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DELIVERING
ARTS EDUCATION
Judith DINHAM
DELIVERING
ARTS EDUCATION
Judith DINHAM
DELIVERING
ARTS EDUCATION
Delivering Authentic Arts Education © 2023 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
5th Edition
Judith Dinham Copyright Notice
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Brief contents
CHAPTER 3
Being an effective teacher in the Arts������������������������������������� 56
CHAPTER 4
Children at the centre��������������������������������������������������������������� 85
CHAPTER 8 Drama���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
CHAPTER 1 Putting you in the picture – the rationale and context for arts education ��������2
1.1 The arts are integral Navigational approaches to learning�������� 15
to human existence�����������������������������������3 Flexible thinking and problem solving������ 15
Understanding the arts today�����������������������3 Negotiating learning relationships������������ 15
1.2 The evolution of arts education Collaboration and teamwork��������������������� 16
as societal needs and values shift������������5 Cultural competency����������������������������������� 16
Introduction of the Australian Curriculum Dispositions for thinking and
as part of a reform agenda���������������������������7 acting sustainably���������������������������������������� 17
1.3 Research and policy behind 1.5 The heart of arts education��������������������17
recent developments���������������������������������9 Artistic experience��������������������������������������� 18
Creative thinking����������������������������������������� 10 Gaining all the benefits������������������������������� 19
Learning capability�������������������������������������� 11 1.6 Navigating the expectations for arts
Culture and community������������������������������ 12 education in the school context�������������20
Individual wellbeing������������������������������������ 13 A varied picture of
Sustainability������������������������������������������������ 13 classroom practices������������������������������������ 20
1.4 Developing children’s capabilities Your role in creating a meaningful
for the new era through the Arts�����������14 Arts program������������������������������������������������ 21
Visual and multimodal Summary��������������������������������������������������������������23
communication skills���������������������������������� 14 STUDY TOOLS �����������������������������������������������������24
vi
CONTENTS
vii
CONTENTS
viii
CONTENTS
ix
CONTENTS
7.3 Dance in the Australian Curriculum��� 205 Leading guided dance appreciation�������� 225
Assessment in dance�������������������������������� 208 7.7 Linking dance to other subjects���������� 226
7.4 Foundations of dance literacy: Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 226
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 208 Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 227
Elements of dance������������������������������������� 209 Music����������������������������������������������������������� 227
The body as instrument��������������������������� 210 Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 227
Exploring and performing Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 227
with others������������������������������������������������� 212 7.8 Safe dance practice
7.5 Dance praxis: making��������������������������� 212 and practicalities����������������������������������� 228
Developing a movement vocabulary������ 213 Establishing sensible and
Choreographing dances��������������������������� 216 safe behaviour������������������������������������������� 228
Learning social dances������������������������������ 219 Let’s start dancing������������������������������������� 229
Performing dances������������������������������������ 220 Props and resources��������������������������������� 230
7.6 Dance appreciation: responding��������� 221 Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 232
Viewing dance performances������������������ 221 STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 233
Understanding dance context
and motivation������������������������������������������ 222
CHAPTER 8 Drama����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
8.1 Guiding principles for Oral storytelling����������������������������������������� 263
drama education����������������������������������� 236 Readers’ theatre���������������������������������������� 264
Describing drama�������������������������������������� 236 Radio drama����������������������������������������������� 265
Drama in school education���������������������� 237 Playbuilding and devising theatre����������� 266
8.2 Engaging with drama���������������������������� 237 8.6 Drama appreciation: Responding������� 269
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 237 Viewing drama performances����������������� 269
Student participation�������������������������������� 239 Understanding drama contexts
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 240 and motivations����������������������������������������� 269
8.3 Drama in the Australian Curriculum��� 241 Guided drama appreciation��������������������� 269
Assessment in Drama������������������������������� 242 8.7 Linking drama to other subjects��������� 271
8.4 Foundations of drama literacy: Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 272
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 242 Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 272
Elements of drama������������������������������������ 242 Music����������������������������������������������������������� 272
Principles of story�������������������������������������� 245 Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 272
Drama participation skills������������������������� 245 Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 272
8.5 Drama praxis: Making�������������������������� 248 8.8 Safe drama practice
Initiating drama engagement������������������ 248 and practicalities����������������������������������� 272
Dramatic play��������������������������������������������� 249 Safe practices��������������������������������������������� 272
Process drama������������������������������������������� 251 Space to work�������������������������������������������� 273
Mantle of the expert��������������������������������� 252 Working in groups������������������������������������� 273
Story drama����������������������������������������������� 253 Costumes, masks, props and
Improvisation��������������������������������������������� 256 play boxes�������������������������������������������������� 273
Role-playing������������������������������������������������ 258 Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 276
Mime����������������������������������������������������������� 260 STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 277
Puppetry����������������������������������������������������� 262
x
CONTENTS
Australian Curriculum�������������������������� 284 9.7 Linking media arts to other subjects�� 314
Assessment in media arts������������������������ 285 Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 314
CHAPTER 10 Music���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������320
10.1 Guiding principles for Sharing, recording and performing�������� 343
music education������������������������������������ 321 10.6 Music appreciation: responding���������� 345
Describing music��������������������������������������� 321 Listening to and viewing
Music in school education������������������������ 322 live performances�������������������������������������� 345
10.2 Engaging with music����������������������������� 324 Understanding contexts
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 324 and motivations����������������������������������������� 346
Student participation�������������������������������� 325 Guided listening����������������������������������������� 351
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 325 10.7 Linking music to other subjects���������� 353
10.3 Music in the Australian Curriculum���� 326 Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 353
Assessment in Music��������������������������������� 328 Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 353
10.4 Foundations of music literacy: Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 353
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 328 Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 354
Elements of music������������������������������������� 328 Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 354
Music notation������������������������������������������� 330 10.8 Safe music practices
10.5 Music praxis: making���������������������������� 331 and practicalities����������������������������������� 354
Exploring sound and silence�������������������� 331 Safe practices��������������������������������������������� 354
Singing�������������������������������������������������������� 332 Locating music������������������������������������������� 354
Percussion�������������������������������������������������� 336 Instruments������������������������������������������������ 355
Creating or composing music������������������ 340 Music library����������������������������������������������� 357
xi
CONTENTS
Glossary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 405
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 409
xii
Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find useful features in every chapter
to enhance your study of authentic arts education and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
1
CHAPTER
Putting you in the picture –
the rationale and context
for arts education
In this chapter you will discover that:
1.1 the arts are part of what it means to be human
Identify the key concepts that the 1.2 the nature of arts education changes as society’s needs and values
chapter will cover with the objectives change – so arts education today is different from arts education in the
past
at the start of each chapter. 1.3 contemporary arts education research, policy and scholarship
illuminate the nature of arts education for the new era
1.4 arts education is in the curriculum to seriously contribute to developing
children’s capabilities to meet the challenges of the new era
1.5 all benefits of arts education derive from a rich experience of the arts as
both artist and audience
1.6 implementing new educational practices and a meaningful program
requires dedication and forward-thinking approaches.
CLASSROOM SNAPSHOT
Authentic engagement with the artistic heritage of 2
First Nations Australians Ch 2, pp 42–43
Rehabilitating the free-for-all Ch 2, pp 46–47
Developing a unit of inquiry on bushfires Ch 2, p 48
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp01.indd 2 22/07/22 5:37 PM
xiii
DELIVERING AUTHENTIC ARTS EDUCATION
Inclusive dance education Ch 7, p 205 Percussive accompaniment to Pachelbel’s Canon Ch 10, pp 339–340
Dance exploration initiated by a poem Ch 7, pp 207–208 Guided listening: The Moldau (Die Moldau)
by Smetana Ch 10, pp 351–353
Drama using a text as a stimulus Ch 8, pp 254–256
Discovering how we communicate using elements
Comic strips to create pictorial narratives Ch 9, p 299
and principles of visual language Ch 11, pp 372
Music and communication Ch 10, p 326
Discovering how the composition of a painting
Creating a rainstorm using body percussion Ch 10, pp 337–338 contributes to its meaning Ch 11, pp 393–395
STARTER IDEAS
Ways to inform parents to gain greater support for
your authentic program of art learning Ch 1, p 21
Ways to encourage children’s listening and
observation skills Ch 4, p 102
Types of entries in an ideas journal Ch 4, p 103
Ideas for using metaphors and symbolism Ch 4, p 105
Different ways of encouraging reflection Ch 5, p 129
Teaching strategies to stimulate children’s
creative thinking Ch 6, p 151
Ideas for using untuned percussion instruments
Working collaboratively Ch 7, p 212 in the classroom Ch 10, p 339
Building physical skill Ch 7, p 216 Ideas for creating music Ch 10, p 343
Conceptual challenges as starting points Exploring the music of First Nations Australians Ch 10, p 348
for dances Ch 7, pp 218–219
Classical music on movie soundtracks Ch 10, p 349
Using drama games purposefully Ch 8, p 249
Ideas for combining music and movement Ch 10, p 353
Verbal improvisation Ch 8, p 257
Instructions for making your own percussion
Scene improvisation Ch 8, p 258 instruments Ch 10, pp 355–356
Preparing for role-playing Ch 8, pp 259–260 Ideas for exploring design elements and principles Ch 11, p 374
Ideas for mime activities Ch 8, p 261 Exploring the hues of colour Ch 11, p 377
Photographic stories Ch 9, p 296 Exploring linear perspective Ch 11, p 379
Stories, topics and characters for comic strips Ch 9, p 297 Ideas for observational drawing subjects Ch 11, pp 381–382
Starting points for PowerPoint stories Ch 9, p 302 Ideas for exploring expressionism Ch 11, p 384
Topics for video activities Ch 9, p 305 Ways of exploring issues and ideas Ch 11, pp 386–387
Some ideas for poster projects Ch 9, p 310 Ideas for exploring 3D forms Ch 11, pp 387–388
Ideas for exploring sound and silence Ch 10, pp 331–332
xiv
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
AT A GLANCE
Ten things you should know about the value of the
arts in children’s education Ch 1, p 19
Your role in developing children’s aesthetic sensibilities Ch 2, p 35
Protocols and considerations when introducing
artworks from diverse cultures into lessons Ch 2, p 41
Characteristics of open-ended approaches Ch 2, p 46
The features of authentic arts learning Ch 2, pp 52–53
Creating a climate that fosters rich arts learning Ch 3, p 72
What makes me a good teacher in the Arts? Ch 3, p 82
Exploring children’s cultural backgrounds Ch 4, p 91
Ways of improving levels of accomplishment Ch 4, p 99
Enacting signature pedagogies to facilitate children’s General guidelines for readers’ theatre and
artistic engagement – dos and don’ts Ch 5, pp 114–115 radio drama Ch 8, p 266
Ways to incorporate the world of arts in the program Ch 5, p 124 Guidelines for a claymation (or video) project Ch 9, pp 303–304
Constructive feedback that supports learning Ch 5, p 134 Storyboard terminology when filming a video Ch 9, p 307
Selecting artworks that engage children Ch 6, p 153 Composing a song Ch 10, p 342
Authentic arts assessment Ch 6, p 158 Planning a successful public performance Ch 10, pp 344–345
Strategies for supporting children’s creation of dances Ch 7, p 217 Guidelines for choosing music for listening Ch 10, p 346
Steps for developing stories for storytelling Ch 8, p 264 Warm and cool paint colour system Ch 11, p 397
xv
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
a pattern is a template, such as a dress pattern, that guides the way fabric is cut into separate
pieces, which are then assembled to make the dress. The template ensures that repeats of the
DELIVERING AUTHENTIC ARTS EDUCATION dress can be made over and over, so repetition is implied in the use of the template.
