MM-II Lab Manual New

Mechanics of Materials Lab CLO-PLO mapping
No. Course Learning Outcome Domain Taxonomy level PLO

To perform experiment related to creep,
1 fatigue and tensile loading and analyze the Psychomotor 3 2
results.
To observe and measure mechanical
properties of materials including impact,
2 Psychomotor 4 4
toughness, hardness, stiffness of spring,
principal stress by performing experiments.
CLO Mapping with Lab Sessions
CLOs Lab sessions
To verify the Hook’s law using the extension of wire apparatus and also determine the
CLO-2
young’s modulus of elasticity of the test material wire.
CLO-2 To find out the modulus of rigidity of rubber block using rubber shearing apparatus.
To determine the deflection of simply supported beam loaded by an eccentric point

CLO-2
load and then calculate modulus of elasticity of beam
To perform the torsion test and determine the modulus of rigidity of the given
CLO-2
specimen.
To perform tensile test and draw stress strain curve for a given specimen using
CLO-1
Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
To determine the toughness and impact strength of the given specimen on impact testing
CLO-1
machine.
To study about measurement of the creep developed in the given test specimen under
CLO-1
specific temperature and load.
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given Specimen using Rockwell
CLO-2
Hardness tester.
To observe photo elastic phenomena and photo elastic techniques on crack propagation
CLO-2 analysis, stress distribution and principle stresses direction in loaded specimen using
Polariscope.
Mechanics of Materials Lab 2

Lab Session No. 01
Objective:
“To draw the layout of Mechanics of Materials laboratory.”

Rubrics for layout
Needs
Criteria Excellent (4) Good (3) Fair (2) Improvement Score
(1)
Drawing Drawing mostly Some Drawing
accurately accurate discrepancies significantly
Accuracy
reflects actual with actual deviates from
layout layout actual layout
Clear and Labels mostly Some labels Labels absent
Labels comprehensive clear and missing or or illegible
labelling informative unclear
Drawing is Mostly clear, Some parts are Drawing is
Clarity clear and easy minor areas of unclear or difficult to
to understand confusion confusing interpret
Neat and Mostly neat, Some areas are Drawing is
organized minor messy or messy and
Neatness
presentation inconsistencies unclear difficult to
follow

Lab Session No. 02
Objective:
“To verify the Hook’s Law using the extension of wire apparatus and also determine the Young’s
Modulus of elasticity of the test material wire”
Apparatus:
➢ Young’s Modulus Apparatus
➢ Weights and hangers
➢ Test Material Wire
➢ Metre rod
Chuck
Experiment
al Wire
Vernier Scale
Load Hook
Load
Hanger 1N
Young's Modulus Apparatus

Description
Stress
We begin by considering the sectioned area to be subdivided into small areas, such as ∆A shown
in Fig. As we reduce ∆A to a smaller and smaller size, we will make two assumptions regarding
the properties of the material. We will consider the material to be continuous, that is, to consist of
a continuum or uniform distribution of matter having no voids. Also, the material must be cohesive,
meaning that all portions of it are connected together, without having breaks, cracks, or
separations. A typical finite yet very small force ∆F, acting on ∆A, is shown in Fig. This force,
like all the others, will have a unique direction, but to compare it with all the other forces, we will
replace it by its three components, namely, ∆Fx, ∆Fy, and ∆Fz. As ∆A approaches zero, so do ∆F
and its components; however, the quotient of the force and area will approach a finite limit. This
quotient is called stress, and it describes the intensity of the internal force acting on a specific plane
(area) passing through a point.
Normal Stress
The intensity of the force acting normal to ∆A is referred to as the normal stress, s (sigma). Since
∆Fz is normal to the area then
If the normal force or stress “pulls” on ∆A as shown in Fig it is tensile stress, whereas if it “pushes”
on ∆A it is compressive stress.

Shear Stress
The intensity of force acting tangent to ∆A is called the shear stress, τ(tau). Here we have two
shear stress components,
The subscript notation z specifies the orientation of the area ∆A, Fig., and x and y indicate the axes
along which each shear stress acts
Strain
The measure of deformation is called as strain.
Normal Strain
If an axial load P is applied to the bar in Fig., it will change the bar’s length L0 to a length L. We
will define the average normal strain ε (epsilon) of the bar as the change in its length d (delta) =
L - L0 divided by its original length, that is
Shear Strain
Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also cause them to
change direction. If we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another,
then the change in angle that occurs between them is referred to as shear strain. This angle is
denoted by g (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),which are dimensionless. For
example, consider the two perpendicular line segments at a point in the block shown in Fig. 2–3a.

If an applied loading causes the block to deform as shown in Fig. 2–3b, so that the angle between
the line segments becomes u, then the shear strain at the point becomes
Notice that if θ is smaller than π/2 then the shear strain is positive, whereas if θ is larger than π/2,
then the shear strain is negative.
Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram

The nominal or engineering stress is determined by dividing the applied load P by the specimen’s
original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation assumes that the stress is constant over the cross
section and throughout the gage length. We have
Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gage reading, or by
dividing the change in the specimen’s gage length, d, by the specimen’s original gage length L0.
Thus,
When these values of s and P are plotted, where the vertical axis is the stress and the horizontal
axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain diagram. A typical
example of this curve is shown in Fig.. Realize, however, that two stress–strain diagrams for a
particular material will be quite similar, but will never be exactly the same. This is because the
results actually depend upon such variables as the material’s composition, microscopic
imperfections, the way the specimen is manufactured, the rate of loading, and the temperature
during the time of the test.From the curve in Fig., we can identify four different regions in which
the material behaves in a unique way, depending on the amount of strain induced in the material.
Elastic Behavior. The initial region of the curve, indicated in light orange, is referred to as the
elastic region. Here the curve is a straight line up to the point where the stress reaches the
proportional limit, σpl. When the stress slightly exceeds this value, the curve bends until the stress

reaches an elastic limit. For most materials, these points are very close, and therefore it becomes
rather difficult to distinguish their exact values. What makes the elastic region unique, however,
is that after reaching sY, if the load is removed, the specimen will recover its original shape. In
other words, no damage will be done to the material.
Because the curve is a straight line up to spl, any increase in stress will cause a proportional
increase in strain. This fact was discovered in 1676 by Robert Hooke, using springs, and is known
as Hooke’s law. It is expressed mathematically as
Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young, who published an account of it in 1807.
Procedure:
1. Place weight hanger on the load hook.
2. Apply initial load to remove stiffness in wire.
3. Find the least count of measuring scale.
4. Measure diameter and length of the wire by using metre rod and Vernier calliper.
5. Apply different loads on the hanger, the wire extends and draw the table.
6. Using data available in table calculate the young’s modulus of specimen wire.
Observations and Calculations:

