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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13
Preface
F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

edition, was written to provide students from any aca
demic major with a basic knowledge of Earth’s natural features
Features
Comprehensive View
and the processes that affect them. The book also considers
human impacts on the environment and how environmental
of the Earth System
processes affect people. The essential content of introductory Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, introduces
physical geography is presented in a clear, condensed style and all major aspects of the Earth system, identifying physical phe
is an excellent format for courses that follow either the semes nomena and natural processes and stressing their characteris
ter or quarter system. tics, relationships, interactions, and distributions. The text cov
Earth is a complex system driven by interactions among ers a wide range of topics, including weather, climate, the
many factors that include climate, weather and the atmo atmosphere, water, the solid Earth, landforms, and our planet’s
sphere, organisms and their communities, water, landforms, living environments. With only 17 chapters, this textbook pro
and soils. Physical geography concerns understanding Earth vides beginning geography students with a thorough introduc
as an integrated system, how it functions, and how it varies tion to the essential content of physical geography.
over space and time. This knowledge is crucial for making
informed decisions about the use and preservation of Earth’s
natural environments and resources. Our interactions with
Engaging Graphics
the environment can benefit or endanger our own living Because studying geography is enhanced with visual aids, the
conditions as well those of future generations. The more we text includes a wide array of illustrations and photographs that
know about the Earth system and how it operates, the more help the concepts come alive. Locator maps accompany
effective we can be in working toward preservation, steward selected photographs to provide a spatial context and help stu
ship, and sustainability. At the college level, physical geogra dents identify the feature’s location on Earth. Clear and simple
phy is an ideal science course for students who would like to diagrams illuminate important concepts, and environmental
make informed decisions that consider environmental limits system illustrations provide a broad view of the features,
and possibilities as well as people’s wants and needs. inputs, and outputs of certain environmental systems, such as
Recognition of geography’s importance to society as a storms, glaciers, rivers, the flow of underground water, or the
major field of inquiry has grown along with environmental moving of continents by plate tectonics.
awareness. Geographic knowledge, skills, and techniques are
increasingly valued in the workplace. Physical geographers use Clear Explanations
the latest technological advances to observe, study, map, and
measure features and processes and their interactions as parts The text uses a clear narrative style to explain the processes,
of the Earth system. They work on modeling environmental physical features, and events that occur within, on, or above
responses and interactions. Physical geographers analyze digi Earth’s surface. The writing style, examples, and illustrations
tal images from satellites and aircraft and employ mapmaking facilitate rapid comprehension, making the study of physical
techniques (cartography), geographic information science geography meaningful and enjoyable.
(GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), and other tools for
environmental analysis and problem solving. Introduction to the
Fundamentals of Physical Geography’s focus on relevance
is supported by explanations of geographic tools and meth
Geographer’s Tools
ods. Practical applications that use geographic data, maps, Digital technologies have revolutionized our abilities to study
and satellite images, and numerous landscape photographs Earth’s natural processes and environments. A full chapter is
that illustrate important themes and examples are provided devoted to maps, digital imagery, and other data used by geo
in the textbook. Related activities along with the text mate graphers. Illustrations throughout include maps and images
rial encourage spatial thinking and give students opportu with descriptions and assessments of the environmental attri
nities to really apply the geographic knowledge they are butes shown in the scenes. There are also introductory discus
acquiring. sions of many techniques that geographers use for displaying
vii
viii Preface
and analyzing environmental features and processes, including ways of communicating those findings are continually being
remote sensing, geographic information systems, cartography, developed, and we work to incorporate those that are appro
and global positioning systems. priate for an introductory text.
Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