All the learning activities provided here refer to patterns explored in a diversity of art forms,
but the significance of pattern extends beyond the bounds of art-making. Explorations of
‘pattern’ in the Arts can facilitate children’s comprehension and usage of sequencing, grouping
and categorising in Science, English and Maths. When children use the Fibonacci sequence
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS to choreograph a sequence of movements in a dance activity, they are being introduced to a
mathematical concept.
around us of the text for developing units of inquiry. This PART 1The
THEFibonacci sequence,
ABC OF ARTS and its presence in nature,
EDUCATION
is introduced as a basis for choreographing a dance
degree to which the intended learning has taken place
is listed in the third column of the table.
section includes learning activity examples, guide to lesson sequence. When developing your program for a specific age
group you will have to review the specific curriculum
Teacher’s guide for me to integrate a live
steps and other resources that demonstrate authentic arts While the opportunity requirements in each of
their interpretation of the
Thestrands
Arrival for the
the age
2010group
Sydney
The Fibonacci
puppet performance sequence (Fibonacci
into this unit ofscale or Fibonacci
inquiry has now and also specify
Festival. the features
I also found a videoof of
a good, soundinterviewed
Tan being or
numbers)
I canisstill
a sequence of numbers where again.
each I modest achievement of learning in eachand
case.
education. passed,
number
have the prepared
present the
is the sum of the
lesson
unit of inquiry
previousand
sequence two:resources.
0, 1, 1,
by Channel
Memorial
Arts
Ten following
Awards,
concepts which
and
his Oscar Astrid Lindgren
provides a neat profile of
understandings
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc. It is named after the Italian
Furthermore, in my earlierCHAPTER 6 PLANNING
research I came
mathematician Fibonacci who described it in Liber
across the AND ASSESSMENT
an artist’s
1. By working
life. So, with a FOR AUTHENTIC
dance, a varietyARTS
few modifications
with the elements of
to the first
of LEARNING
Red Leap Theatre Company’s YouTube video trailer of version, I am able to use this unit of inquiry again.
Abaci in 1202, but its application to the metre (beat) movement patterns can be created.
in Indian Sanskrit poetry predates this. The Fibonacci 2. Bound movements are precise (robotic) and distinct
sequence of numbers is found widely in nature in the from free (gliding movements).
patterns of pine cones, petals, leaves and sunflower
seeds where it is believed to have evolved as the
Developing programs based on units of
3. Number sequences such as the Fibonacci sequence
are seen in natural patterns and can be the basis for
most efficient way of organising within a space. Theinquiry establishing sequences of beats when choreographing
Fibonacci sequence is a mathematical phenomenon dances.
The arts learning content to be covered in the school year may seem
and has application today in computer algorithms. 4. Akram Khan is a renowned contemporary dancer
rather daunting. Furthermore, within a busy classroom schedule,
The sequence can be used to correspond to beats whose choreography of the dance Gnosis draws on
sustaining an Arts program that is coherent, educationally meaningful
so, in this case, the length of dance movements can be traditional Indian dance (kathak) and uses precise
and developmental can be difficult. Yet content must be covered
movements.
determined by the Fibonacci numbers in the sequence.
andTeachers:
achievementdecidestandards which
met. An effective way of overcoming
Curriculum, learning outcomes andprogramming arts-making Terminology
processes
challenges and
is to modularise the content, so that the Arts
Teachers: design
assessment open-ended techniques will beis introduced
program for the year
Fibonacci a sequence
sequence, of these
precision, modules.
bound movement
challenges and plan pedagogical and/or practised. They determine
Each learning experience has an intended educational In this text, these modules
Cultural referencesare called units of inquiry. They are
steps that will facilitate children’s
purpose that is guided by the curriculum. The what elements
Australian of the different arts
organised around
Akram aKhan,
chosen theme,
Gnosis such as those suggested in At a
(https://www.youtube.com/
investigations,
Source: creative
Wassily thinking,
Kandinsky (Russian, 1866–1944), Untitled
languages, and/or
for unitsconventions,
Curriculum: The Arts outlines the sequence of content for
(drawing for ‘Diagram 17’), 1925, Black ink on paper, Gift glance: Themes of inquiry. The theme provides the foundation for
watch?v=A-Gl3rVm7SQ)
imaginative explorations
Dance on its websiteand
(https://v9.australiancurriculum.production skills will be in
of Odyssia Skouras Quadrani (Class of 1954) in honour and designing a cluster of learning
generation of ideas.
edu.au/downloads/learning-areas).
Hayes Mount Holyoke College Art focus. They Supplies and equipment with an educational purpose.
experiences
For example, a devise meaningful
of Professor Marian
Museum, South Hadley, Massachusetts, Photograph unit of inquiry about the concept of contrast could be
In the table below, the educational purpose of the Music with a present
definite beat; for example, Enya,
Petegorsky/Gipe, 1970.1.S.RIV ways
explored through a dance learningtheir
for children to experience that focuses on contrasts
learning experience is expressed as learning outcomes The River Sings (https://www.youtube.com/
work to an audience.
aligned to the four curriculum strands that are of tempo (fast and slow movement), high and low movements, and open
FIGURE 6.1 Untitled (Drawing for ‘Diagram 17’) by watch?v=oxcq2m0XwJ8)
Wassilyimportant
Kandinsky,dimensions
1925 of an authentic approachand closed shapes, followed by a music composition activity that focuses
to arts
education.
Mak on exploring contrast of tempo and musical texture. A final activity
t
that invites students to create a combined music and dance performance as a response to Wassily
en
e
Kandinsky’s Untitled (Drawing for ‘Diagram 17’) (see FIGURE 6.1) provides an opportunity for children
Inv
172 Artistic
to synthesise their learning in a creative interpretation.
learning
The length of each unit of inquiry can vary, but the intention in each case is to create a
When you see Key terms marked in bold, study the meaningful coherentprocesses
series of activities that scaffold students’ meaningful art-making and deep learning
art-making Refl
within the Arts. In Chapter 2 you’ll find Classroom snapshot: Developing a unit of inquiry on
Definitions nearby to learn important vocabulary for your
ct
Where children
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 172 22/07/22 10:39 PM
bushfires, which would be useful to read now.
t
ne
ec
undertake arts activities
While there are variouso n ways to plan a program for a term or the year, the advantage of
that enable them to
C
profession. See the Glossary at the back of the book for a explore or engage with
ideas, concepts and
planning in modules (units of inquiry) is that coherence, focus and educational purpose are
Teachers: plan in pedagogical easier to articulate and manage within theresearch
Teachers: bounds of the
and module.
selectIf each
the unit of inquiry has been
full list of key terms and definitions. experiences
steps andthat
engaging
ways
activitiesdesigned
are personally for to address specific aspects
artists,ofartworks,
the curriculum forpractices
arts your year group,
or then an Arts program
relevant and valued by
children them.
to reflect critically on for the term or year is created by assembling a sequence of
traditions that inform the themeunits of inquiry.
their ideas, their artwork, theIn this chapter we look at ways
andtochildren’s
plan units of inquiry.
own At the end of this chapter you will find
art-making.
a selection of learning activities
artwork of others, and/or their and examples
They of how they can
plan meaningful ways be organised
to into units of inquiry.
The
own artistic learning practices. websites of curriculum authorities and various arts organisations
engage children in learning about such as Arts-Pop (http://
www.artspop.org.au) also providethese
excellent programreferences.
cultural guides to help you get started on translating
curriculum requirements into coherent and interesting units of inquiry.
ICONS Themes for units of inquiry CHAPTER 3 BEING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER IN THE ARTS
The themes suggested in At a glance: Themes for units of inquiry highlight a breadth of possibilities
for developing engaging and coherent learning experiences. In choosing a theme, the aim is to
teacher should seek 142 out cultural awareness training, approaches to adopt in the classroom
Identify important educationalists, influential theorists and selected well-known artists using the
include those that sit within a broad ethical and social justice framework outlined above.
Key people icons. Explore these key people in more These approaches advanceFurther
detail in your Go onlinethe
from: recognising resource,
impact of a available
dominant culture on the learning
through your instructor. environment;
FIGURE 6.5 Planning for the considering how one’s
four interconnected own cultural positioning influences one’s thinking, attitudes
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 142
artistic learning processes
22/07/22 10:38 PM
and behaviours; and respecting diverse world views, knowledges and experiences.
Cross-Curriculum Priorities icons clearly direct pre-service teachers to content relating to the three
In the Australian Curriculum: The Arts, children have opportunities to encounter the artistic
CCP areas of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpractices, traditions and artefacts of a diversity of cultures, with particular attention paid to the
Using the six-pointed star template for planning
Histories and Cultures (ATSIHC), Asia and Australia’scultures of First Nations Australians. For this to be authentic, it should lead to new learning about
In Chapter 2, the Classroom snapshot: Developing a unit of inquiry on bushfires and this chapter’s
Engagement with Asia (AAEA), and Sustainability those cultures.