Formula
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝐸 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Load Young's
No. of Measuring Scale Extension Stress
Applied Strain Modulus E
Obs. Reading δl(mm) (N/mm2)
F(N) (N/mm2)
Initial Actual
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Draw the graph of Hooke’s law
Specimen Calculation:

Comments:

Lab Rubrics
Criteria Excellent (4) Good (3) Fair (2) Poor (1) score
- Instruments and - Instruments and

Technical - Some misuse or - Instruments or
tools are used tools are mostly
Soundness / inefficiency in tools are misused
appropriately and used
performance instrument usage or ineffective
effectively appropriately
- Data is
comprehensive, - Data is
- Data is mostly
relevant, and - Data is incomplete,
comprehensive,
accurately somewhat irrelevant, or
relevant, and
Data Collection recorded comprehensive inaccurately
accurately
and - Data is and relevant recorded
recorded
Presentation effectively - Data - Data
- Data is mostly
presented using presentation is presentation lacks
effectively
appropriate adequate clarity or
presented
tables, graphs, coherence
and visuals
- Analysis
demonstrates - Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
understanding of understanding of - Analysis lacks
addresses some
the data and the data and depth or
relevant aspects
addresses all addresses most relevance
Data Analysis - Conclusions are
relevant aspects relevant aspects - Conclusions are
somewhat
- Conclusions - Conclusions illogical or not
supported and
drawn are logical, drawn are mostly supported by data
logical
well-supported, logical and
and aligned with supported
data

Lab Session No. 03
Objective:
To find out the modulus of rigidity of rubber block using Rubber shearing Apparatus
Apparatus:
➢ Rubber Shearing Apparatus
➢ Dial gauge
➢ Weights and hanger
➢ Meter Rod
Dial
Rubber Block Indicator
Hanger
Back
RubberPlate
Shearing Apparatus
Procedure:
1. First of all, set the dial gauge at zero.
2. Loads of different magnitudes are successively applied to the hangers and record the
readings of vertical deflection in the rubber by dial gauge.
3. Repeat the experiment for increasing load and record the vertical displacement of rubber
block in each case.
4. Unload and note the corresponding reading with the decreasing load.
5. Calculate the modulus of rigidity of rubber.

Description
Shear Stress
The intensity of force acting tangent to ∆A is called the shear stress, t (tau). Here we have two
shear stress components,
The subscript notation z specifies the orientation of the area ∆A, Fig., and x and y indicate the axes
along which each shear stress acts.
Shear Strain
Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also cause them to
change direction. If we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another,
then the change in angle that occurs between them is referred to as shear strain. This angle is
denoted by g (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),which are dimensionless. For
example, consider the two perpendicular line segments at a point in the block shown in Fig. 2–3a.
If an applied loading causes the block to deform as shown in Fig. 2–3b, so that the angle between
the line segments becomes u, then the shear strain at the point becomes
Notice that if θ is smaller than π/2 then the shear strain is positive, whereas if θ is larger than π/2,
then the shear strain is negative.

engineers use a specimen in the shape of a thin tube and subject it to a torsional loading. If
measurements are made of the applied torque and the resulting angle of twist, the data can be used
to determine the shear stress and shear strain within the tube and thereby produce a shear stress–
strain diagram such as shown in Fig. Like the tension test, this material when subjected to shear
will exhibit linear elastic behaviour and it will have a defined proportional limit τpl. Also, strain
hardening will occur until an ultimate shear stress τu is reached. And finally, the material will begin
to lose its shear strength until it reaches a point where it fractures, τf. For most engineering
materials, like the one just described, the elastic behaviour is linear, and so Hooke’s law for shear
can be written as
Here G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity. Its value represents the
slope of the line on the t–g diagram, that is, G = τpl./ γpl. Units of measurement for G will be the
same as those for τ (Pa or psi), since g is measured in radians, a dimensionless Quantity

𝐹
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜏) = 𝑙∗𝑡
𝛿𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝛾) = 𝑤
𝜏 𝐹𝑤
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐺) = =
𝛾 𝑡𝑙𝛿𝑠
Length of Rubber Block (l) =

Length of Rubber Block (w) =
Thickness of Rubber Block (t) =
No. Shear Shear

of Load Shear Deformation, δl (mm) Stress τ Strain Modulus of Rigidity
Obs. Applied (N/mm2) ϒ
F(N)
Loading Unloading Avg G= τ/ϒ "G" from

(N/mm2) graph

Draw the graph of shear stress and shear strain to find modulus of rigidity
Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No: 04
Objective:
“To determine the deflection and slope of a simply supported beam loaded by an eccentric point
load and a concentrated load at midpoint and then calculate modulus of elasticity of beam“
Apparatus:
➢ Deflection of Beam Apparatus
➢ Dial Indicator
➢ Weights and hanger
➢ Metre Rod
➢ Vernier Caliper
Simply Supported Beam Dial Indicator

Hanger
Deflection of Beam Apparatus
p q

Description
Beam and its different types:
Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal
axis are called beams. In general, beams are long, straight bars having a constant cross-sectional
area. Often they are classified as to how they are supported. For example, a simply supported beam
is pinned at one end and roller supported at the other, a cantilevered beam is fixed at one end and
free at the other, and an overhanging beam has one or both of its ends freely extended over. A
beam having both ends supported by fixed supports are called as fixed beam. If a beam has more
than two supports is known as continuous supported beam.
Deflection and slope of beams

There are many methods including Macaulay’s method to determine slope and deflection of beam
as is covered in theory course (Mechanics of Materials-II). Here we will find out the deflection of
a simply supported beam carrying point load at its midpoint and then for eccentric loading.
Deflection at midpoint of Simply Supported Beam carrying point load at
midpoint
A B
L/2 L/2
L
RA RB
𝚺F=0
RA+ RB-W=0 ……..(1)
𝚺MA=0
RB(L)-W(L/2)=0 ……..(2)
Solving equations 1 and 2 gives
RB=W/2
Now, equation 1 gives
RA=W/2

W
A B
L/2
x
RA RB
W
V
A
M
L/2
x
RA
𝚺M2-2=0
M +W[x-L/2]- RA(x)=0
M = W(x)/2- W[x-L/2]
𝑑2 𝑦
-EI 𝑑𝑥 2 =M
𝑑2 𝑦
-EI 𝑑𝑥 2 = W(x)/2 - W[x-L/2]
Integrating
𝐿2
𝑑𝑦 𝑊𝑥 𝑊 [𝑥 − 2]
2
−𝐸𝐼 = − + 𝐶1 (3)
𝑑x 4 2
Integrating again
𝐿 3
𝑊𝑥 3 𝑊[𝑥− ]
2
-EIy= − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 (4)
12 6
Boundary conditions
y = 0 at x=0 put in equation 4
C2=0
y = 0 at x=L put in equation 4
𝐿3
𝑊𝐿3 𝑊[𝐿 − 2]
0= − + 𝐶1 𝐿
12 6