The text encourages students to think, conceptualize, hypoth As authors, we seek to include coverage of physical geographic
esize, and interact with the subject matter of physical geogra topics that will spark student interest. This involves relating recent
phy. Activities at the end of each chapter can be completed environmental concerns, findings, and natural disasters, examin
either individually or as a group and were designed to engage ing the conditions that led to those events, and explaining their
students and promote active learning. Review questions rein relation to physical geography. Some examples of recent natural
force concepts and prepare students for exams; practical appli disasters include deadly outbreaks of tornadoes; terrible wildfires
cation assignments require active solutions, such as sketching a in Colorado, California, and Texas; and serious drought or flood
diagram, performing calculations, or exploring geographic fea ing in many areas. The devastating earthquake-generated tsuna
tures using Google Earth. Questions following many figure mis in Japan and South Asia, as well as hurricane and storm dam
captions prompt students to either think beyond or use the age in the United States, continue to be discussed in terms of
map, graph, diagram, or image and give further consideration human impacts and how to avoid, or at least minimize, such
to the aspect presented. Detailed learning objectives at the tragic events in the future. Throughout the text, we cover the haz
beginning of the chapters provide a means for assessing com ards as well as the beauty of Earth’s natural processes.
prehension of the material. We continue to take an Earth systems approach, which is
reinforced throughout the text with examples and illustrations
at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. The concept of scale
Three Unique Perspectives in atmospheric processes has been given a stronger emphasis
Feature boxes appear in the chapters to illustrate three major than in the first edition. More attention is given to unusual
scientific perspectives of physical geography. Through a spa- weather conditions, and sections on the greenhouse effect and
tial perspective, physical geography focuses on understanding global climate change have been expanded. We have enhanced
and explaining the locations and distributions of natural phe discussions of the potential and predicted impacts of global
nomena. Our discipline also uses a physical science perspec- warming on multiple aspects of the Earth system, including
tive, which applies the knowledge and methods of the natural glaciers and sea level.
and physical sciences using the scientific method and systems Many other sections contain new or expanded material.
analysis. Through an environmental perspective, physical These include examples of human interactions with the envi
geographers consider impacts, influences, and interactions ronment (Chapter 1); a new topographic map interpretation
between human and natural components of the environment, exercise and an example of mapping with lasers, called lidar
that is, how the environment influences human life and how (Chapter 2); using solar energy (Chapter 3); the urban heat
humans affect the environment. island (Chapter 4); upper air circulation (Chapter 5); tornado
chasers (Chapter 6); introduced exotic species, such as Bur
mese pythons (Chapter 9); measurement of seismic waves
Map Interpretation Series (Chapter 10); a new topographic map interpretation exercise
Developing map interpretation skills is a priority in physical on volcanic landforms (Chapter 11); sensitive soils and the
geography, and this text includes activities based on full-color interplay of people and slope processes (Chapter 12); the
maps, generally printed at their original scale. These activities nature of springs (Chapter 13); flood hazards (Chapter 14);
help students develop valuable map-reading skills and rein differences between humid- and arid-region streams (Chapter
force the topical material presented. The map interpretation 15); recent dramatic changes in glaciers (Chapter 16); and tsu
features can be incorporated into lab activities and they can namis and changes in global sea level (Chapter 17).
help link lectures to the textbook and to practical applications.
These include end of chapter topographic map and image
examples and the weather map interpretation.
Enhanced Illustration Program
Topics that were revised or expanded required including many
new figures and updating others, including photographs, satel
New in This Edition lite images, and maps, often with detailed invitations for inter
Revising Fundamentals of Physical Geography for a second edi pretation by students. This edition has many new or improved
tion involved thoughtful consideration of the input from graphs, maps, and diagrams, and about 150 new photographs.
many reviewers and adopters. Not only is our planet ever- Three new activities in the Map Interpretation series deal
changing, but so are the many ways that we observe, measure, with reading topographic maps (Chapter 2), a comparative
and analyze Earth’s characteristics and environments and the analysis of weather maps and corresponding satellite images
processes that affect them. New scientific findings and new (Chapter 4), and volcanic terrain (Chapter 11).
Preface ix
New Features To Integrate the Illustrations