(SUST)
earlier Classroom snapshot: Adapting planning to take advantage of local opportunities show how
Engaging
developing a unit of inquiry with a diversity
is a creative of cultures
process inThere
in itself. an ethical
is noway means
set way you should
to plan a unit ofacknowledge the
Go Further contains extra resources and study
inquiry, tools
but thecreator and contextualise
six-pointed star templatethe artwork
does in terms
guide you of why
towards the it was created
essential and the purpose it serves in
elements,
for each chapter. Ask your instructor for its cultural
including theFurther
the Go four artistic and historical
learning setting.
processes. TheIt star
is important
templateto remember
(see that
FIGURE 6.8 certain
and FIGUREartworks
6.9) is are religious,
where spiritual and culturally sensitive
jotting in nature,
into and whether or how youandintroduce
revising them
until should be
resource and deepen your understanding ofyou
thework out your
topic. ideas, so begin ideas the different sections
you have built carefully
a complete considered in these
and coherent terms.
picture At the
of the very
unit’s least, avoid
underlying simplistic,
concepts (see inappropriate
FIGURE 6.6). activities
You can downloadsuchaas asking
blank copychildren to ‘make an
of the template fromAboriginal painting’.
this book’s Go Further resource.
When you have Avoiding
filled in stereotyping
each section on andthe
generalisations
template, youabout artsbasis
have the practices and traditions
for writing the is another
outline for the way
unit to
of promote
inquiry. Arespect
unit offor cultural
inquiry diversity.
outline Terms
is part likeprogramming
of your ‘Aboriginal art’,
for a‘Australian
school culture’ and
Identify quotes from the curriculum material with the
term. Once you‘African
have yourart’outline,
are sometimes
you move conveniences that
on to the next obscure
tasks, which a rich
are diversity
gatheringofresources
cultures and artistic life.
Australian Curriculum (AC) icon and writing theCCP For the
plans cross-curriculum
for each lesson in thepriority Aboriginal
unit of inquiry (seeand Torres
FIGURE 6.7Strait
). Islander histories and cultures CROSS-CURRICULUM
PRIORITIES
in the Australian Curriculum, one of the organising ideas is: ‘The broader Aboriginal and Torres
ATSIHC
Strait Islander societies encompass a diversity of nations across Australia’ (ACARA, 2015).
There are over 500 Aboriginal nations and we cannot talk about one monolithic Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander culture. Similarly, in Africa, there are 47 to 57 countries, depending on how
147
they are counted, and many more ethnic or tribal groups with their own traditions and heritage.
Culture is not static or delimited, and therefore within every culture there are traditional,
vernacular and contemporary forms of artistic expression that create a rich tapestry of artistic
works
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 147 and practices. Unfortunately, we often find the term ‘Aboriginal art’, for example, is used to 22/07/22 10:38 PM
refer to traditional artworks from the past, or specifically, paintings created with dots of colour.
This ignores the diversity of art forms and the ongoing and varied practices of First Nations
Peoples from diverse regions, nations, times and artistic traditions.
In Chapter 2, At a glance: Protocols and considerations when introducing artworks from diverse
xvi cultures into lessons and the accompanying Classroom snapshot: Authentic engagement with the
artistic heritage of First Nations Australians shows how exploring the art forms from diverse
cultures can be done sensitively and authentically.
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
At the end of each chapter you will find the study tools to help you to review, practise and extend your knowledge of
the area.
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
24
xvii
Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform - the personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a clear picture of their
progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials available on their
smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes or participate in interactive real-time
activities.
MindTap for Dinham’s Delivering Authentic Arts Education 5th edition is full of innovative resources to support critical
thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes:
• Dinham’s Delivering Authentic Arts Education 5th edition eBook
• Additional Units of Inquiry
• Lesson plan templates
• Video Activities
• And more
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact your Cengage
learning consultant to find out how MindTap can transform your course.
INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE
The Instructor’s guide includes:
• Chapter objectives • Go Further Student resources –worksheets, templates
• Key terms and notes on using Units of Inquiry
• Instructor notes on using the Units of Inquiry • Tutorial activities
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and handouts by reinforcing the key
principles of your subject.
xviii
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
xix
Foreword
It is hard to consider what text we employed in teacher education Arts courses prior to 2011 and
the first publication of Delivering Authentic Arts Education. Thankfully, Judith Dinham provided
a ‘go-to’ primary Arts education resource that was accessible to pre-service teachers, novice
teachers, and experienced and well-qualified discipline experts. Now, 10 years on and in its fifth
edition, with updates and additional inclusions, this text has been cemented in 19 universities
across Australia and has become Australia’s most widely used primary Arts education text.
It has also been adopted in New Zealand.
This new edition provides readers with a solid structure incorporating historical and
contemporary theoretical framing that contextualises Arts education within the Australian
educational landscape. The first six chapters (Part 1: The ABC of Arts Education) challenge
teachers to consider the import of delivering authentic arts experiences and to embrace the
challenges of becoming an authentic Arts educator, irrespective of their arts skills base.
Importantly, Dinham positions learners as artists and active participants in their learning
journey. Pedagogical tools, planning advice and assessment strategies support teachers ongoing
professional learning, with approaches evidenced by long-standing arts engagement experiences.
Part 1 concludes with a section devoted to units of inquiry, which provides exemplary
planning, activities and experiences to engage learner cognition and extend creative processes
beyond praxis. The units of inquiry offer a range of innovative, assembled inquiry-based activities
that can be easily adapted to different contexts. This unique feature ensures the text is a
resource-rich blueprint of practical strategies for how we can teach the Arts authentically.
Part 2 Teaching in the Arts provides a chapter each for Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and
Visual Arts, aligned with the Australian Curriculum. Each art form is given equal and unbiased
attention, with guiding principles providing clear reasoning behind suggested approaches,
considering the nuances found within the individual Arts disciplines. While each chapter
regards the art forms individually, they skilfully craft potentialities for interdisciplinary and
cross-arts approaches. Making and Responding activities feature throughout, along with ideas
for incorporating performative and exhibitive outcomes of student works, and how these can be
planned, considered, and incorporated into authentic, industry-echoed events.
While it is not difficult to measure the impressive impact and success of a text in its fifth
edition, 10 years after first being published – including sales of more than 15 500 copies, its
inclusion as core reading in universities across Australia and New Zealand, and its impact on
teacher education students, particularly generalist teachers – what is harder to measure and
celebrate is the ripple effect that this book has had on classrooms and learners’ experiences of
the Arts in Australasia and around the world. This impact on children and young people who have
been the recipients of this resource, with its positive and engaging authentic arts experiences,
is undeniable. Indeed, the impact is too vast to entirely capture as many of the activities and
approaches outlined in the five editions of this book are now common in classrooms across the
country, with children and young people as the benefactors of this well-considered, informative,
resourceful and accessible text. Initial teacher education courses, primary teachers’ in-service
programs and school communities all owe a considerable debt of gratitude to Judith Dinham as
the impact of this text has taught us all how we can successfully be delivering authentic
arts education.
Peter Cook
Deputy Head of School, Education
Associate Professor Arts Education
University of Southern Queensland
xx
Introduction
A world without the arts would be a grey and tuneless place. The arts are so seamlessly woven
into the fabric of our everyday lives that it is easy to overlook the extent to which they contribute
to the quality of our lives. Music accompanies our everyday activities as we plug in our mobile
devices while taking a morning run, or listen on the radio while driving. A night out to a dance
club, concert hall, cinema or theatre immerses us in the worlds of dance, music, media arts and
drama. We watch TV shows where interior stylists decorate homes, and we employ the same
visual arts skills to choose the colours and textures in our own homes. The retail world of fashion,
jewellery, magazines, furniture and advertising engages our senses through the quality of visual
design. Our urban environment is enlivened by music, public artworks such as murals and
sculptures, and interesting architecture. Our digital world of online videos and computer games
draws on our media arts skills.
The arts are not only part of what we see and hear around us, but also influence the way
we think and the way we see ourselves. Participating in the arts is an important dimension of
children’s development because arts-making activates complex thinking processes through the
abstract nature of music, the embodied materialisation of thought through dance and drama,
the externalisation and abstract representation of ideas by drawing, and the multidimensional
weaving of sensory experience in media arts creation. The arts are also integral to the way we
build our personal and cultural identities through traditional songs and national anthems;
dance, paintings, drama and movies that tell our stories; and iconic architecture that presents
us to the world.
The arts have always been part of human life, but in our contemporary world their role
is changing as the digital revolution transforms the way we think and structure knowledge,
experiences and understandings. The interactive and navigational ways of negotiating
knowledge in the digital world parallel the way artists work, and so researchers are increasingly
interested in the arts as a way of gaining insight into these types of cognition (Bourriaud, 2002).
Similarly, the unprecedented growth of forms of communication that rely on visual formats
– such as websites, videos, PowerPoint®, digital images and Zoom™ – means that visual literacy
is becoming a critical functioning skill. This is so much so that Australian Government agencies
observe that ‘artistic and visual literacy are increasingly as important to success in work and life
as numeracy and language skills’ (Australia Council for the Arts (Ozco) & DEST, 2004, p. 4).
The growth of the knowledge society means that success in this economy requires creative
and innovative thinkers more than the labourers needed for the industrial world. In the USA,
research shows that 97 per cent of surveyed employers believe that creativity is increasingly
important in the workplace – though 85 per cent seeking employees with such skills reported
having difficulty finding them. The report concludes that ‘it is clear that the arts … provide skills
sought by employers of the third millennium’ (Lichtenberg et al., 2008, p. 17).
Globalisation of economies and global issues like migration and climate change have blurred
the boundaries of societies. Fostering connections and relationships across and within cultures
has placed greater emphasis on cultural understanding and building people’s sense of identity
and connection. Once again, the arts attract attention because of their capacity to meet
these needs.
Across the world there are growing concerns about rising mental health issues. This trend has
recently escalated due to a combination of the pandemic, recent natural disasters and turbulent
political climate. Therefore, it is important to note that health and therapeutic research (Staricoff,
2006) shows there are clear benefits for personal wellbeing gained from encountering and
participating in the arts. This has also been demonstrated in studies of recovery and self-healing
xxi
INTRODUCTION
arts projects deployed within communities following disasters (Adnams Jones, 2018). In schools,
arts education plays a crucial role in bolstering children’s sense of wellbeing (Clift & Camic, 2015;
Noble & Wyatt, 2008; Thomson et al., 2015; Winner et al., 2013).
The arts bring pleasure, joy, comfort and understanding into people’s lives. They allow people
to express who they are and to find meaning in their world. In the same way that prehistoric
people drew on cave walls and toddlers draw on bedroom walls, we know that expressing
ourselves artistically is a primary and enduring human need.
providing you with enough background information to appreciate the true nature
1 of arts education and its importance in the curriculum
encouraging you to recognise, celebrate and use your own creative and artistic
2 capacities (which may be dormant, but do exist) – and your pedagogical skills
– to bring arts education alive in your classroom, and for you to be the best
teacher you can be
directing you to the range of options and support available to you through
3 partnerships, professional networks and online resources
reviewing the features of an authentic arts program and building the links between
4 theory and practice with sample lessons, supporting information pages, ideas for
programs, suggestions and guidelines – so that you can initiate an authentic arts
education program, function effectively in the classroom, and be confident that you
will succeed.