𝐿3
𝑊𝐿 3 𝑊[2]
0= − + 𝐶1 𝐿
12 6
𝑊𝐿3 𝑊𝐿3
0= − + 𝐶1 𝐿
12 48
4𝑊𝐿3 − 𝑊𝐿3
−𝐶1 𝐿 =
48
𝑊𝐿2
𝐶1 = −
16
𝐿3
𝑊𝑥 3 𝑊 [𝑥 − ] 𝑊𝐿2
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − 2 − 𝑥 (5)
12 6 16
Deflection at midpoint x=L/2
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿3
𝑊(2)3 𝑊 [2 − 2] 𝑊𝐿2 𝐿
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − − ( )
12 6 16 2
3
𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿3
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = −
96 32
𝑊𝐿3
𝑦=
48𝐸𝐼
Deflection at loading of Simply Supported Beam carrying eccentric point load

.
W
A B
p q
L
RA RB
L=p+q
𝚺F=0
RA+ RB-W=0 ……..(1)
𝚺MA=0

RB(L)-W(p)=0 ……..(2)
Solving equations 1 and 2 gives
𝑊.𝑝
RB= 𝐿
Now, equation 1 gives

𝑊.𝑞
W RA= 𝐿
A B
p
x
RA RB
W
V
A
M
p
x
RA
𝚺M2-2=0
M +W[x-p]- RA(x)=0
𝑊.𝑞
M= 𝑥- W[x-p]
𝐿
𝑑2 𝑦
-EI 𝑑𝑥 2 =M
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑊.𝑞
-EI = 𝑥- W[x-p]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿
Integrating
2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑊𝑞𝑥 2 𝑊[𝑥 − 𝑝]
−𝐸𝐼 2 = − + 𝐶1 (3)
𝑑𝑥 2𝐿 2
Integrating again
3
𝑊𝑞𝑥 3 𝑊[𝑥 − 𝑝]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 (4)
6𝐿 6

Boundary conditions
y = 0 at x=0 put in equation 4
C2=0
y = 0 at x=L put in equation 4
𝑊𝑞𝐿3 𝑊[𝐿 − 𝑝]3
0= − + 𝐶1 𝐿
6𝐿 6
𝑊𝑞𝐿2 𝑤𝑞 3
0= − + 𝐶1 𝐿
6 6
𝑊𝑞[𝐿2 − 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐶1 𝐿 =
6
𝑊𝑞[𝐿2 −𝑞 2 ]
𝐶1 = − 6𝐿
3
𝑊𝑞𝑥 3 𝑊[𝑥 − 𝑝] 𝑊𝑞[𝐿2 − 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − − 𝑥 (5)
6𝐿 6 6𝐿
Deflection at midpoint x=p
𝑊𝑞𝑝3 𝑊[𝑝 − 𝑝]3 𝑊𝑞[𝐿2 − 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − − 𝑝
6𝐿 6 6𝐿
𝑊𝑝𝑞[𝑝2 − 𝐿2 + 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 =
6𝐿
𝑊𝑝𝑞[𝑝2 − (𝑝 + 𝑞)2 + 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 =
6𝐿
𝑊𝑝𝑞[𝑝2 − (𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 + 2𝑝𝑞) + 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 =
6𝐿
𝑊𝑝𝑞[𝑝2 − 𝑝2 − 𝑞 2 − 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2 ]
−𝐸𝐼𝑦 =
6𝐿
−2𝑊𝑝2 𝑞 2
-𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 6𝐿
𝑊𝑝2 𝑞 2
𝑦=
3𝐸𝐼𝐿
Procedure:
➢ Set the deflection of beam apparatus on a horizontal surface
➢ Set the dial indicator to zero
➢ Apply the loads on the hanger at the midpoint and eccentrically and measure the
deflection using dial indicator
➢ Calculate the Modulus of Elasticity of the material of the beam.

𝑊𝐿3
𝑦=
48𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝐿3
𝐸=
48𝑦𝐼
Least Count of Dial Indicator =

Least Count of vernier caliper =
Effective length of beam =
Breadth of the Beam = b =
Thickness of the Beam = t =
Moment of Inertia of the Beam (I=bt3/12) =
No. LOAD (N) DEFLECTION (mm) W/Y E (Modulus
of of Elasticity)
Obs.
W loading unloading Average
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For Eccentric load;

𝑊𝑝2 𝑞 2
𝑦=
3𝐸𝐼𝐿
Where,
Distance of Load from Support A=p=
Distance of Load from Support B=q=
𝐿 =𝑝+𝑞
No. LOAD (N) DEFLECTION (mm) Theoretical Percentage

of Deflection Error.
Obs. 𝑊𝑝2 𝑞 2
𝑦= 3𝐸𝐼𝐿
W loading unloading Average
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 05
Objective
To perform the torsion test and determine the modulus of rigidity of the given specimen.
Apparatus
➢ Torsion Testing Machine
➢ Mild steel specimen
➢ Measuring Scale
➢ Vernier Calliper
Diagram:
Torsion Testing Machine

Description
Torque
Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of primary
concern in the design of drive shafts used in vehicles and machinery, and for this reason it is
important to be able to determine the stress and the deformation that occur in a shaft when it is
subjected to torsional loads.
Torsional Deformation of a Circular Shaft
We can physically illustrate what happens when a torque is applied to a circular shaft by
considering the shaft to be made of a highly deformable material such as rubber. When the torque
is applied, the longitudinal grid lines originally marked on the shaft, tend to distort into a helix,
that intersects the circles at equal angles. Also, all the cross sections of the shaft will remain flat
that is, they do not warp or bulge in or out and radial lines remain straight and rotate during this
deformation. Provided the angle of twist is small, then the length of the shaft and its radius will
remain practically unchanged.
If the shaft is fixed at one end and a torque is applied to its other end, then the dark green shaded
plane in Fig. will distort into a skewed form as shown. Here a radial line located on the cross
section at a distance x from the fixed end of the shaft will rotate through an angle ϕ(x). This angle
is called the angle of twist. It depends on the position x and will vary along the shaft as shown. In
order to understand how this distortion strains the material, we will now isolate a small disk
element located at x from the end of the shaft. Due to the deformation, the front and rear faces of
the element will undergo rotation—the back face by ϕ (x), and the front face by ϕ (x) + d ϕ. As a
result, the difference in these rotations, df, causes the element to be subjected to a shear strain, g
This angle (or shear strain) can be related to the angle df by noting that the length of the red arc in
Since dx and d ϕ are the same for all elements, then d ϕ /dx is constant over the cross section, and
Eq. states that the magnitude of the shear strain varies only with its radial distance r from the axis
of the shaft. Since d ϕ /dx = γ/ρ = γmax/c, then