with the Written Text
Understanding Map Content
The photographs, maps, aerial and satellite images, scientific
Thematic maps have the ability to present a great deal of visualizations, block diagrams, graphs, and line drawings
geographic data in graphic form. The goal of the Under- clearly illustrate important concepts in physical geography.
standing Map Content is to help students understand the Text discussions are strongly linked to the illustrations,
information, geographic/spatial representations, and data encouraging students to examine them in graphic form and
presented in thematic maps. Students are encouraged to visualize physical processes and phenomena. Some examples of
answer questions based on map content. This opportunity topics that are clearly explained by integrating visuals and text
for practice will increase students’ appreciation for the include map and image interpretation (Chapter 2), the seasons
amount of useful information contained in a thematic map and Earth’s energy budget (Chapter 3), wind systems (Chapter
and enhance their ability to analyze and comprehend the 4), storms (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9), plate tectonics
geographic data and spatial relationships presented within (Chapter 10), river systems (Chapter 14), glaciers (Chapter 16),
thematic maps. These activities encourage true map under and coastal processes (Chapter 17).
standing and illustrate the usefulness of map interpretation
skills not only for studying geography but also throughout
our daily lives. To Communicate the Nature
of Geography
Thinking Geographically The nature of physical geography and its three major scientific
Most chapters dealing with Earth surface processes and land perspectives (spatial, physical, and environmental) are dis
forms include map activities in the Map Interpretation series. cussed in Chapter 1. In subsequent chapters, all three perspec
These continue in this edition with full-size topographic map tives are stressed. For example, location is a dominant topic in
excerpts presented at the end of the chapters on volcanoes, Chapter 2 and remains an important theme throughout the
solutional topography (karst), rivers, desert landforms, gla text. Spatial distributions are emphasized as the elements of
ciers, and coasts. These chapters also include new landscape weather and climate are discussed in Chapters 4 through 6.
image interpretation activities in the Thinking Geographi- The changing Earth system is a central focus in the text and
cally series. Students are asked to interpret a landscape image, featured in Chapters 1, 8, 16, and 17. Characteristics of climate
which features a scene related to the chapter content. These regions and their associated environments are presented in
offer practice in looking closely at and visually evaluating a Chapters 7 and 8. Spatial interactions are demonstrated in dis
landscape to recognize the geographic features present, inter cussions of weather systems (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9),
pret their significance, assess how they may be related, and and volcanic and tectonic activity (Chapter 11). Karst (Chapter
think about how the landforms and landscapes developed. 13), arid (Chapter 15), glacial (Chapter 16), and coastal (Chap
ter 17) landforms covary with specific environmental variables,
such as soluble rock (karst), past or present climates (karst,
arid, glacial), or the interface of land, sea, and air (coastal).
Fundamentals of Feature boxes in every chapter present interesting and impor
Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.
Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