Both the title of this book and the content refer to authentic arts education. What this means
is arts education that is genuine education – where children actually develop more sophisticated
understandings, skills and capabilities in the arts, which support satisfying self-expression
and appreciation. To be blunt, far too much of what passes for arts education is not much
more than busy work or a fun-time interlude in the ‘real’ work of education. Not that there is
anything wrong with having fun, but arts education also needs to be purposeful, stimulating and
challenging learning – and all education should be fun!
xxii
INTRODUCTION
Pedagogical tools
As this text serves as a reliable resource for learning about and teaching in the arts, a number of
pedagogical features have been provided to assist your studies. The text makes regular references
to the Australian Curriculum. Even if the state or territory where you live has developed its own
curriculum, this text is still relevant because these curricula are derived from the Australian
Curriculum, and the underpinning concepts and expectations are consistent. Icons in the margins
draw attention to any direct references to the Australian Curriculum and cross-curriculum
priorities. Other icons highlight references to significant educators mentioned in the text.
Each chapter begins with a numbered list of the topics covered. These align to the numbered
headings throughout the chapter so it is easy to locate the relevant section. Under each heading,
subheadings will help you go directly to the part you need at any time. The summary at the end of
the chapter reinforces the main points. Each chapter concludes with the provision of resources for
you to consolidate and extend your learning.
Throughout the book you will find four different types of boxed information to facilitate
your learning:
• At a glance boxes encapsulate key information. These can be photocopied and pinned up at
your workstation for reference.
• Starter ideas suggest the types of learning experiences you can introduce in your classroom
to put theory into practice.
• Classroom snapshots offer examples of arts education in action in the classroom. You will
see how the ideas discussed in the book are enacted and translated into real-life classroom
situations.
• Online resources comprise carefully curated lists of websites that offer good-quality support for
your teaching and self-education. These websites extend the value of the book because you
can continue to access up-to-date information.
Specialist terms in the text are highlighted and, for easy reference, an explanation is provided
in the margin. A glossary at the end of the book lists all these terms alphabetically.
All these features are intended to support your professional development as an educator in the
arts. Hopefully you see the value of keeping this text as part of your professional library for future
reference while teaching.
Terminology
While a glossary of terminology is included in this book, several terms used throughout the
text should be clarified here. ‘The arts’ is a collective term referring to dance, drama, media arts,
xxiii
INTRODUCTION
music, and visual arts and other related forms of artistic expression. When capitalised, the Arts is
generally referring to the Arts learning area in the Australian Curriculum. ‘Artworks’ and ‘artists’
are usually used in this text as collective nouns to mean all products of the different arts areas
and all creators. This is in order to avoid cumbersome specification when meaning any and all art
forms or creators. Therefore, a musical performance is an artwork and a composer is also an artist.
The term ‘pre-service teachers’ refers to those who are studying to gain a teaching
qualification. Novice teachers are qualified teachers in the first years of their teaching careers.
Throughout the text, children and students are terms used interchangeably to refer to the young
people you will be teaching.
References
Adnams Jones, S (2018). Art-making with refugees and survivors: Creative and transformative responses to
trauma after natural disasters, war and other crises. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Australia Council for the Arts (Ozco) & DEST (2004). Request for tender for the provision of national review of
education in visual arts, craft, design and visual communications. FA/6416.
Bourriaud, N (2002). Relational aesthetics (rev. edn). Translated S Pleasance & F Woods. Buenos Aires:
Adriana Hidalgo Editoria.
Clift, S & Camic, PM (Eds.) (2015). Oxford textbook of creative arts, health, and wellbeing: International
perspectives on practice, policy and research. Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/med/
9780199688074.001.0001
Lichtenberg, J, Woock, C & Wright, M (2008). Ready to innovate: Are educators and executives aligned on the
creative readiness of the US workforce? The Conference Board. Retrieved from http://www.artsusa.org
Noble, T & Wyatt, T (2008). Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing: Literature review. Australian
Catholic University and Erebus International.
Staricoff, R (2006). Arts in health: the value of evaluation. Journal of The Royal Society for the Promotion of
Health, 126(3), 116–120. doi: 10.1177/1466424006064300
Thomson, P, Coles, R, Hallewell, M & Keane, J (2015). A critical review of the Creative Partnerships
archive: How was cultural value understood, researched and evidenced? Retrieved from http://www.
creativitycultureeducation.org/a-critical-review-of-the-creative-partnerships-archive
Winner, E, Goldstein, TR & Vincent-Lancrin, S (2013). Arts for art’s sake? The impact of arts education. Centre
for Educational Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/9789264180789-en
xxiv
About the author
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR JUDITH DINHAM, School of Education, Curtin University
Judith Dinham has held senior university teaching and leadership positions in arts education
and artists’ education over a number of decades. At Curtin University she is the Director of
Learning and Teaching in the School of Education, having previously held the position of
Program Co-ordinator for the Bachelor of Education (Primary).
She is a Fellow of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia
(HERDSA); and has an Edith Cowan University Fellowship, along with a number of other awards
for excellence and innovation in teaching.
She was the founding director of ProArts, a professional development provider for teachers,
as well as being an International Baccalaureate examiner for 10 years and a board member of
the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts (WAAPA) and National Exhibition Touring
Structure, WA. Her broad curriculum experience includes writing and presenting arts education
courses in Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary Education for universities, state government
and overseas curriculum bodies, Professional and Graduate Education, and Open University
Australia. Her research interests relate to pre-service education in the arts. Judith Dinham is also
a practising artist and exhibition curator. The monograph Judith Dinham: An artistic journey
(https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8122&context=ecuworks) describes her
artistic practice.
Acknowledgements
The first edition of Delivering authentic arts education was published in 2011. The production of
this fifth edition directly relates to the continued support the text has received from university
lecturers around the country who have made it the recommended text for their students. I am
indebted to the publisher’s commitment to publishing a new updated edition every three years
so the text continues to be relevant for each intake of pre-service teachers. As this edition
goes to print, the outcomes from the Australian Curriculum Review are not yet endorsed for
implementation, so a conservative approach to referencing anticipated changes has been taken.
For the preparation of this new manuscript, I wish to acknowledge and sincerely thank
colleagues, teachers, students, friends and family for their assistance and, importantly, the
reviewers listed below who provided critical review of the content.
I would also like to thank those who made generous contributions of artwork, images and
ideas for inclusion in the book including Elizabeth Ford, Christine Latham, Sylvia Le Min Maslin,
Angela Perry and Gill Treichel. A number of images were sourced from the following educational
institutions: Bayswater Primary School, Hale School, MLC Claremont, Moerlina School, Edith
Cowan University and Curtin University with kind assistance from staff and parents. In this
regard, a special thank you to Kate Hall, Angela Perry and Nina Usher for facilitating this.
This book is intended for pre-service primary school teachers and as such I have especially
valued the contributions of past and present pre-service students. The stories of several teaching
experiences recounted by my students on their Blackboard Discussion Board bring an immediacy
to the matters being discussed and provide valuable insights.
xxv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A special thanks goes to Fiona Hammond, Margie Asmus and the whole wonderful team at
Cengage who have masterfully brought this book into being. It is always a pleasure working with
such committed and capable individuals.
Ideas float in a ferment and any number of fragments can take hold and grow into arts
creations and lessons. These in turn may suggest possibilities for interpretation by someone else.
I have willingly shared ideas with my students and colleagues and, while I have acknowledged
known sources in this text, I also want to thank all those who, with a teacher’s instinct and
collegial spirit, have generously contributed to the ferment that feeds us all.
Judith Dinham
2022
The author and publisher would like to thank the following reviewers, whose feedback helped
shape this fifth edition:
Helen Sandercoe – La Trobe University
Katie Burke – University of Southern Queensland
Marta Kawka – Griffith University
Rachael Jacobs – Western Sydney University
Dr Rachael Jefferson-Buchanan – Charles Sturt University
Robin Pascoe – Murdoch University
Victoria McTaggart – Australian Catholic University
xxvi
1
PART
The ABC of Arts Education
The Arts is one of the mandated learning areas in the Australian Curriculum and includes the
subjects of Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and Visual Arts. All students from Foundation
through the primary school years are expected to have an education in the Arts subjects. How
this is achieved will vary across state and territory jurisdictions and from school to school.
Nevertheless, all teachers have a role to play in delivering arts education in a contemporary
curriculum – even if the school has specialist teachers. If you are preparing to be a generalist
teacher, it is possible that you have a modest background in the arts, lack confidence in your
ability or feel intimidated by the challenge. However, you will find that you can deliver a
worthwhile Arts program if you are willing to try.
Part 1 of this book is an examination of the principles of delivering good-quality arts
education. It begins with an exploration of the context and rationale for arts education
because you need some understanding about why arts education is in the curriculum in order
to engage with arts learning intelligently. The rest of this section is devoted to addressing the
three key players in education: the learner, the teacher and the learning area. Understanding
essential concepts in relation to each of these three factors represents the ABC of arts
education:
A B C
Authentic arts Being the best Children at the centre
education. teacher you can be. of their learning.
1
CHAPTER
Putting you in the picture –
the rationale and context
for arts education
In this chapter you will discover that:
1.1 the arts are part of what it means to be human
1.2 the nature of arts education changes as society’s needs and values
change – so arts education today is different from arts education in the
past
1.3 contemporary arts education research, policy and scholarship
illuminate the nature of arts education for the new era
1.4 arts education is in the curriculum to seriously contribute to developing
children’s capabilities to meet the challenges of the new era
1.5 all benefits of arts education derive from a rich experience of the arts as
both artist and audience
1.6 implementing new educational practices and a meaningful program
requires dedication and forward-thinking approaches.
2
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
Historical insights
The written history of Western art describes periods and eras, and reveals how particular belief
systems, philosophies or social and political forces have had a notable and distinctive influence
on the artworks produced. The following examples help to illustrate how the arts are expressions
of their histories and beliefs:
3
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
• Ancient Egyptian art (c. 3000 BCE–300 CE) was strongly related to societal beliefs about
the afterlife and led to the building of extraordinary structures such as the Sphinx and the
pyramids.
• The Classical Greek period (c. 500–386 BCE) was when the first schools of philosophical
thought – led by well-known luminaries Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – were established.
These philosophies influenced the creation of bronze and marble sculptures depicting
athletic, well-muscled young men that reflected philosophical notions of an ideal form and
mathematical concepts of beauty.