In other words, the shear strain within the shaft varies linearly along any radial line, from zero at
the axis of the shaft to a maximum γmax at its outer boundary.
THE TORSION FORMULA
When an external torque is applied to a shaft, it creates a corresponding internal torque within the
shaft. In this section, we will develop an equation that relates this internal torque to the shear stress
distribution acting on the cross section of the shaft. If the material is linear elastic, then Hooke’s
law applies, τ = Gγ, or τmax = Gγmax, and consequently a linear variation in shear strain, as noted in
the previous section, leads to a corresponding linear variation in shear stress along any radial line.
Hence, t will vary from zero at the shaft’s longitudinal axis to a maximum value, τmax , at its outer
surface, Fig. Therefore, similar to Eq., we can write
Since each element of area dA, located at r, is subjected to a force of dF = τ dA, Fig. the torque
produced by this force is then dT = ρ(τ dA). For the entire cross section we have
However, tmax >c is constant, and so

The integral represents the polar moment of inertia of the shaft’s cross-sectional area about the
shaft’s longitudinal axis. On the next page we will calculate its value, but here we will symbolize
its value as J. As a result, the above equation can be rearranged and written in a more compact
form, namely
Here τmax = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at its outer surface
T = the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section. Its value is determined from the method
of sections and the equation of moment equilibrium applied about the shaft’s longitudinal axis
J = the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
c = the outer radius of the shaft
If first Eq. is substituted into last Eq., the shear stress at the intermediate distance r on the cross
section can be determined.

Either of the above two equations are often referred to as the torsion formula. Recall that it is used
only if the shaft has a circular cross section and the material is homogeneous and behaves in a
linear elastic manner, since the derivation of Eq. is based on Hooke’s law.
Polar Moment of Inertia.
If the shaft has a solid circular cross section, the polar moment of inertia J can be determined using
an area element in the form of a differential ring or annulus having a thickness dr and
circumference 2πr, Fig. For this ring, dA = 2πr dr, and so

Note that J is always positive. Common units used for its measurement are mm 4 or in4. If a shaft
has a tubular cross section, with inner radius ci and outer radius co, then from Eq. we can determine
its polar moment of inertia by subtracting J for a shaft of radius ci from that determined for a shaft
of radius co. The result is
Procedure
➢ Measure the diameter of the test specimen with the Vernier calliper.
➢ Measure its gauge length by measuring scale.
➢ Fix the specimen in the chucks and adjust the load range.
➢ Take readings of torsion and twist until failure occurs.
➢ Plot the graph T v/s θ.
➢ Calculate modulus of rigidity and torsional shear stress.

Observations and Calculations
Diameter of specimen=
Length of specimen=
𝑇𝐿
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐺) = 𝐽𝜃
𝑇𝑟
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏) =
𝐽
𝜋𝑑4
Where 𝐽 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 = 32
Modulus
Sr. # Specimen Length diameter Torque Angle of twist
of rigidity
Graph b/w Torque and Angle of Twist

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

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relevant, and
accurately
recorded
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addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
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logical
data

Lab Session No. 06
Objective:
“To determine the toughness and impact strength of the given specimen on impact testing
machine.”
Apparatus:
➢ Impact testing Machine.
➢ Cast iron Sample and Copper Sample

Description
Toughness:
In materials science and metallurgy, toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and
plastically deform without fracturing One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy
per unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.
Impact strength:
Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is
expressed in terms of energy.
Notch and its types:
In mechanical engineering and materials science, a notch refers to a V-shaped, U-shaped, or semi-
circular defect deliberately introduced into a planar material. In structural components, a notch
causes a stress concentration which can result in the initiation and growth of fatigue cracks.
Notches are used in materials characterization to determine fracture mechanics related properties
such as fracture toughness and rates of fatigue crack growth.
The type of notch introduced to a specimen depends on the material and characterization
employed. For standardized testing of fracture toughness by the Charpy impact method, specimen
and notch dimensions are most often taken from American standard ASTM E23, or British
standard BS EN ISO 148-1:2009. For all notch types, a key parameter in governing stress
concentration and failure in notched materials is the notch tip curvature or radius.
Sharp tipped V-shaped notches are often used in standard fracture toughness testing for ductile
materials, polymers and for the characterization of weld strength. The application of such notches
for hard-steels is problematic due to sensitivity to grain alignment, which is why torsional testing
may be applied for such materials instead.
A U notch is an elongated notch having a round notch-tip, being deeper than it is wide. This notch
is also often referred to as C-notch, and is the most widely form of introduced notch, due to the
repeatability of results obtained from notch specimens. Correlating U-Notch performance to V-
Notch equivalent is challenging and is carried out on a case by case basis, there is no standardized
correlation between performance values obtained with the two notch types.
A keyhole notch is typically considered as a slit ending in a hole of a given radius. This type of
notch is most often considered in numerical models.[3] Fracture toughness results obtained from
keyhole notch testing are often higher than those obtained from V-notched or pre-cracked
specimens.

Charpy impact test and Izod impact test:
Charpy impact test
The Charpy impact test was invented in 1900 by Georges Augustin Albert Charpy (1865–1945),
and it is regarded as one of the most commonly used test to evaluate the relative toughness of a
material in a fast and economic way. The Charpy impact test measures the energy absorbed by a
standard notched specimen while breaking under an impact load. This test continues to be used as
an economical quality control method to determine the notch sensitivity and impact toughness of
engineering materials such as metals, composites, ceramics, and polymers. The standard Charpy
impact test specimen is of dimension 55 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm, having a notch machined across
one of the larger dimensions as shown.
In Charpy impact test specimen is placed horizontally and hammer strike exactly opposite to the
notch.
Izod impact test
In the Izod impact test, the test piece is a cantilever, clamped upright in an anvil, with a V notch
at the level of the top of the clamp. The test piece is hit by a striker carried on a pendulum which
is allowed to fall freely from a fixed height, to give a blow of 120 ft lb energy. After fracturing the
test piece, the height to which the pendulum rises is recorded by a slave friction pointer mounted
on the dial, from which the absorbed energy amount is read.
Procedure:
➢ First of all move the indicator pointer to Maximum position on indicator dial.
➢ Make sure the Hammer is lock at the upper end.
➢ Place the Copper Specimen in Specimen Holder in such a way that the notch is exactly
behind the surface facing hammer.
➢ Press bottom hand lever to maximum extent to release hammer from lock and keep pressing
the lever until impact got transfer from hammer to cast iron specimen.
➢ After the copper has been broken, push hand lever slightly upward to cause breaking effect
to hammer
➢ Note down the value on dial indicator which is the direct measure of energy utilize in
breaking up the specimen in Nm (J).
➢ Repeat the same procedure for Cast iron specimen and compare the impact work of both
the specimen.

