heard read to-day. Nor shall I
ever forget the outburst of joy and thanksgiving that rent the air when
the lightning brought to us the emancipation proclamation. In that
happy hour we forgot all delay, and forgot all tardiness, forgot that
the President had bribed the rebels to lay down their arms by a
promise to withhold the bolt which would smite the slave-system with
destruction; and we were thenceforward willing to allow the
President all the latitude of time, phraseology, and every honorable
device that statesmanship might require for the achievement of a
great and beneficent measure of liberty and progress.
Fellow citizens, there is little necessity on this occasion to speak
at length and critically of this great and good man, and of his high
mission in the world. That ground has been fully occupied and
completely covered both here and elsewhere. The whole field of fact
and fancy has been gleaned and garnered. Any man can say things
that are true of Abraham Lincoln, but no man can say anything that is
new of Abraham Lincoln. His personal traits and public acts are
better known to the American people than are those of any other
man of his age. He was a mystery to no man who saw him and
heard him. Though high in position, the humblest could approach
him and feel at home in his presence. Though deep he was
transparent; though strong, he was gentle; though decided and
pronounced in his convictions, he was tolerant towards those who
differed from him, and patient under reproaches. Even those who
only knew him through his public utterances obtained a tolerably
clear idea of his character and his personality. The image of the man
went out with his words, and those who read them, knew him.
I have said that President Lincoln was a white man, and shared
the prejudices common to his countrymen towards the colored race.
Looking back to his times and to the condition of his country, we are
compelled to admit that this unfriendly feeling on his part may be
safely set down as one element of his wonderful success in
organizing the loyal American people for the tremendous conflict
before them, and bringing them safely through that conflict. His great
mission was to accomplish two things: first, to save his country from
dismemberment and ruin; and second, to free his country from the
great crime of slavery. To do one or the other, or both, he must have
the earnest sympathy and the powerful coöperation of his loyal
fellow-countrymen. Without this primary and essential condition to
success his efforts must have been vain and utterly fruitless. Had he
put the abolition of slavery before the salvation of the Union, he
would have inevitably driven from him a powerful class of the
American people and rendered resistance to rebellion impossible.
Viewed from the genuine abolition ground, Mr. Lincoln seemed tardy,
cold, dull, and indifferent; but measuring him by the sentiment of his
country, a sentiment he was bound as a statesman to consult, he
was swift, zealous, radical, and determined.
Though Mr. Lincoln shared the prejudices of his white fellow
countrymen against the negro, it is hardly necessary to say that in
E
his heart of hearts he loathed and hated slavery. The man who
could say, “Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty
scourge of war shall soon pass away, yet if God wills it continue till
all the wealth piled by two hundred years of bondage shall have
been wasted, and each drop of blood drawn by the lash shall have
been paid for by one drawn by the sword, the judgments of the Lord
are true and righteous altogether,” gives all needed proof of his
feeling on the subject of slavery. He was willing, while the South was
loyal, that it should have its pound of flesh, because he thought it
was so nominated in the bond; but farther than this no earthly power
could make him go.
E
“I am naturally anti-slavery. If slavery is not
wrong, nothing is wrong. I cannot remember
when I did not so think and feel.”—Letter of Mr.
Lincoln to Mr. Hodges, of Kentucky, April 4,
1864.
Fellow citizens, whatever else in the world may be partial, unjust,

and uncertain, time, time! is impartial, just, and certain in its action.
In the realm of mind, as well as in the realm of matter, it is a great
worker, and often works wonders. The honest and comprehensive
statesman, clearly discerning the needs of his country, and earnestly
endeavoring to do his whole duty, though covered and blistered with
reproaches, may safely leave his course to the silent judgment of
time. Few great public men have ever been the victims of fiercer
denunciation than Abraham Lincoln was during his administration.
He was often wounded in the house of his friends. Reproaches came
thick and fast upon him from within and from without, and from
opposite quarters. He was assailed by abolitionists; he was assailed
by slaveholders; he was assailed by the men who were for peace at
any price; he was assailed by those who were for a more vigorous
prosecution of the war; he was assailed for not making the war an
abolition war; and he was most bitterly assailed for making the war
an abolition war.
But now behold the change: the judgment of the present hour is,
that taking him for all in all, measuring the tremendous magnitude of
the work before him, considering the necessary means to ends, and
surveying the end from the beginning, infinite wisdom has seldom
sent any man into the world better fitted for his mission than
Abraham Lincoln. His birth, his training, and his natural endowments,
both mental and physical, were strongly in his favor. Born and reared
among the lowly, a stranger to wealth and luxury, compelled to
grapple single-handed with the flintiest hardships of life, from tender
youth to sturdy manhood, he grew strong in the manly and heroic
qualities demanded by the great mission to which he was called by
the votes of his countrymen. The hard condition of his early life,
which would have depressed and broken down weaker men, only
gave greater life, vigor, and buoyancy to the heroic spirit of Abraham
Lincoln. He was ready for any kind and quality of work. What other
young men dreaded in the shape of toil, he took hold of with the
utmost cheerfulness.
A spade, a rake, a hoe,