• The Byzantine Empire period (330–1453 CE) related to the spread of Christianity. Artistic
enterprise was focused on the building of magnificent churches and mosaic images on interior
walls that told the Christian story with symbolic and ethereal figures often floating on gold
backgrounds. Ecclesiastical chants in music from this time are on UNESCO’s list of Intangible
Cultural Heritage.
• The Renaissance (c. 1400–1550) was characterised by an intellectual shift from the religious
orthodoxy of the Medieval period to humanism, where human nature was the primary guiding
force. It was based on a resurgence of interest in learning from classical Greek sources. This
was seeded by the migration of Greek scholars to Italy when Constantinople fell to the
Ottomans; fostered by the patronage of church and wealthy families in Florence; characterised
by the development of linear perspective in paintings to create depth of field and a more
naturalistic representation of the world; and represented by artists such as Michelangelo,
Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.
• Romanticism (1780–1850) was a rejection of the prevailing precepts of reason and scientific
rationalism associated with the Enlightenment. It embraced the ideals of individual rights
cultural pluralism
The recognition that and liberty associated with the French Revolution by asserting that the creative subjective
diverse cultures have powers, imagination, feelings and emotions of the individual artist were valid ways of
parallel and equally experiencing the world and asserting the rights of the individual. Romanticism found
valid frameworks for
valuing their cultural
expression across painting, music, architecture and literature, and influenced many art
products. movements in the 20th century.
praxial philosophy
A term coined by
Professor Philip
Contemporary art
Alperson as a basis The philosophical propositions of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) in the 20th century developed
for determining the the conceptualisation of artworks as cultural products that manifest or shape the cultural
natures and intrinsic
identity of a community. We see this reflected in the categorisation of ‘Australian art’ or ‘British
value of music; it refers
to the music as a form art’, where interpretation of these artworks tells us about who we are as a nation. By extension,
of experiential learning this includes challenging the status quo or dominant discourses through exploration of social
positioned within a issues such as multiculturalism, racism, the rights of First Nations Peoples, and cultural diversity.
diverse range of social,
psychological and
Cultural pluralism, outlined by the philosopher Horace Kallen (1882–1974), and the importance
cultural frameworks of valuing artistic production in diverse cultures, has been promoted by the writings of Lawrence
visual culture Alloway (1926–1990), Graeme Chalmers (1943—) and others. The aesthetic aspect of artistic
Embraces any medium creations has been challenged by these propositions since the notion of beauty in one culture is
that has a key visual
potentially different from that in another. The situated nature of the arts, whereby the context
component. This
includes products of its making and its audience are factors that contribute to its meaning, is further advanced in
such as comics and Philip Alperson’s praxial philosophy of music. Similarly, Griselda Pollock (1949—) has played
advertising. The a significant role in developing new intellectual frameworks for thinking about the arts in the
articulation of visual
culture opened the
context of social factors such as feminism, gender, ethnicity and culture.
door for media arts Ideas about what constitutes the arts have broadened, and academics such as Kerry Freedman
products to be seen as
have been instrumental in promoting a paradigm shift away from the traditional visual art
art forms and for visual
arts to be understood in disciplines to the field of visual culture. This has opened the door for media arts products, such
this context too. as comics and advertising, to be viewed and critiqued as art forms.
4
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
Linking the arts with the affective domain and separate from cognition, as conceptualised in affective domain
Bloom’s taxonomy, was reconceptualised by the work of Howard Gardner and the Project Zero This is one of the three
domains in Bloom’s
team, who have been instrumental in positioning the arts as forms of cognition (ways of knowing). taxonomy. It refers to
Today, in light of the social and cultural multiplicities we encounter in a globalised and the way we engage
networked world, we are increasingly aware of the underlying contingency of the way we with our world through
emotions, values,
understand our world (Smith, 2019). Whereas earlier arts periods are usually distinguished by appreciation, attitudes
an organising and unifying philosophy or ideology, today that is not the case as a diversity of and motivations.
materials, forms and subject matter are brought together by a diversity of artists to explore and
express their thoughts, feelings and ideas.
Howard Gardner
The evolving nature of our understanding of the arts and their role in education prompts
researchers and educationalists to evolve teaching and learning practices accordingly. Hence, Dorothy
Industrial Revolution: Psychology: At the end of The Space Race: The USA and Economic Rationalism: In
When the economy the 19th century psychology USSR, as rival world powers, the 1980s and 1990s the
moved from farming to was established as a sought to prove superiority by political view that a
manufacturing during the separate scientific discipline. being the first to put a person market-oriented economic
Industrial Revolution, It informed the educational on the moon within the policy was the foundation of
public education was theories of John Dewey, who decade. In education this led a strong society took hold.
introduced to build a was highly influential in to a strong focus on empirical Education’s primary role was
skilled workforce. spearheading a new knowledge, academic rigour to develop citizens who
conception of education and scientific education. contributed to society
based on experiential through their participation in
learning and the the economy as workers and
development of the whole consumers.
child.
Art education for manual Art education as Art education to develop Art education for
dexterity and technical self-expression knowledge in the discipline employment and
skill consumption
Drawing and painting was In a child-centred approach In a discipline-based The cognitive sciences and
included in the school to education, the Arts approach to education, there new conceptions of mind,
curriculum to develop curriculum was focused on was a shift in focus to the learning and intelligence
manual dexterity and children’s self-expression. knowledge base of the arts. supported the establishment
technical drawing skills for The experience of engaging Along with art making, of Learning Areas in the
factory-based work. in art-making was valued for aesthetics, art criticism and curriculum to provide
developing children as art history became part of broad-based learning that
individual beings. the curriculum. improved employment
options – including in the
Arts.
FIGURE 1.1 A snapshot of major changes to arts education imperatives over time
5
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
Heathcote brought new understandings about pedagogy to drama education through practice-led
research, as represented by her Mantle of the Expert approach. Rudolf Laban transformed dance
education and scholarship through his pioneering role in modern dance, and his analysis of dance
movements and development of a dance notation system. The development of music education for
children has been highly influenced by the methods of Carl Orff, Kodály Zoltán, Shinichi
Suzuki and Émile Jacques-Dalcroze. Viktor Lowenfeld, Elliot Eisner, Ellen Winner and
Elliot Eisner (1933–2014)
Lois Hetland are among those who have contributed significantly to our understanding of the
Carl Orff (1895–1982)
nature of visual arts education. Other international luminaries who have advanced our understanding
Kodály Zoltán (1882–1967)
of the arts in education through their scholarship, advocacy and professional leadership include
Shinichi Suzuki
(1898–1998) Allen P Britton, Jane Bonbright, Al Hurwitz and Ken Robinson.
Émile Jacques-Dalcroze In Australia, Susan Wright has promoted the arts as meaning-making enterprises for young
(1865–1950) children, Georgina Barton has built on the work of the London Group to promote arts literacy concepts
Viktor Lowenfeld in education, while Robyn Ewing has been a long-time researcher and advocate for arts-led curricula.
(1903–1960)
Elliot Eisner (1933–2014)
The arts represent a rich and diverse field of human endeavour that continues to evolve and
Allen P Britton change as society changes. The key dimensions of the arts as we conceptualise them today are
(1914–2003) summarised in FIGURE 1.2 and this provides a working guide for teachers. This conceptualisation
Jane Bonbright of the arts is reflected in the Australian Curriculum, in other national curricula, and in the
Al Hurwitz (1920–2012) discussion throughout this text.
Ken Robinson In contemporary society, educational imperatives are driven primarily by global forces: the
(1950–2020)
digital revolution, the growth of a knowledge economy, shifting economic power, the changing
An aesthetic experience
• We engage with artwork through participation, listening or
viewing
• This is an aesthetic experience in that it involves our sensory
faculties, feelings and thoughtful consideration
• The experience can be transformative
6
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
nature of work, increasing international mobility and displacement, increasing engagement with
diverse cultures through globalised economies, decolonial perspectives in relation to First Nations
Peoples and cultures, growing concern for disenfranchised groups, fragmenting society and
individuals’ mental wellbeing, as well as environmental and sustainability concerns. Just over a
decade ago, Australia embarked on a wide-ranging reform of schooling, and the education sector
more generally, in response to the significant societal changes afoot. Therefore, the way you were
educated in the arts is not necessarily the way we expect students to be educated today.
3
Cross-curriculum
Priorities
Ab
Isla orig
nd inal
er
his and
As tor Tor
Developed through en i a ies res
ga and an
d c Strait
learning experiences ge Au ult
me str
in the different nt alia ure
Su wit ’s s
Learning Areas sta hA
ina sia ces
bil
ity S c ien
al
Lit
era oci
cy n dS
a
ies
7 Nu nit s
me m a Art on
General Pe rac Hu T he ati
Capabilities rso y d uc
na al E
l an sic
ds P hy
oc d
Eth ial an s
cap a lth gie
ica
lu aci H e n olo
nd ty ch
Cri ers Te
tic tan ce
al a din en
nd g Sci
cre es
Int ati ag
erc ve
t n gu
ult h ink L a 8
ura ing
lu Learning
nd ths
ers Ma Areas
ICT tan
Ca din h
pa g glis
bil En
ity
FIGURE 1.3 The Melbourne Declaration educational goals are reflected in the three-dimensional design
of the Australian Curriculum with its learning areas, general capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities
7
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
new demands on Australian education and the country’s ability to compete in the global
knowledge and innovation economy (MCEETYA, 2008, pp. 4–5). The creation of the Australian
Curriculum, which is the current national curriculum, was guided by the Melbourne Declaration.
COAG/EC (2019)
Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education
Council of Declaration
Australian Sets goals for Australian education
Governments for the following decade
Education Council
ACECQA ACARA
National quality Australian
Australian framework for early Curriculum Australian
Children’s childhood education and The Arts learning Curriculum,
Education and care area Assessment
Care Quality The Early Years Learning and Reporting
Authority Framework (EYLF) Authority
AITSL
Australian professional
Australian Institute standards for teaching
of Teaching and
School Leadership
VectorStock/bspsupanut
FIGURE 1.4 The policy and curriculum framework that sits around teaching
The development of the Australian Curriculum was a phased process that included a review
and rewrite (Donnelly & Wiltshire, 2014), before full implementation in 2016. A review of the
whole Curriculum in 2020–21 focused on streamlining the content so more time could be devoted
to developing children’s deeper understanding of core concepts; and refinements that would make
it easier for teachers to interpret the expectations.