Observations & Calculations:
Sr. No. Specimen Material Notch Type Impact Work Impact Strength
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sample Calculation:
Comments:

Lab Rubrics

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relevant, and
accurately
recorded
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effectively
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deep demonstrates
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addresses some
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logical
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Lab Session No. 07
Objective:
“To study about the tensile test and resulting stress strain diagram using Universal Testing
Machine.”
Apparatus:
➢ Universal Testing Machine.
➢ Extensometer
➢ Meter rod
➢ Metallic specimen
Figure:
Universal Testing Machine

Description:
Tensile Test:
Tensile Tests are performed for several reasons. Tensile properties frequently are included in
material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during
development of new materials and processes, so that different materials and processes can be
compared. Also, tensile properties often are used to predict the behavior of a material under forms
of loading other than uniaxial tension.
Material selection is a central task of the overall design process. Engineers must decide which
materials are the most appropriate for a particular design. The tensile test is important standard
engineering procedure useful to characterize some relevant elastic and plastic variables related to
the mechanical behaviour of materials.
Elastic Properties:
When a solid material is subjected to small stresses, the bonds between the atoms are stretched.
When the stress is removed, the bonds relax and the material returns to its original shape. This
reversible deformation is called elastic deformation. In the elastic region, stress and strain are
related to each other linearly and characterized by Young’s modulus, 𝐸 and the Poisson’s ratio 𝑣.
𝜎𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐸=
𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙: engineering stress along the loading axis,
𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙: engineering strain.
𝜎𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹 / 𝐴0
where 𝐹 is the tensile force and 𝐴0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the gage section.
𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝐿 / 𝐿0
where 𝐿0 is the initial gage length and ∆𝐿 is the change in gage length (𝐿 − 𝐿0).
In the elastic range, Poisson’s ratio, 𝑣, of the magnitude of the lateral contraction strain to the
axial strain:
𝑣 = −𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙/𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
Plastic Properties:
The plastic behavior of metals, which is dominated by the motion of linear defects such as
dislocations and vacancies, plays a central role on assessing the safety conditions of a mechanical
system. The tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength is the maximum load divided by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen:
𝜎𝑢 =𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥/𝐴0
The tensile strength is the value most frequently quoted from the results of a tension test. Actually,
however, it is a value of little fundamental significance with regard to the strength of a metal. For
ductile metals, the tensile strength should be regarded as a measure of the maximum load that a
metal can withstand under the very restrictive conditions of uniaxial loading.
Yield strength is the stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends
on the sensitivity of the strain measurements. With most materials, there is a gradual transition
from elastic to plastic behavior, and the point at which plastic deformation begins is difficult to
define with precision. In tests of materials under uniaxial loading, three criteria for the initiation
of yielding have been used: the elastic limit, the proportional limit, and the yield strength.

Ductility is the degree of plastic deformation that a material can withstand before fracture. A
material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. In
general, measurements of ductility are of interest in three respects:
To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in
metalworking operations, such as rolling and extrusion.
To indicate to the designer the ability of the metal to flow plastically before fracture.
To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.
Ductility measurements may be specified to assess material quality even though no direct
relationship exists between the ductility measurement and performance in service.
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it
when unloaded.
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.
Engineering Stress - Strain Curve:
In the conventional engineering tensile test, an engineering stress-strain curve is constructed from
the load-elongation measurements made on the test specimen. The engineering stress used in this
stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen. The strain used for the
engineering stress strain curve is the average linear strain, which is obtained by dividing the
elongation of the gage length of the specimen by its original length.
True Stress - True Strain Curve:

The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation
characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the original dimensions of the specimen,
and these dimensions change continuously during the test.
Generally, the metal continues to strain-harden all the way up to fracture, so that the stress required
to produce further deformation should also increase. If the true stress, based on the actual cross-
sectional area of the specimen, is used, it is found that the stress-strain curve increases continuously
up to fracture. If the strain measurement is also based on instantaneous measurements, the curve,
which is obtained, is known as a true-stress-true-strain curve.
Procedure:
➢ The original dimensions of the specimen like original diameter, gauge length etc. is to be
measured
➢ The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing Machine between the fixed and
moveable jaws.
➢ The load range in the machine is adjusted to its maximum capacity.
➢ An extensometer is mounted on the machine at the appropriate positions on the marked
specimen.
➢ The machine is switched on the tensile load is applied gradually.
➢ For every increment of load, the reading is noted, tabulated and a curve is generated by the
software.
➢ Remove the dial gauge at slightly below the expected load at yield point.
➢ Record the load at yield point, load at Ultimate point and fracture point and the
corresponding elongations using software.
➢ After fracture point the specimen is removed and final dimensions are measured.

Observations:
Least count of dial gauge =
Specimen material =
Initial length =
Initial diameter =
𝜋𝑑𝑖 2
Original area = 𝐴𝑜 = =
4
Yield Load =
Breaking Load =
Ultimate Load =
Final Length =
Final diameter =
Final Area =
Results:
Young’s Modulus of specimen =
Yield stress =
Ultimate Tensile stress =
Breaking stress =
% Reduction in area =
% Elongation =

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 08
Objective:
“To study about the bending test and find the flexure strength of the specimen using Universal
Testing Machine.”
Apparatus:
➢ Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
➢ Meter rod
➢ Specimen
Figure:
Universal Testing Machine

Description
Bend Test:
The three-point bending flexural test provides values for the modulus of elasticity in bending Ef,
flexural stress σf, flexural strain εf and the flexural stress–strain response of the material. This test
is performed on a universal testing machine (tensile testing machine or tensile tester) with a three-
point or four-point bend fixture. The main advantage of a three-point flexural test is the ease of the
specimen preparation and testing. However, this method has also some disadvantages: the results
of the testing method are sensitive to specimen and loading geometry and strain rate.
This mechanical testing method measures the behaviour of materials subjected to simple bending
loads. Like tensile modulus, flexural modulus (stiffness) is calculated from the slope of the bending
load vs. deflection curve. Flexural testing involves the bending of a material, rather than pushing
or pulling, to determine the relationship between bending stress and deflection. Flexural testing is
commonly used on brittle materials such as ceramics, stone, masonry and glasses. It can also be
used to examine the behaviour of materials which are intended to bend during their useful life,
such as wire insulation and other elastomeric products.
The three point bending flexural test provides values for the modulus of elasticity in bending,
flexural stress , flexural strain and the flexural stress-strain response of the material. The main
advantage of a three point flexural test is the ease of the specimen preparation and testing.
However, this method has also some disadvantages: the results of the testing method are sensitive
to specimen and loading geometry and strain rate.
𝐹𝐿
Flexure strength (Theoretical) = 𝜋𝑅3
Procedure:
➢ First, measure the diameter and length of specimen by Vernier calliper and meter rod
respectively.
➢ Mark all the points where the load is to be applied.
➢ Under 3-point bending process, place carefully the sample on the stage of UTM such that
loading point is set at pointed location.
➢ The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing Machine between jaws.
➢ The load range in the machine is adjusted to its maximum capacity.
➢ Then bending load is carried out until the failure of specimen took place.
➢ After this, flexure bend strength and elastic modulus of the specimen is calculated by the
load deflection curve which is constructed through the data obtained from the experiment.