A pick-axe, or a bill;
A hook to reap, a scythe to mow,
A flail, or what you will.
All day long he could split heavy rails in the woods, and half the
night long he could study his English Grammar by the uncertain flare
and glare of the light made by a pine-knot. He was at home on the
land with his axe, with his maul, with gluts, and his wedges; and he
was equally at home on water, with his oars, with his poles, with his
planks, and with his boat-hooks. And whether in his flat-boat on the
Mississipi river, or on the fireside of his frontier cabin, he was a man
of work. A son of toil himself, he was linked in brotherly sympathy
with the sons of toil in every loyal part of the republic. This very fact
gave him tremendous power with the American people, and
materially contributed not only to selecting him to the Presidency, but
in sustaining his administration of the government.
Upon his inauguration as President of the United States, an
office, even where assumed under the most favorable conditions,
fitted to tax and strain the largest abilities, Abraham Lincoln was met
by a tremendous crisis. He was called upon not merely to administer
the government, but to decide, in the face of terrible odds, the fate of
the Republic.
A formidable rebellion rose in his path before him; the Union was
practically dissolved; his country was torn and rent asunder at the
center. Hostile armies were already organized against the republic,
armed with the munitions of war which the republic had provided for
its own defence. The tremendous question for him to decide was
whether his country should survive the crisis and flourish, or be
dismembered and perish. His predecessor in office had already
decided the question in favor of national dismemberment, by denying
to it the right of self-defence and self-preservation—a right which
belongs to the meanest insect.
Happily for the country, happily for you and for me, the judgment
of James Buchanan, the patrician, was not the judgment of Abraham
Lincoln, the plebeian. He brought his strong common sense,
sharpened in the school of adversity, to bear upon the question. He
did not hesitate, he did not doubt, he did not falter; but at once
resolved at whatever peril, at whatever cost, the union of the States
should be preserved. A patriot himself, his faith was strong and
unwavering in the patriotism of his countrymen. Timid men said
before Mr. Lincoln’s inauguration, that we had seen the last
President of the United States. A voice in influential quarters said
“Let the Union slide.” Some said that a Union maintained by the
sword was worthless. Others said a rebellion of 8,000,000 cannot be
suppressed; but in the midst of all this tumult and timidity, and
against all this, Abraham Lincoln was clear in his duty, and had an

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Data Modeling and Database Design

2nd Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering

Database Systems Design, Implementation, and Management

Process Control: Modeling, Design, and Simulation 2nd

(eBook PDF) Database Design Application Development

Data Center Handbook: Plan, Design, Build, And

NoSQL and SQL data modeling: bringing together data,

Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and

(eBook PDF) Data Mining and Predictive Analytics 2nd

There is a verse that says

Part I: Conceptual Data Modeling

Part II: Logical Data Modeling

Selected Bibliography 739

Chapter 1 Database Systems: Architecture and Components 1

Part I: Conceptual Data Modeling

Chapter 2 Foundation Concepts 30

Chapter 3 Entity-Relationship Modeling 79

3.2.3 The Design-Specific ER Model 104

Chapter 4 Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Modeling 141

Chapter 5 Modeling Complex Relationships 197

5.6 Validation of the Conceptual Design 246

Part II: Logical Data Modeling

Chapter 6 The Relational Data Model 280

Chapter 7 Functional Dependencies 358

7.3 Candidate Keys Revisited 374

Chapter 8 Normal Forms Based on Functional Dependencies 395

Chapter 9 Higher Normal Forms 467

Chapter 10 Database Creation 506

Chapter 11 Relational Algebra 539

Chapter 12 Structured Query Language (SQL) 567

Chapter 13 Advanced Data Manipulation Using SQL 635

Appendix A Data Modeling Architectures Based on the Inverted Tree

Appendix B Object-Oriented Data Modeling Architectures 731

Selected Bibliography 739

Part I: Conceptual Data Modeling

Design-Specific layer of the ER model. Also, the unique learning technique

Part II: Logical Data Modeling

Part III: Normalization

topic is rarely covered in database textbooks. Chapter 9 completes the discussion of

Part IV: Database Implementation Using the Relational Database Model

FEATURES OF EACH CHAPTER

WHAT MAKES THIS BOOK DIFFERENT?

Australia, Umanath and Chiang (2000) describe a logical modeling gram-

A NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR

1.1 DATA, INFORMATION, AND METADATA

PLANT Pl_name Alphabetic 30 Stored Non-key

PLANT Pl_number Numeric 2 Stored Key Integer values

PLANT Budget Numeric 7 Stored Non-key

PLANT Building Alphabetic 20 Stored Non-key

PLANT No_of_employees Numeric 4 Derived Non-key

TABLE 1.1 Some metadata for a manufacturing plant

1.2 DATA MANAGEMENT

1.3 LIMITATIONS OF FILE-PROCESSING SYSTEMS

© 2015 Cengage Learning®

lead to unauthorized access and accidental or intentional damage to or

eliminated. If a way is found to deal with these problems so as to establish centralized

1.4 THE ANSI/SPARC THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

FIGURE 1.2 The ANSI/SPARC three-schema architecture

The external schema3 consists of a number of different user views4 or subschemas,

1.4.1 Data Independence Defined

Meeting of colored citizens in Washington to express their sympathy at the

On the day of the interment of the late James A. Garfield, at