Responsibility for the implementation of the Australian Curriculum rests with states and
territories, and despite the goal of a national curriculum, local variations and hybrid models have
emerged. For example, in Victoria, Visual Communication Design is an additional Arts subject;
and in Western Australia an ‘adopt and adapt’ approach has resulted in the nomination of ‘core’
and ‘additional’ content for each Arts subject, and a reduction in the number of Arts subjects each
school must offer (Chapman et al., 2016). Nonetheless, the Australian Curriculum provides the
overarching framework.
8
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
The ‘learning area’ curriculum model is also used in New Zealand, but there the Arts learning
area embraces dance, drama, music-sound arts and visual arts. The International Baccalaureate
is an alternative curriculum available in both Australia and New Zealand. It too has a strong arts
education component and is often adopted by international, alternative and private schools.
9
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
Creative thinking
Across knowledge-based economies, innovation is regarded as the ‘engine room’ of growth.
Qualities like creativity, flexible thinking and problem solving – which are inherent characteristics
of artistic thinking – are recognised as relevant to a post-industrial economy (Winner et al., 2013).
In the UK, the National Advisory Committee on Creativity and Cultural Education reported in
All Our Futures: Creative Cultural Education (National Advisory Committee, 1999) that a national
strategy for creative and cultural education was essential for Britain’s economic prosperity and
social cohesion. In the USA, the National Center on Education and the Economy released Tough
Choices or Tough Times: The Report of the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce
in 2007–08, claiming that the standard testing strategy adopted to improve schooling outcomes
was misguided because it did not promote the type of teaching that developed the creative and
critical thinking skills needed for success in the emerging economy. In Australia, the 2005 policy
statement, Imagine Australia: The Role of Creativity in the Innovation Economy (Prime Minister’s
Science Engineering and Innovation Council (PMSEIC), 2005), linked economic development with
a shift towards the creative industries. This report also noted that ‘to be globally competitive,
Australia needed to formulate a comprehensive approach to fostering creativity’ (PMSEIC, 2005,
p. 5). Fostering a culture of creativity and innovation in schools was reinforced in the National
Education and the Arts Statement, where it was observed that (MCEETYA, 2007, p. 3):
Schools that value creativity lead the way in cultivating the well-informed and
active citizens our future demands: where individuals are able to generate fresh
ideas, communicate effectively, take calculated risks and imaginative leaps,
adapt easily to change and work cooperatively.
In 1999, UNESCO launched the International Appeal for the Promotion of Arts Education and
Creativity at School. Various projects and publications were initiated in countries around the
world, prefacing UNESCO’s first World Conference in 2006: Arts
Education: Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century (see
FIGURE 1.5). The themes of this conference reflected a belief in the
cultural significance of the arts, the major role the arts play in the
development of creativity, and the need to radically rethink the
nature of arts education.
The subsequent publication, Road Map for Arts Education
(UNESCO, 2006), aimed to develop a consensus on the importance
of arts education in the belief that ‘creative and cultural
development should be a basic function of education’ (UNESCO,
2006, p. 3). The second UNESCO World Conference outlined goals
for the development of arts education stating: ‘Arts education
has an important role to play in the constructive transformation
FIGURE 1.5 The President of Portugal welcoming
of educational systems that are struggling to meet the needs of
delegates to UNESCO’s first World Conference on Arts
Education, Lisbon, Portugal, 2006
learners in a rapidly changing world’ (UNESCO, 2010, p. 2). This
work has continued through UNESCO Chairs and Observatories in
the field and groups such as the International Network for Research in Arts Education (INRAE)
(O’Farrell et al., 2014) and the World Alliance for Arts Education (Buck, 2014).
The development of creativity is consistently identified as a cornerstone function of arts
education (National Advisory Committee on Creativity and Cultural Education, 1999; Robinson,
2001; UNESCO, 1996). In Australia, projects such as the Sydney Opera House’s Creative
Leadership in Learning (CLIL) represent a new approach that mobilises specialist knowledge in
the arts community to support children’s creative development. By ‘reimagining themselves as
community hubs of creative activity’ (Australia Council for the Arts, 2020a, p. 10), performance-
based cultural institutions work in partnership with schools to provide professional learning to
school principals and teachers, and educational projects undertaken with children.
10
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
The decades-long momentum for creative thinking as an educational goal has now been
recognised and accelerated through OECD’s highly influential Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA). PISA is an instrument for measuring and comparing educational
standards around the world. To date it has focused on reading, mathematics and science
knowledge, but in 2022 the OECD released a PISA assessment for determining students’ creative
thinking capabilities (see FIGURE 1.6). In doing this, the OECD has highlighted the important
influence of creative thinking on students’ academic interests and achievements, identity and
wellbeing; and their capacity to adapt and contribute to a rapidly changing world. PISA describes
creative thinking as ‘the interpretation of experiences, actions and events in novel and personally
meaningful ways’ (OECD, 2022); and as both an expression of the imagination, as seen in the arts,
and an integral part of general problem solving and ideas generation.
ion Vis
ss ua
re le
xp x
e
pr
en
es
itt
sio
Wr
n
Generate Generate
diverse creative
ideas ideas
Evaluate and
improve ideas
S ci e
ng
n ti
lv i
so
fic
m
pr
bl
ob
le
o
em
so l pr
lvi n ci a
g So
Now that creative thinking is incorporated into PISA as a measure of a country’s educational
system, we will begin to see greater focus on it in schools. One final point of note is that in this
text you will find that open-ended learning experiences are constantly referred to as one of the
hallmarks of authentic arts education. The PISA creative thinking test uses only ‘open-ended
tasks with no single solution but multiple correct responses’ (OECD, 2022). For the first time
in PISA, there will also be the requirement for students to produce visual artefacts rather than
written responses for some tasks (OECD, 2022).
Learning capability
In the late 1990s, the US President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities commissioned a
major suite of research projects to examine the impact of the arts on learning. The results of
this research are described in Champions of Change (Fiske, 1999) and point to the importance of
the arts in relation to the quality of learning generally, and the development of the flexibility,
11
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
12
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
Individual wellbeing
Humans, as social beings, need a sense of identity, meaning and belonging to thrive. When the
foundations of these dimensions are shaken, ways for processing or finding new meanings are
needed (Frankl, 2006). Rising mental health issues in our society are an increasing concern.
Research showing that 75 per cent of mental health problems develop before the age of 25, and
usually before the age of 14 (Kessler et al., 2005), reveals the extent to which adverse childhood
experiences have a significant effect on children’s development, and their social and health
outcomes as adults (Anda et al., 2006). In a turbulent world, the pervasive undercurrent of
threat has contributed to rising levels of anxiety and trauma in society generally, and in children
more particularly (Ojala, 2016; Oster et al., 2017). This has been made more evident by recent
devastating natural disasters and the COVID-19 pandemic.
For centuries it has been known that making art and listening to or viewing artworks,
contributes to wellbeing. In 15th-century Italy, musicians were a regular feature in hospital
wards because their music helped patients to recover. More recently, musicians have been
employed to play to children who are having difficult CT scans because this produces very
high success rates without anaesthesia, and significantly shortens procedure times (Sonke,
2012). The mental health benefits of arts exposure or participation are well represented in
health and therapeutic research (Staricoff, 2006), and in studies of recovery and self-healing
arts projects deployed within communities following disasters (Adnams Jones, 2018).
Research also points to strong evidence that arts education in the school context plays
a crucial role in children’s sense of wellbeing (Clift & Camic, 2015; Noble & Wyatt, 2008;
Thomson et al., 2015; Winner et al., 2013). The benefits of participating in art-making are
particularly seen in marginalised groups: disadvantaged students, students at risk, students
from refugee backgrounds and First Nations students (Catterall et al., 2012; Creativity, Culture
and Education (CCE), 2009; Fiske, 1999).
The reasons why the arts have a positive effect on wellbeing are varied, but relate to the way
they involve: attentional focus and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; McCarthy et al., 2004); tapping
creative and generative resources (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); using imagination to envision
alternative outcomes or preferable futures (Hicks, 2014); meaning-making; transcendence; use
of metaphor in visual and kinaesthetic (movement) languages; interpersonal communication
and social bonding (Pearce, 2017); making (Gauntlett, 2011; Leone, 2021); and using the body
to ground thoughts in action (Adnams Jones, 2018; Christensen & Gomila, 2018). We see
that wellbeing is fostered in schools where creative engagement is highly valued (McLellan
et al., 2012).
The growing field of brain research has provided physiological explanations for many of the
positive effects of the arts on wellbeing (Huotilainen et al., 2018). The degree to which the arts
have ‘cognitive and emotional effects which are closely related to human psychobiological health
and wellbeing’ has led to the proposal of a ‘biopsychological science of the arts’ (Christensen &
Gomila, 2018, p. xxvii).
Sustainability
CCP In 1987, the United Nations’ World Commission on Environment and Development CROSS-CURRICULUM
published the report Our Common Future that, for the first time, linked sustainable development
PRIORITIES
SUST
to education. Sustainability incorporates an understanding of: the interplay between social,
ecological, economic and political systems (Taylor et al., 2015); the way culture sustains societies
through social cohesion (Hawkes, 2002); and how human rights, social justice, knowledges of
First Nations Peoples and ethical action are factors in the achievement of sustainable outcomes.
13
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
In 2002, the United Nations proclaimed 2005–2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development, and in its subsequent report specifically examined the kind of learning processes
that had emerged over the decade (UNESCO, 2012). Observations about pedagogical approaches
that develop the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours underpinning sustainable living practices
have highlighted the special relevance of arts education (Blewitt & Cullingford, 2004; Carr, 2004;
Everett et al., 2015; O’Gorman, 2015; Tereso, 2012; Winograd, 2016). In 2016, this was the theme
for the sixth World Alliance for Arts Education Summit held in Hangzhou, China and a special
issue of the International Journal of Art & Design Education.
14
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
15
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION
sense of agency. Arts learning experiences therefore provide an authentic arena in which children
can develop these important capabilities.
Cultural competency
In a globalised world, establishing respectful and reciprocal relationships with people from
diverse cultural backgrounds is an important competency. Respect for diversity underpins
interacting, communicating, empathising and working with people whose worldviews and
cultural practices are potentially different from one’s own.
In the Arts curriculum, children learn about the artists, cultural artefacts and artistic
traditions of diverse societies. Through their studies they gain insights into the values, beliefs
and customs of a diversity of cultures. CCP An important dimension of this relates to First Nations
CROSS-CURRICULUM
PRIORITIES
ATSIHC cultures: specifically, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in Australia. For children of
these cultural backgrounds, they see themselves and their culture respected and valued; and
for all children, understanding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures is a foundation
for understanding their own place in the world, living on an island continent that has been
continuously inhabited for more than 60 000 years.