Observations:
Least count of dial gauge =
Initial length (L)=
Diameter of specimen=
𝜋𝑑2
Circular Area of the rod (A) = 4
Applied load (F)=
Results:
𝐹𝐿
Flexure strength (Theoretical) = 𝜋𝑅3
Flexure strength (Experimental) =

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 09
Objective:
To produce an S-N curve for test specimen and to calculate the endurance limit and endurance
stress of the specimen by using the fatigue curve.
Apparatus:
➢ Fatigue Machine
➢ Vernier Caliper
➢ Test Specimenh
Diagram

Description
A perusal of the broken parts in almost any scrap yard will reveal that the majority of failures occur
at stresses below the yield strength. This is a result of the phenomenon called fatigue which has
been estimated to be responsible for up to 90% of the in-service part failures which occur in
industry. If a bar of steel is repeatedly loaded and unloaded at say 85% of its’ yield strength, it will
ultimately fail in fatigue if it is loaded through enough cycles. Also, even though steel ordinarily
elongates approximately 30% in a typical tensile test, almost no elongation is evident in the
appearance of fatigue fractures.
Basic fatigue testing involves the preparation of carefully polished test specimens (surface flaws
are stress concentrators) which are cycled to failure at various values of constant amplitude
alternating stress levels. The data are condensed into an alternating Stress, S, verses Number of
cycles to failure, N, curve which is generally referred to as a material’s S-N curve. As one would
expect, the curves clearly show that a low number of cycles are needed to cause fatigue failures at
high stress levels while low stress levels can result in sudden, unexpected failures after a large
number of cycles.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the condition whereby a material cracks or fails as a result of repeated (cyclic) stresses
applied below the ultimate strength of the material.
Fatigue failures generally involve three stages:
1.) Crack Initiation,
2.) Crack Propagation, and
3.) Fast Fracture
Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic (disastrous) results and although most
insidious for metals, polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to sudden
fatigue failures. Fatigue causes brittle like failures even in normally ductile materials with little
gross plastic deformation occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the initiation and
propagation of cracks and, ordinarily, the fracture surface is close to perpendicular to the direction
of maximum tensile stress. Applied stresses may be axial (tension-compression), flexural
(bending) or torsional (twisting) in nature. In general there are three possible fluctuating stress-
time modes possible. The simplest is completely reversed constant amplitude where the alternating
stress varies from a maximum tensile stress to a minimum compressive stress of equal magnitude.
The second type, termed repeated constant amplitude, occurs when the maxima and minima are
asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level. Lastly, the stress level may vary randomly in
amplitude and frequency which is merely termed random cycling
S-N Curves
Most Fatigue Tests are conducted at what is referred to as “Constant Amplitude” which merely
refers to the fact that the maximum and minimum stresses are constant for each cycle of a test. S-
N refers to a plot of Constant Amplitude Stress Level (S) verses Number of Cycles to Failure (N).
S-N Curves are generally plotted on semi-log or log-log paper where each dot represents the results
of a single test specimen. Fatigue tests tend to be time consuming and expensive; each data point
represents many hours of testing. A prediction of failure for various stress levels can be made by
studying a material’s S-N curve.
Endurance Limit

The most important part of the curve is often the portion to the right of the bend (or “knee”) in the
curve that identifies what is termed the Endurance Limit or the Fatigue Limit. The Endurance
Limit defines the stress level below which the material will theoretically withstand an infinite
number (~108) of stress cycles without fracture.
Procedure
➢ Initially check safety measures of fatigue machine.
➢ Insert the specimen in proper way as mentioned on instrument manual.
➢ Apply load as required and calculate the count at which break will occur.
➢ Use the stress corresponding to applied load and draw the chart b/w stress and number of
cycles.
➢ Now calculate the endurance stress and endurance limit of the specimen using graph.
Observation and Calculation

Material_______________________ Neck Diameter__________________
Sr. No. Load Count Stress
1.
2.
3.
Specimen Calculation

Stress Corresponding to Load
Graph

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 10
Objective:
To measure the deflection of a set of curved bars of known geometry and to compare the empirical
data with values calculated from theory.
Apparatus
➢ Curved bar Apparatus
➢ Load and Hanger
➢ Digital dial gauges
Diagram
Apparatus Diagram
Curved Bar and its application

If a beam is originally curved before applying any bending moment, then it can be considered
curved beam. It's neutral axis no more coincides with centroidal line. Curved beams find
applications in many machine members such as c-clamps, crane rod, frames of presses, chains,
links & rings etc., In RCC buildings they are normally seen around recreation purpose
buildings(centres) , convention centres , cement silos etc where circular beams serve the purpose
in the form of ring beams.
Deflection of Quarter Circle Bar
For conservation of energy, the total strain energy which is caused by bending moment M is,
U = ∫ M2/2EI ds (1)
The bending moment for a quarter circle bar, at any section is,
M = PvRsinθ (2)

So, the strain energy stored due to a load Pv is,
U = πPv2R3/8EI (3)
The vertical deflection is then,
δv = dU/dPV = πPR3/4EI (4)
The horizontal deflection can be calculated by applying an imaginary force PH in the horizontal
direction. From Castigliano’s Theorem, the horizontal is given by,
δH = dU/dPH = PR3/2EI (5)
Procedure:
1. The first step is to select the curved bar for experiment and screw it up as instruction by
instructor.
2. Clamp specimen to apparatus with clamp and screw provided.
3. Add the stirrup and load hanger and setup the dial gauges to reset horizontal and vertical
deflection.
4. The horizontal measurement on semi-circle will require extra care this is weakest specimen
and thus has greatest deflections for lowest forces.
Observations
𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼=
12
Type of
Quadrant Semi-Circle Davit Ring
specimen
E for Steel 207 GN/m2
Radius (r) 100 mm 100 mm 100 mm 75 mm
Length (L) --- --- 100 mm ---
Width (b) 12.7 mm 12.7 mm 12.7 mm 10 mm
Depth (d) 3.175 mm 3.175 mm 3.175 mm 2 mm
Max. Load 15 N 10 N 10 N 30 N
𝜋𝑊𝑟 3 𝜋𝑊𝑟 3 𝑊𝑟 2 𝜋𝑟 0.149𝑊𝑟 3
𝛿𝑣 = 𝛿𝑣 = 𝛿𝑣 = ( + 𝐿) 𝛿𝑣 =
4𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 4 𝐸𝐼
Deflections
𝑊𝑟 3 𝑊𝑟 3 𝑊𝑟𝐿 0.1366𝑊𝑟 3
(mm) 𝛿ℎ = 𝛿ℎ = + (𝑟 𝛿ℎ =
2𝐸𝐼 7𝑊𝑟 3 2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝛿ℎ = + 𝐿)
4𝐸𝐼

Quadrant Beam
Quadrant
Deflection on Dial Gauge/s (mm) Theoretical deflection (mm)
Load (N)
𝛿ℎ 𝛿𝑣 𝛿ℎ 𝛿𝑣
2
4
5
7
9
10
Draw the graphs b/w load and deflection of the specimens used in lab accordingly.