To Meet the Academic Needs of Introductory Physical Science
of the Student Courses
In content and style, Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Sec Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, offers a full
ond Edition, was written specifically to meet the needs of stu chapter on the scientific tools and methodologies of physical
dents, the end users of this textbook. Students can use the geography. Earth as a system and the natural processes affecting
knowledge and understanding obtained through the text and physical phenomena beneath, at, and above Earth’s surface are
its activities to help them make informed decisions involving examined in detail. Use of the scientific method and scientific
the environment at the local, regional, and global scale. The explanations are stressed. End-of-chapter questions include
book also considers the needs of beginning students or those interpreting graphs of environmental data (or graphing data for
with little or no background in the study of physical geogra study), quantitative analysis, classification, calculating environ
phy or other Earth sciences. Examples from throughout the mental variables, and hands-on map interpretation. Models
world illustrate important concepts and help students bridge and systems are frequently cited in discussions of important
the gap between theory and practical application. concepts, and scientific classification is presented in several
x Preface
chapters. Some of these topics include air masses, tornadoes, What Will You Find?
and hurricanes (Chapter 6); climates (Chapters 7 and 8); bioge ■■ Simplicity at every step. A desktop-inspired interface features
ography and soils (Chapter 9); water resources (Chapter 13); riv drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools that take you
ers (Chapter 14); and coasts (Chapter 17). through content creation and management with ease.
Physical geography plays a central role in understanding ■■ Full-featured test generator. Create ideal assessments with
environmental aspects and issues, human–environment interac your choice of 15 question types (including true/false, mul
tions, and approaches to environmental problem solving. The tiple choice, opinion scale/likert, and essay). Multi-language
students in this course include the professional geographers of support, an equation editor and unlimited metadata help
tomorrow. Spreading the message about the importance, rele ensure your tests are complete and compliant.
vance, and career potential of geography in today’s world is ■■ Cross-compatible capability. Import and export content
essential to the strength of geography at educational levels from into other systems.
pre-collegiate through university. Fundamentals of Physical Geog-
raphy, Second Edition, seeks to reinforce that message. Instructor Companion Website Everything you
need for your course in one place! This collection of book-
specific lecture and class tools is available online via www.
Ancillaries cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint presen
tations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and more.
Instructors and students alike will greatly benefit from the
comprehensive ancillary package that accompanies this text.
Student Resources
Instructor Resources Global Geoscience Watch Use Global Geosci
ence Watch to stay current in your course. Updated several
Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a times a day, this resource gives you access to the latest in
day, the Global Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for formation from trusted academic sources, news outlets, and
classroom discussion and research projects for all things geosci magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary
ence. Broken into the four key course areas (Geography, Geol sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more. The Global
ogy, Meteorology, and Oceanography), instructors can easily Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for all your re
get to the most relevant content available for their courses. search needs.
Instructors and their students will have access to the latest
information from trusted academic sources, news outlets, and Geology CourseMate Make the most of your study
magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary time by accessing everything you need to succeed in one place.
sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more. Read your textbook; take notes; review flashcards; watch vid
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CourseMate goes beyond the book to deliver what your stu can be applied to the everyday problems in the world around
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reading, map and graph interpretation, three-dimensional think
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Cognero™ A flexible, online system that allows you to:
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■■ create multiple test versions in an instant Acknowledgments
■■ deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom or wherever
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, would
you want
not have been possible without the encouragement and assis
tance of editors, friends, and colleagues from throughout the
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Preface xi
Sarkisian, Content Developer; Stefanie Beeck, Media Interstate Park–New Jersey Section; Justin Wilkinson, Earth
Developer; and Victor Luu, Product Assistant. Sciences, NASA Johnson Space Center; Hajo Eicken, Alfred
Photos courtesy of: Rainer Duttmann, University of Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research; U.S. Fish
Kiel; Richard Earl, Texas State University; Dan Satterfield, and Wildlife Service; Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge;
WOBC, Salisbury, MD; Erin Himmel/National Park Service; Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal World Atlas of
Delphine Farmer, Colorado State University; Lynn Betts/ Desertification. Greg Nadon, Ohio University, L. Michael Tra
NRCS; Melissa Gabrielson, Chuck Young, and Fred Broer passo, Western Kentucky University.
man, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bob DeGross. Everglades Colleagues who reviewed this text and related Physical
National Park; J. Good, National Park Service; Michael Geography editions include Peter Blanken, University of Colo
McCollum/McCollum Associates; Jason Neely, Polar Field rado; J. Michael Daniels, University of Wyoming; James
Services; Christoph W. Borst and Gary L. Kinsland, University Doerner, University of Northern Colorado; Richard Earl,
of Louisiana at Lafayette; VORTEX II/Sean Waugh, NOAA/ Texas State University; Ryan Fogt, Ohio University; Greg Gas
NSSL; Michael Studinger, NASA; John Shea. FEMA; USGS ton, University of North Alabama; Chris Houser, University
Alaska Volcano Observatory, D. Josefczyk; National Scenic of West Florida; Paul Hudson, University of Texas; Debra
Byways/Digital Library; Sasan Saatchi NASA/JPL-Caltech; Morimoto, Merced College; Alan Paul Price, University of
Wind Cave National Park; Emily Petersen; Parv Sethi; Martha Wisconsin; Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University; and
Moran, White River National Forest; Mark Muir, Fishlake Richard W. Smith, Harford Community College.
National Forest; National Park Service, Cape Cod National The comments and suggestions of all of the previously
Seashore; Mark Reid, USGS; Dawn Endico; Gary P. Fleming, mentioned individuals have been instrumental in developing
Virginia Natural Heritage Program; Tessy Shirakawa, Mesa this text. Countless others, both known and unknown, deserve
Verde National Park; Bill Case, Chris Wilkerson, and Michael heartfelt thanks for their interest and support over the years.
Vanden Berg, Utah Geological Survey; Center for Cave and Despite the painstaking efforts of the reviewers, there will
Karst Studies, Western Kentucky University; Hari Eswaran, always be questions of content, approach, and opinion associ
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; Richard ated with the text. The authors wish to make it clear that they
Hackney, Western Kentucky University; David Hansen, Uni accept full responsibility for all that is included in Fundamen-
versity of Minnesota; Susan Jones, Nashville, Tennessee; Bob tals of Physical Geography, Second Edition.
Jorstad, Eastern Illinois University; National Agricultural
Imagery Program/Texas Natural Resources Information Sys James F. Petersen
tem; Parris Lyew-Ayee, Oxford University, UK; L. Elliot Jones, Dorothy Sack
U.S. Geological Survey; Anthony G. Taranto Jr., Palisades Robert E. Gabler
Brief Contents
1 Physical Geography: Earth Environments and Systems 1
2 Representations of Earth 21
3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75
5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101
6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127
7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