When classroom arts projects are developed around themes such as ceremonies or domestic
life, children have the opportunity to explore diverse cultural contexts in concrete ways.
Alternatively, when a mosaic wall art project, for example, is prefaced by learning about Antoni
Gaudí’s mosaics in Parc Güell, Barcelona, Spain, or the Jãmeh Mosque of Yazd in Iran, or the Great
Pavement of Westminster Abbey in London, England, children see their artistic adventures
positioned within the wider world of artistic motivation and endeavour. In these experiences,
children see how they belong, how others belong, what unites us, what distinguishes us and
what is possible when people passionately strive to create something that speaks to our
humanity.
16
CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION
children to build capacities as change agents – thinking, valuing and acting in ways that will
PRIORITIES
SUST
achieve a sustainable future. The arts are especially relevant because of the particular nature of
learning in the arts (Trott, 2019).
Arts practice is reflective and reflexive, whereby the artist contemplates, acts and reviews in a
natural spiralling work cycle. From a sustainability perspective, this way of working allows for new
formations of self and other, and the relationship to the natural world (Blewitt & Cullingford, 2004).
The arts engagement with the affective domain – the domain of feelings – means that
connections with the world, and the development of an attitude of caring and empathy, deemed
necessary for a sustainable disposition, can be cultivated (Everett et al., 2015).
reflective
The active engagement and personal commitment (learning by ‘doing’ or ‘making’) that are The reflective nature
hallmarks of arts learning are also required for building sustainability dispositions because it is of arts practice means
recognised that action, as well as awareness, is important. that the artist’s
critical contemplation
Meaning-making and self-expression in relation to identity, community and place are of the artwork is a
common arts-based preoccupations. Working from this perspective can help children identify significant part of the
place-based sustainable solutions that are meaningful to them and their communities (Haynes & work process. It is an
interrogation where
Tanner, 2015; Osnes, 2017). judgements are made
Wonderment and curiosity about the perceived world and the world of ideas underpins about how well the
artwork is progressing
artistic endeavours, to the extent that artists often describe their creative work as journeys towards communicating
into understanding. This characteristic is well aligned with the aims of developing children’s the artist’s intention
sustainability dispositions. and then decisions are
made about how to
The significance of mindfulness – paying close sensory attention to the world around us – is move forward towards
a feature of artistic practice. Drawing an insect, for example, requires close observation of every the goal.
detail. A study of young children who drew, as well as observed, an animal showed that they reflexive
recalled more factual details than the children in the control group who only observed (Fox, The reflexive nature
of arts practice is the
2010). This requirement to see and relate to the subject at a deep and focused level draws children intuitive and reactionary
into richer understandings of their world. response. It is an
From the earliest times, the natural world has been a source of inspiration for artists. ongoing dialogue with
the evolving artwork –
Consequently, a wealth of artistic creations provides study resources for developing children’s the artist’s action is a
aesthetic appreciation of the natural world (Carr, 2004). The traditions of cultural festivals reaction.
celebrating the natural world and its rhythms are also entry points to a heightened sense of
mindfulness and connection.
A number of early childhood centres adopt the Reggio Emilia approach to learning that is well
aligned to sustainability precepts. This approach has an art specialist as a core member of the
teaching team and positions children as capable, inquisitive, autonomous and active learners. In
an integrated approach to learning, emphasis is placed on expressing feelings and ideas through
arts activities like drawing and movement. Connections are pursued in a full-circle approach to
learning: children know where their art materials come from, they participate in acquiring them,
they are encouraged to use them judiciously, and they clean up and know what happens when
they dispose of the materials. From the beginning, they learn the consequences of their actions.
understanding these factors will help to bring purpose and direction to your teaching. However,
these factors ultimately relate to the nature of the arts experience – which is at the heart of
meaningful and good-quality arts education from which the benefits derive.
Artistic experience
The preponderance of research focusing on the instrumental benefits of the arts and arts
education has tended to marginalise the significance of artistic experience in itself (Crossick
& Kaszynska, 2016; White & Hede, 2008). However, as researchers and commentators have
emphasised, people are not usually motivated to paint or sing or dance because it will make them
better at maths or help them to develop perseverance. Rather, there are other, more direct gains
that come from the very nature of being involved in the arts – and being able to think, create,
express and appreciate the world in artistic terms.
The nature of ‘arts knowing’ and the value of the arts in terms of their significant contribution
to human understanding and knowledge is regularly overlooked. Potentially, this is because of
prevailing and narrow ideas about knowledge production that tend to focus on how things work.
Where the arts contribute significantly is in our exploration and understanding of the human
condition – as individuals and as societies (Johnson, 2011).
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the work of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate
School of Education has been instrumental in positioning the arts as forms of cognition (ways
of knowing) that are recognised as complementary to other ways of knowing. Arts knowing is
often described as being provisional because context plays a role in the meaning of things, unlike
other ways of knowing, such as scientific knowing, that tend to offer conclusive or fixed truths
(Zhuo, 2020). Knowing in the arts is also conceptualised as embodied knowing, involving the
body – senses and actions (Johnson, 2011) – which again makes it appreciably different from
meaning-making in other disciplines, such as language and maths, that tend to involve discursive
conceptualisations. A number of significant studies have examined the distinctive intellectual
and behavioural processes associated with the way learning occurs in the arts (Orr & Shreeve,
2018; Winner & Hetland, 2008), including a codification of the ‘studio habits of mind’ (Hetland
et al., 2007). This work highlights that the pedagogical practices in the arts disciplines – the way
you teach – are required to be notably different from pedagogical practices in other disciplines.
In looking to capture the important dimensions of personal experience (Foreman-Wernet &
Dervin, 2013) researchers observe how the arts provide aesthetic pleasure, emotional stimulation
and vivid personal experience of the world. Deep absorption in an arts experience, as either
creator or audience, removes us from the habitual world and opens up new ways of seeing and
experiencing. This feeling of rapt absorption when all sense of time and place is lost is described
as flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) or captivation (McCarthy et al., 2004).
The personal experience of engaging in the arts is fundamental to creativity and
transformative thinking (Zhuo, 2020) because the arts are arenas for the exercise of imaginative
thinking. Imagination involves the application of the subjective reality of the artist or audience
to transcend the present, existing world to explore new possibilities and alternative realities
through mentally envisioning or (re)creating things that are not present (Zhuo, 2020). This
exercise of imagination is an abiding feature of artistic experience as both artist and audience.
The transformative and transcendent elements are both personally satisfying and an important
human capability that pervades every aspect of life.
Important to the arts experience is the process of grounding thoughts in action through the
‘craft of making’ (Adnams Jones, 2018; Christensen & Gomila, 2018; Gauntlett, 2011) and by
engaging the senses such as the sense of touch (Stanko-Kaczmarek & Kaczmarek, 2016). This
unique feature of the arts has been described as ‘the sense of being alive within the process; the
18
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George held her in his arms with a full heart, and wished that he had
words to tell her how much she was to him; but Betty understood
well enough. When the last farewells were said, and George was out
of sight of his mother’s brave smile and Betty’s tears, a sudden
revulsion of feeling came to him, as it does to all healthy young
natures. He had got to the very extremity of his despair, and there
was a strong reaction. He was essentially a boy of action, and action
was now before him. Indeed, he was no longer a boy, but a man,
with responsibilities upon him that seldom fall to young people of his
years. He had his surveyor’s license in his pocket, and upon the use
he made of it might depend not only issues of property, but of peace
and war; because he knew that the unsettled state of the frontier was
the real reason why Lord Fairfax meant to have the wild lands in his
grant surveyed. The day was bright, it was in the spring-time, and he
was well mounted on a good horse. Billy, riding a stout cart-horse
and carrying the saddle-bags, was behind him, and Rattler was
trotting by his side. Things might be worse, thought George, as he
struck into a canter and wondered that his heart was so blithe. He
would see his brother and sister that night, and little Mildred, and in a
few days more he would be again at Greenway with the earl and old
Lance; and he would have all the books he wanted to read, and
fencing whenever he liked. He wondered how much he had forgotten
of it; he had not fenced since leaving Mount Vernon at Christmas.
But neither had he read or done anything else, it seemed to George,
so blank was the time from the day he came home until then. Billy
hankered after the flesh-pots of Mount Vernon, where things were
conducted on a much grander scale than at the simple Ferry Farm
homestead. George heard him chuckling to himself, and, turning in
the saddle, asked:
“What pleases you so, Billy?”
“Tuckey, suh,” answered Billy, promptly, “wid sassages roun’ dee
necks—an’ oshters an’ sp’yar-ribs an’ chines an’ goose, an’ all dem
things dee black folks gits in de kitchen at Mount Vernon.”
It was a good forty-five miles to Mount Vernon, but George made it
by eight o’clock that night.
His brother and sister were delighted to see him, and little Mildred
had not forgotten him. After a traveller’s supper George told them all
his plans. He passed quickly over the giving up of his midshipman’s
warrant, merely saying, “My mother begged me not to leave her for
the sea, and I consented. But,” he added, after a pause, “it nearly
broke my heart.”
He was distressed to see his brother looking pale and thin, and still
more so at the despondent tone Laurence took about himself. He
would have had George go into the study, and there with him discuss
the present state of the place and its future management, as if he
were certain that one day it would be George’s; but this the boy flatly
refused.
“No, brother,” he said, “I can only inherit Mount Vernon through
misfortune to you and yours; and do you suppose I like to think about
that? Indeed I do not; and I neither think nor care about what you do
on the place, except that it shall be for your own satisfaction.”
The next morning George was off, much to the regret of his brother
and sister, and also to Billy, who had promised himself a regular
carnival in the Mount Vernon kitchen.
The road was the same that George had taken nearly five months
before, on his first expedition to Greenway Court. Then it had been
at the fall of the leaf, and now it was at the bursting of the spring.
Already the live-oaks and poplars were showing a faint and silvery
green, and in sheltered, sunny spots grass was sprouting. The
watercourses were high from the melting of the snow, and fording
them was not always without difficulty and even danger. At every
mile that George travelled his mind and heart gained a better
balance by quick degrees. He was sorry to be parted from his
mother and Betty, but he was at a time of life when he must try his
own strength, and he was the better for it. He stopped at the same
taverns that he had halted at when with Lord Fairfax. Billy proved
himself to be an excellent hostler as well as valet, and George did
not mean to forget mentioning to his mother, when he should have
an opportunity of sending a letter, how extremely useful Billy was. On
the fourth day, being well up in the mountains, they came to Lord
Fairfax’s coach-house, as it was called, but instead of stopping
George pushed on to Greenway Court, much to Billy’s disgust, who
had no taste for long journeys on traveller’s fare. On a March night,
that, although cool, had a touch of spring in the air, and under a
glorious moon George rode up to the door at Greenway Court, and
joyfully dismounted. Lord Fairfax did not know the exact day to
expect him, but knew he would arrive about that time. When
George’s loud rat-tat resounded upon the great oak doors, it seemed
the most natural thing in the world to have them opened by old
Lance, who said, as if he had seen George half an hour before:
“Good-evening, Mr. Washington; my lord is expecting you. Billy, take
the horses around to the stable.”