Semicircle Beam
Semicircle
Load (N)
2
4
5
7
9
10

Davit Beam
Davit
Load (N)
2
4
5
7
9
10

Ring
Ring
Load (N)
2
4
5
7
9
10

Results & Discussion

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 11
Objective:
“To study about measurement of the creep developed in the given test specimen under specific
temperature and load.”
Apparatus:
➢ Creep Machine
➢ Stop Watch
➢ Test Specimen
➢ Weight and hanger
Diagram
Creep Testing Machine

Description
Creep
In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to move
slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur
as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of
the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and
generally increases as they near their melting point.
Applications
Though mostly due to the reduced yield strength at higher temperatures, the collapse of the World
Trade Center was due in part to creep from increased temperature.
The creep rate of hot pressure-loaded components in a nuclear reactor at power can be a significant
design constraint, since the creep rate is enhanced by the flux of energetic particles.
Creep in epoxy anchor adhesive was blamed for the Big Dig tunnel ceiling collapse in Boston,
Massachusetts, that occurred in July 2006.
Creep Curve
Schematic Creep Curve
Temperature dependence
The temperature range in which creep deformation may occur differs in various materials. Creep
deformation generally occurs when a material is stressed at a temperature near its melting point.
While tungsten requires a temperature in the thousands of degrees before creep deformation can
occur, lead may creep at room temperature, and ice will creep at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).
Plastics and low-melting-temperature metals, including many solders, can begin to creep at room
temperature. Glacier flow is an example of creep processes in ice. The effects of creep deformation
generally become noticeable at approximately 35% of the melting point (in Kelvin) for metals and
at 45% of melting point for ceramics.

Creep Testing
Creep testing appears to be relatively straight forward – simply hang a weight on a rope or a scale
model and measure its elongation over time. However, the time for significant data may be
measured in years and this may not be realistic. Using loads much higher than normal and/or
elevated temperatures to accelerate the testing probably will not give representative data for time
to failure. It may be helpful to determine the elongation to failure instead of time to failure. In this
way, a shorter test that measures a time to what is estimated to be a safe elongation may be
informative.
Creep data provided by a reliable fibre supplier or published rope data from reputable sources is
usually the best place to start. The rope or scaled specimen may be tested for a limited time to see
if the creep rate matches the fibre data. Rope, at the same percentage of break strength, creeps
slower than the fibre of which they are made. Some useful extrapolation may be possible based on
fibre creep behaviour.
Caution should be used if residual strength is measured following creep testing that was carried
out for a limited time short of failure. Due to load redistribution between fibres and yarns, the
strength may even increase initially. Further, the strength would be expected to remain high until
near the time that the ultimate breaking load has been reached.
Although strength can remain high until approaching creep rupture, the elongation to break near
the end of a creep test will be significantly less than that of a new rope. The elongation in a simple
break test after limited creep exposure can be compared to a specimen that has not been loaded.
This would give some indication of the margin that remains after the particular creep exposure
time
Procedure:
1. Lift up the arm and insert the setting pin from rare of the bracket.
2. Specimen is clamped between clamp plate and holder. Ensure that the specimen should be
vertical.
3. Note dial gauge reading and then with draw the setting pin and simultaneously start stop
watch.
4. Note the dial gauge reading with constant time interval that depends on the rate of
extension.
5. Load applied to specimen is given by:
Specimen Load = 5 (Hanger + Weights + Initial Load)
Observation and Calculation:

o
Specimen Load = (N) Specimen Temperature= C
Sr. No. Dial Gauge reading
Extension (mm) Time (Sec)
(mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Plot graph b/w extension and time when load vary with constant temperature.
Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 12
Objective:
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given Specimen using Rockwell Hardness
tester.
Apparatus:
➢ Rockwell Hardness Tester (Model: 4150)
➢ Diamond Cone Indenter/ Steel Ball Indenter
➢ Specimens (Hardened steel, Mild steel, Brass, Copper, Aluminium)
Diagram
Rockwell Hardness Tester

Description
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either
mechanical indentation or abrasion.
Scratch Hardness
Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic
deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The principle is that an object made of a harder
material will scratch an object made of a softer material. When testing coatings, scratch hardness
refers to the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate. The most common test is Mohs
scale, which is used in mineralogy. One tool to make this measurement is the sclerometer.
Another tool used to make these tests is the pocket hardness tester. This tool consists of a scale
arm with graduated markings attached to a four-wheeled carriage. A scratch tool with a sharp rim
is mounted at a predetermined angle to the testing surface. In order to use it a weight of known
mass is added to the scale arm at one of the graduated markings, the tool is then drawn across the
test surface. The use of the weight and markings allows a known pressure to be applied without
the need for complicated machinery.
Indentation Hardness
Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material deformation due to a constant
compression load from a sharp object. Tests for indentation hardness are primarily used in
engineering and metallurgy. The tests work on the basic premise of measuring the critical
dimensions of an indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded indenter.
Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell, Vickers, Shore, and Brinell, amongst others.
Rockwell Hardness Test
In a Rockwell hardness test, initially a minor load of 10 N is applied and the zero datum position
is established. The major load (60, 100, or 150 N) is then applied for a specific period (a few
seconds) and removed, leaving the minor load applied. The resulting Rockwell hardness number
(as seen on the dial or as a digital output), is inversely related to the additional depth to which the
indenter was forced by the major load, beyond the depth resulting from the previously applied
minor load.
The standard Rockwell hardness scales, along with information on the type of indenter, the
magnitude of the major load, and also typical applications for each of the hardness scales, as
defined by ASTM standard E18 (1984), are presented in Table 1. In all cases, the minor load is 10
N. The hardness of a wide range of materials can be estimated using the Rockwell hardness tester.
A widely used variant of the Rockwell hardness test is the superficial Rockwell test, wherein the
minor load is 3 N and the major loads are 15, 30, or 45 N. Further details on the Rockwell
superficial hardness scales are available in the relevant ASTM standards (ASTM 1984).
The Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of hardness number and a scale
symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. For example, 64 HRC represents
the Rockwell hardness number of 64 on the Rockwell C scale (see Table 1), while 80 HRB
represents a Rockwell hardness number of 80 on the Rockwell B scale. Similarly, 81 HR 30 N
indicates a Rockwell hardness number of 81 on the Rockwell 30 N scale. Rockwell hardness tests