Climate Regions 153
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

Change 191
9 Biogeography and Soils 223
10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283
12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313
13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341
14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363
15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393
16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421
17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449
xii
Contents
1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32
Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

Thematic Maps 35
Systems 1 Topographic Maps 36
The Study of Geography 2 Modern Mapmaking 37
Physical Geography 3 Geographic Information Systems 37
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Using Vertical
Technology, Tools, and Methods 3
Exaggeration to Portray Topography 39
Major Perspectives in Physical Geography 5
Remote Sensing of the Environment 40
The Spatial Perspective 5
Digital Imaging and Photography 40
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Natural Regions 7
Specialized Remote Sensing 41
The Physical Science Perspective 8
Multispectral Remote Sensing 42
The Environmental Perspective 9
Map Interpretation: Topographic Maps 44
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective:
Human–Environment Interactions 10
Models and Systems 13 3 Solar Energy and
Systems Analysis 14
How Systems Work 14
Atmospheric Heating 47
Equilibrium in Earth Systems 15 The Earth–Sun System 48
The Earth in Space 16 Insolation, Sun Angle, and Duration 49
Earth’s Movements 16 The Seasons 50
Physical Geography and You 18 Latitude Lines Delimiting Solar Energy 53
Passive Solar Energy, an Ancient Concept 54
2 Representations Variations of Insolation with Latitude 55
of Earth 21 Characteristics of the Atmosphere 56
Composition of the Atmosphere 56
Maps and Location on Earth 22
Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere 59
Earth’s Shape and Size 22
Energy Interactions 60
Globes and Great Circles 24
Energy Transfer Processes 60
Latitude and Longitude 24
Water, Energy, and Heat 61
The Geographic Grid 25
Earth’s Energy Budget 62
Parallels and Meridians 26
Heating the Atmosphere 62
Longitude and Time 26
Earth’s Energy Balance 63
The International Date Line 26
Air Temperature 64
The U.S. Public Lands Survey System 27
Temperature and Heat 64
The Global Positioning System 29
Short-Term Variations in Temperature 64
Maps and Map Projections 30
Vertical Temperature Distributions 66
Advantages of Maps 30
Controls of Surface Temperature 68
Limitations of Maps 31
Surface Temperature Distributions 70
Examples of Map Projections 31
Annual Temperature Changes 73
xiii
xiv contents
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105
Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

Humidity 106
Atmospheric Pressure 76 Atmospheric Moisture Sources 107
Air Pressure, Altitude, and Elevation 77 Evaporation Rates 107
Cells of High and Low Pressure 77 Potential Evapotranspiration 108
Horizontal Pressure Variations 78 Condensation, Fog, and Clouds 109
Mapping Pressure Distribution 78 Condensation Nuclei 109
Wind 79 Fog 109
Pressure Gradients and Wind 79 Clouds 111
Wind Terminology 79 Adiabatic Heating and Cooling 113
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Instability and Stability 113
Harnessing the Wind’s Energy 80
Precipitation Processes 114
The Coriolis Effect and Wind 81
Forms of Precipitation 115
Cyclones, Anticyclones, and Wind Direction 82
Factors Necessary for Precipitation 116
Global Pressure and Wind Systems 83 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
A Model of Global Pressure 83 The Lifting Condensation Level 118
A Model of Atmospheric Circulation 84 Precipitation Distributions 122
Conditions within Latitudinal Zones 85 Distribution over Time 122
Trade Winds 85 Latitudinal Distribution 122
Subtropical Highs 85 Precipitation Variability 124
Westerlies 85
Polar Winds 86
Seasonal Variations in Pressure and Wind 86 6 Air Masses and Weather
Latitudinal Migration with the Seasons 88 Systems 127
Longitudinal Variations in Pressure and Wind 89
Air Masses 128
Upper Air Winds and Jet Streams 89
Air Mass Modification and Stability 128
Regional and Local Wind Systems 90
North American Air Masses 129
Monsoon Winds 90
Fronts 131
Local Winds 92
Cold Fronts 131
Thinking Geographically 94
Warm Fronts 131
Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions 94
Stationary and Occluded Fronts 132
Ocean Currents 94
Atmospheric Disturbances 133
El Niño 97
Anticyclones and Cyclones 133
El Niño and the Southern Oscillation 97
Middle-Latitude Cyclones 134
North Atlantic Oscillation 98
Hurricanes 138
Snowstorms and Blizzards 143
5 Humidity, Condensation, Thunderstorms 143
and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