George walked in, and almost ran into the earl’s arms. Lord Fairfax
was overjoyed to see him, and, although he did not say much, his
pleasure shone in his eyes. George’s room was ready for him; there
was a fine young half-thoroughbred in the stables that was waiting
for George’s saddle and bridle to be put on him; Lance had some
bears’ paws for his supper whenever he should arrive; there were
some books on surveying imported from England for him. Had he
been Lord Fairfax’s son and heir he could not have been received
with greater consideration. The earl could not do enough for him. It
was:
“Lance, is Mr. Washington’s room prepared for him?”
“Yes, sir. It has been ready for a week.”
“And, Lance, Mr. Washington will probably want you in the morning
in the armory.”
“Yes, sir; I shall be at Mr. Washington’s orders,” and a dozen other
similar marks of tender forethought, more like a woman than a man.
George could not but think how easy it was to be amiable and high-
toned amid such surroundings.
As soon as supper was over George displayed proudly his license as
surveyor, and would have plunged into the affair of the surveys at
once, but Lord Fairfax gave the first intimation then that he did not
consider George a full-fledged man.
“Never mind for to-night, George. Very young gentlemen like you are
apt to go at things like a hunter at a five-barred gate, but you can
wait awhile. Besides, you must go to bed early after your journey, so
as to get sleep—a thing that growing boys cannot do without.”
George felt several years younger at this speech, and blushed a little
for his mannish airs, but the earl’s advice about going to bed was
sound, and in five minutes after finding himself in the great high-post
bed he was sleeping the sleep of healthy and active boyhood.
CHAPTER XIII
Some weeks were spent at Greenway Court, and George slipped
back into the same life he had led for so long in the autumn. Instead,
however, of reading in the evenings, Lord Fairfax and himself spent
the time in studying rude maps of the region to be explored, and
talking over the labors of the coming summer. The earl told George
that William Fairfax had heard of the proposed expedition, and was
so anxious to go as George’s assistant that his father was disposed
to gratify him if it could be arranged.
“But I shall not communicate with him until I have talked with you,
George,” said the earl, “for William, although a hardy youngster, and
with some knowledge of surveying, is still but a lad, and there might
be serious business in hand. However, this season’s surveys are not
to be far from here, so that if you care for his company I see no
reason why he should not go.”
“I should be very glad to have him,” replied George, blushing a little.
“I did a very unhandsome thing to William Fairfax while we were at
Mount Vernon at Christmas, and he was so manful about it that I
think more of him than ever, and I believe he would be an excellent
helper.”
“An unhandsome thing?” repeated the earl, in a tone of inquiry.
“Knocked him sprawling, sir, in my brother’s house. My brother was
very much offended with me, and I was ashamed of myself.”
“But you are good friends now?”
“Better than ever, sir, for William behaved as well as I behaved ill,
and if he is willing to come with me I shall be glad to have him.”
“I shall send an express, then, to Belvoir, and William will be here in
a few days. And now I have something else to propose to you. My
man Lance is very anxious to see the new country, although he has
not directly asked my permission to go; but the poor fellow has
served me so faithfully that I feel like indulging him. Only a lettered
man, my dear George, can stand with cheerfulness this solitude
month after month and year after year as I do, and, although Lance
is a man of great natural intelligence, he never read a book through
in his life, so that his time is often heavy on his hands. I think a few
months of mountaineering would be a godsend to him in big lonely
life up here, and I make no doubt at all that you would be glad to
have him with you.”
“Glad, sir! I would be more glad than I can say. But what is to
become of you without Lance?”
“I can get on tolerably well without him for a time,” replied the earl,
smiling. And the unspoken thought in his mind was, “And I shall feel
sure that there is a watchful and responsible person in company with
the two youngsters I shall send out.”
“And Billy, of course, will go with me,” said George, meditatively.
“Why, my lord, it will be a pleasure jaunt.”
“Get all the happiness you can out of it, George; I have no fear that
you will neglect your work.”
Within two weeks from that day William Fairfax had arrived, and the
party was ready to start. It was then the first of April, and not much
field-work could be done until May. But Lord Fairfax found it
impossible to hold in his young protégés. As for Lance, he was the
most eager of the lot to get away. Cut off from association with his
own class, nothing but his devotion to Lord Fairfax made the isolated
life at Greenway Court endurable to him; and this prospect of variety
in his routine, where, to a certain degree, he could resume his
campaigning habits, was a fascinating change to him.
The earl, with a smile, and a sigh at the loss of George and William’s
cheerful company and Lance’s faithful attendance, saw them set
forth at sunrise on an April morning. George, mounted on the new
half-bred horse that Lord Fairfax had given him, rode side by side
with William Fairfax, who was equally well mounted. He carried the
most precious of his surveying instruments and two little books,
closely printed, which the earl had given him the night before. One
was a miniature copy of Shakespeare’s plays, and the other a small
volume of Addison’s works.
Behind them, on one of the stout cobs commonly used by the
outriders on Lord Fairfax’s journeys to lower Virginia, rode Lance.
The old soldier was beaming with delight. He neither knew nor cared
anything about surveying, but he was off for what he called a
campaign, in company with two youths full of life and fire, and it
made him feel like a colt. He had charge of the commissary, and a
led-horse was loaded with the tent, the blankets, and such provisions
as they could carry, although they expected their guns and fishing-
rods to supply their appetites. Behind them all rode Billy on an old
cart-horse. Billy was very miserable. He had no taste for
campaigning, and preferred the fare of a well-stocked kitchen to
such as one could get out of woods and streams. George had been
so disgusted with Billy’s want of enterprise and devotion to the
kitchen rations that he had sternly threatened to leave the boy
behind, at which Billy had howled vociferously, and had got George’s
promise not to leave him. Nevertheless, a domestic life suited Billy
much better than an adventurous one.
What a merry party they were when they set off! Lord Fairfax stood
on the porch watching them as long as they were in sight, and when,
on reaching a little knoll, both boys turned and waved their hats at
him, he felt a very lonely old man, and went sadly into the quiet
house.
The party travelled on over fairly good mountain roads all that day,
and at night made their first camp. They were within striking distance
of a good tavern, but it was not in boy nature to seek comfort and
civilization when camping out was possible.
George realized the treasure he had in Lance when, in an
inconceivably short time, the tent was set up and supper was being
prepared. The horses were taken care of by George and William,
who got from a lonely settler’s clearing a feed of corn for them.
Meanwhile, with a kettle, a pan, and a gridiron, Lance had prepared
a supper fit for a king, so the hungry boys declared. Billy had actually
been made to go to work, and to move when he was spoken to. The
first thing he was told to do by Lance was to make a fire. Billy was
about to take his time to consider the proposition when Lance, who
was used to military obedience, instantly drew a ramrod from one of
the guns, and gave Billy a smart thwack across his knuckles with it.
Billy swelled with wrath. Lance he esteemed to be a “po’ white,” and,
as such, by no means authorized to make him stir.
“Look a-heah, man,” said Billy, loftily, “you ain’ got no business a-
hittin’ Marse George’s nigger.”
“I haven’t, eh?” was Lance’s rejoinder, giving Billy another whack.
“Do you make that fire, you rapscallion, or you get no supper. And
make it quick, d’ye hear? Oh, I wish I had had you in the Low
Countries, under my old drill-sergeant! You would have got what
Paddy gave the drum!”
Billy, thus admonished, concluded it would be better to mind, and
although he felt sure that “Marse George” would give him his supper,
yet he was not at present in high favor with that young gentleman,
and did not want to take any risks in the matter. However, he did not
really exert himself until Lance said, severely, “I have a great mind to
ask Mr. Washington to send you back to Greenway Court. It is not
too far.”
At that Billy suddenly became very industrious. Now George, on the
other side of the tent currying his horse, heard the whole affair, and
when they were called to supper he threw out a hint that his servitor
might be sent back; which threat, then and forever after, acted on
Billy like a galvanic battery.
George and William thought, as they sat by the fire in the woods
eating their rude but palatable supper, that they were the luckiest
creatures in the world. They were exhilarated rather than fatigued by
their day’s work. A roaring fire cast a red glare among the rocks and
trees, and warmed the keen, cold air of the spring night in the
mountains. Within their tent were piles of cedar boughs for beds, and
blankets to cover them.
William Fairfax had never heard any of Lance’s interesting stories,
although George had told him of them. When supper was over, and
the boys had an hour before turning in, George induced Lance to tell
of some of his adventures in the wars of the Spanish Succession.
They were deeply interesting, for Lance was a daring character, and
had seen many strange vicissitudes. Billy and Rattler, who were not
very much interested in the proceedings, dropped asleep early, and
George, throwing a blanket over Billy, let him lie and snore before
the fire until it was time to take to the tent. After a while Lance said:
“It was the Duke of Marlborough’s way to have all the lights out early;
and I think, Mr. Washington, if we want to make an early start, we
had better turn in now.”
George and William, nothing loath, betook themselves to their beds
of boughs within the tent. Lance preferred to lie just in the doorway,
the flap being left up for air. The boys noticed that he very carefully
took off his shoes and washed his feet in a pail of ice-cold water
brought from a spring near by.
“Why do you do that, Lance?” asked George, who thought it rather
severe treatment.
“Because that’s the way to keep your feet in order, sir, and to keep
from taking cold in a campaign; and I recommend you and Mr.
Fairfax to try it for a regular thing,” answered Lance.
Within two days they reached the point where they must leave their
horses and really begin their walk. They struck now into a
wilderness, full of the most sublime scenery, and with a purity of air
and a wild beauty of its own that would appeal to the most sluggish
imagination. George had found William Fairfax to be a first-rate
camping companion, and he proved to be an equally good assistant
in surveying. George was not only an accurate but a very rapid
surveyor, and William was equal to every demand made upon him.
Although they carried their guns along when at work, they shot but
little game, leaving that to Lance, and the trapping of birds and small
animals to Billy, who was always willing to forage for his dinner. They
met a few Indians occasionally. Many of the Indians had never seen
surveying instruments, and thought them to be something
miraculous.