are used for determining the hardness of most metals and alloys, ranging from the softest bearing
materials to the hardest steels.
Rockwell Scale Table
Procedure
1. The indenter is held in place with the 4 mm socket screw provided. Always ensure that the
mounting face of the indenter nose and the shoulder of the Indenter are clean, and that the
4 mm draw screw is tight.
2. The toggle switch on the front panel must be set to match the indenter being used i.e.
(diamond) or Ø (ball).
3. The pre-load is applied by bringing the specimen into contact with the indenter, by turning
the hand wheel clockwise.
4. Motion of the indenter is displayed by a bar graph, and the correct pre-load is indicated
when the horizontal bar touches the fixed bar, as below.
5. When this point is reached, an audible "bleep" will be heard. At this point stop rotating the
hand wheel.
6. The rest of the loading cycle is automatic, with application and removal of the additional
load displayed by a rotation of the right-hand digit in the display.
7. The full load is normally applied for 2 to 5 seconds (for this apparatus 3 second), and this
dwell time is indicated by a countdown on the display. At the end of the load cycle, the
hardness number will be displayed (resolved to 0.1 units).

Observations
Type of Specimen Type of Indenter

Hard Metals Diamond cone
Soft Metals Ball (1/16”)
Calculation
Type of RHN Average

Sr. # Specimen
Indenter RHN
1 2 3
Steel Ball
01
(1/16”)
Steel Ball
02
(1/16”)
Steel Ball
03
(1/16”)
Steel Ball
04
(1/16”)
Results
Rockwell hardness Number of given specimen is
➢ Brass =
➢ Copper =

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

Lab Session No. 13
Objective:
To observe photo elastic phenomena and photo elastic techniques on crack propagation analysis,
stress distribution and principle stresses direction in loaded specimen using Polariscope.
Apparatus:
➢ Photo elastic Polariscope
➢ Test Specimen.
➢ Light source.
➢ Camera
Diagram

Description
Photoelasticity
The property of some transparent materials, such as glass or plastic, while under stress, to become
doubly refracting (i.e., a ray of light will split into two rays at entry). When photoelastic materials
are subjected to pressure, internal strains develop that can be observed in polarized light; i.e., light
vibrating normally in two planes, which has had one plane of vibration removed by passing through
a substance called a polarizer. Two polarizers that are crossed ordinarily do not transmit light, but
if a stressed material is placed between them and if the principal axis of the stress is not parallel to
this plane of polarization, some light will be transmitted in the form of coloured fringes.
Applications
Stresses in opaque mechanical structures can be analyzed by making models in plastic and
studying the fringe pattern under polarized light, which may be either white (a mixture of all
wavelengths) or a single wavelength.
Polariscope
The polariscope is an optical inspection device used to detect internal stresses in glass and other
transparent materials such as plastics, synthetic resins, etc. A polariscope is composed chiefly of a
light source and two crossed polarized lenses such as Polaroid. The polariscope light source is
mounted beneath one lens, and is powered by either self-contained batteries or an external power
source. Material to be examined is placed between the two polariscope lenses and viewed through
the lens opposite the light source lens. Polariscopes are manufactured in configurations that very
from standard portable units, ordinarily carried in stock, to instruments custom made for specific
applications.
Polariscope Types
Reflection Polariscope
Reflective polariscopes allow for the visualization of the photoelastic fringes when the light source
and the camera are located on the same side of the photoelastic specimen
Transmission Polariscope
When the light source and the camera are located on the different side of the photoelastic specimen
Plane Polariscope
The setup consists of two linear polarizers and a light source. The light source can either emit
monochromatic light or white light depending upon the experiment. First the light is passed
through the first polarizer which converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is set
up in such a way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen. This
light then follows, at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal stress at that point. The
light is then made to pass through the analyzer and we finally get the fringe pattern.
The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup consists of both the isochromatics and the isoclinics.
The isoclinics change with the orientation of the polariscope while there is no change in the
isochromatics.
Circular polariscope

In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the experimental setup of the
plane polariscope. The first quarter-wave plate is placed in between the polarizer and the specimen
and the second quarter-wave plate is placed between the specimen and the analyzer. The effect of
adding the quarter-wave plate after the source-side polarizer is that we get circularly polarized
light passing through the sample. The analyzer-side quarter-wave plate converts the circular
polarization state back to linear before the light passes through the analyzer.
The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in a circular
polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics. This eliminates the problem
of differentiating between the isoclinics and the isochromatics.
Isochromatic & Isoclines
Isoclinics are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in the
same direction.
Isochromatics are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first and second principal
stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points with equal maximum shear
stress magnitude.
Procedure:
1. To start the experiment, the desired model must be fitted first. The model is fixed to the
threaded spindle by a double clip and to the lower cross arm by a mounting.
2. A force is exerted on it using the adjusting nut.
3. By slowly and carefully rotating the adjusting nut, the formation of the isochromates can be
observed
4. Use white light with circular polariscope arrangement and identify fringe order.
5. The trace of material surface is identified by zero order fringe.
6. The difference in indices of refraction can be determined by dividing the retardation value, a
measure of the phase difference between the fast and slow moving light vectors, by the material
thickness.
𝒇𝜹
7. The stress equation is then, 𝝈 =
𝒕.𝑪𝑩
Where, σ = stress (MPa) fδ = fringe retardation value (nm) t = thickness of specimen (mm)
CB = Brewster’s constant ≈ 84 for PC
8. At any point, the fringe retardation value is determined from the table:
9. After finding out the retardation value, principle stress is determined by the stress equation
described above.

OBSERVATIONS
• Thickness of beam model, t = ___________mm

• Load applied (gauge reading), P = _________
Quarter Wave-Plates Arrangement Polarizer’s Arrangement Polariscope Field

Crossed Parallel Light
Crossed Crossed Dark
Parallel Parallel Dark
Parallel Crossed Light
Snapshot of the Stressed Components
CALCULATIONS:
1. Material fringe retardation factor, 𝒇𝜹 = ____________
𝒇
2. Difference of principle Stress, 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 = 𝜹 = ______________
𝒕.𝑪𝑩
OBSERVATION TABLE:
➢ Principle stress value = _________

Comments:

Lab Rubrics

- Data is
- Data is mostly
comprehensive,
relevant, and
accurately
recorded
- Data is mostly
effectively
presented
and visuals
- Analysis
deep demonstrates
- Analysis
addresses some
relevant aspects
somewhat
supported and
logical
data

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Mechanics of Materials Lab CLO-PLO mapping

No. Course Learning Outcome Domain Taxonomy level PLO

CLO Mapping with Lab Sessions

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Deflection and slope of beams

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