Tornado Chasers and Tornado Spotters 144
The Hydrologic Cycle 103 Tornadoes 146
The Water Budget 104 Weather Forecasting 149
Map Interpretation: Weather Maps 150
contents xv
5 years later
7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207
Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

The Recent Ice Age: The Pleistocene 208
Mesothermal Climate Methods for Revealing Past Climates 208
Regions 153 Causes of Climate Change 210
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Climate Change
Classifying Climates 154 and Its Impact on Coastlines 214
The Thornthwaite System 155 Global Warming 216
The Köppen System 156 Future Climates 218
Climate Regions 160 Recommendations for the Future 219
Climographs 161
Climate and Vegetation 161
Humid Tropical Climate Regions 164 9 Biogeography and
Tropical Rainforest and Tropical Monsoon Soils 223
Climates 164
Ecosystems 224
Tropical Savanna Climate 169
Ecosystem Components 224
Arid Climate Regions 171
Trophic Structure 225
Desert Climates 172
Energy Flow and Biomass 226
Desertification 176 Productivity 226
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Invasive
Steppe Climates 176
Exotic Species: Burmese Pythons 228
Mesothermal Climate Regions 178
Ecological Niche 229
Mediterranean Climate 179
Succession and Climax Communities 231
Humid Subtropical Climate 183
Succession 231
Marine West Coast Climate 185
The Climax Community 232
Environmental Controls 233
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Climatic Factors 234
Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Biogeography 236
Regions: Climate Soil and Topography 238
Change 191 Natural Catastrophes 238
Biotic Factors 238
Microthermal Climate Regions 192
Human Impact on Ecosystems 239
Humid Microthermal Generalizations 192
Soils and Soil Development 240
Humid Continental Climates 192
Major Soil Components 240
Subarctic Climate 197
Soil Characteristics 242
Polar Climate Regions 200
Development of Soil Horizons 245
Tundra Climate 200
Factors Affecting Soil Formation 246
Ice-Sheet Climate 202
Parent Material 247
Human Activity in Polar Regions 203
Organic Activity 247
Highland Climate Regions 204
Climate 247
The Nature of Mountain Climates 205
Land Surface 249
Adaptation to Highland Climates 206
Time 249
xvi contents
Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

Laterization 250 Tensional Tectonic Forces 289
Podzolization 250 Shearing Tectonic Forces 290
Calcification 251 Relationships between Rock Structure and
Regimes of Local Importance 252 Topography 291
Soil Classification 252 Thinking Geographically 292
Ecosystems and Soils: Critical Natural Earthquakes 292
Resources 252 Measuring Earthquake Size 292
Earthquake Hazards 294
10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

the Distribution of Earthquake Intensity 296
Tectonics 255 Igneous Processes and Landforms 298
Volcanic Eruptions 298
Earth’s Planetary Structure 256
Volcanic Landforms 299
Core 257
Plutonism and Intrusions 306
Mantle 258
Distribution of Tectonic and Volcanic
Crust 258
Activity 306
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 259
Map Interpretation: Volcanic Landforms 310
Minerals 260
Rocks 261
Igneous Rocks 261 12 Weathering and Mass
Sedimentary Rocks 263
Metamorphic Rocks 267
Wasting 313
The Rock Cycle 268 Nature of Exogenic Processes 314
Thinking Geographically 269 Weathering 316
Plate Tectonics 269 Physical Weathering 316
Seafloor Spreading and Convection Currents 270 Chemical Weathering 320
Tectonic Plate Movement 272 Variability in Weathering 321
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Paleomagnetism: Climate Factors 322
Evidence of Earth’s Ancient Geography 276 Rock Type 323
Hot Spots in the Mantle 276 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Growth of Continents 277 Expanding and Contracting Soils 324
Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Differential Weathering and Erosion 326
Mass Wasting 328
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Materials and Motion 329
Processes and Slow Mass Wasting 330
Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

Landforms and Geomorphology 284 Weathering, Mass Wasting, and the
Tectonic Forces, Rock Structure, and Landscape 338
Landforms 286
contents xvii
13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384
Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Stream Hazards 385
Nature of Underground Water 342 Importance of Rivers and Lakes 387
Subsurface Water Zones and the Water Table 343 Quantitative Fluvial Geomorphology 389
Groundwater Storage and Movement 344 Map Interpretation: Fluvial Landforms 390
Springs 346
Using Groundwater Resources 347
Wells 347 15 Arid Region Landforms
Reducing Reserves 348 and Eolian Processes 393
Groundwater Quality 349
Surface Runoff in the Desert 394
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Acid Mine Drainage 350
Water as a Geomorphic Agent in Arid
Lands 396
Geothermal Water 350
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Erosion 397
Landform Development by Subsurface Water
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Deposition 400
and Solution 352
Wind as a Geomorphic Agent 404
Karst Landforms 353
Wind Erosion and Transportation 405
Limestone Caverns and Cave Features 356
Wind Deposition 407
Sand Dunes 407
Map Interpretation: Karst Topography 360
Types of Sand Dunes 409
14 Fluvial Processes and Dune Protection 411
Landforms 363 :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Off-Road
Vehicle Impacts On Desert Landscapes 412
Surface Runoff 364 Loess Deposits 412
The Stream System 366 Landscape Development in Deserts 414
Drainage Basins 366 Map Interpretation: Desert Basin Landforms 418
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Drainage Basins
as Critical Natural Regions 368
Drainage Density and Drainage Patterns 370 16 Glacial Systems and
Flow Properties 371 Landforms 421
Stream Discharge 371
Stream Energy 373 Glacier Formation and the Hydrologic
Fluvial Processes 375 Cycle 422
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Stream Erosion 375
Glacial Ice Is Blue! 424
Stream Transportation 375
Types of Glaciers 424
Stream Deposition 376
Moving Ice as a Geomorphic Agent 426
Channel Patterns 379
How Glaciers Flow 426
Fluvial Landscapes 380
Glacial Erosion and Sediment 427
Features of the Upper Course 380
Alpine Glaciers 427
Features of the Middle Course 381
Equilibrium and the Glacial Budget 428
Features of the Lower Course 381
Erosional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 430
Deltas 383
Depositional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 432
Base-Level Changes and Tectonism 384
xviii contents
Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

Existing Continental Glaciers 436 Coastal Erosional Landforms 459
Pleistocene Glaciation 437 Coastal Deposition 460
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciation 438 Coastal Depositional Landforms 462
Thinking Geographically 439 Types of Coasts 465
Depositional Landforms of Continental Islands and Coral Reefs 468
Glaciation 439 Thinking Geographically 469
Glacial Lakes 443 Change over Time 471
Periglacial Landscapes 444 Map Interpretation: Passive-Margin Coastlines 472
Map Interpretation: Alpine Glaciation 446
Appendix A SI Units 475
17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

Appendix C The Köppen Climate Classification
and Landforms 449 System 479
The Coastal Zone 450 Appendix D The 12 Soil Orders of the Natural
Origin and Nature of Waves 451 Resource Conservation Service
Tides 451 (NRCS) 482
Tsunamis 453 Appendix E Understanding and Recognizing Some
Wind Waves 454 Common Rocks 485
Waves in Shallow Water 455 Glossary 491
Wave Breaking 455 Index 505
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective: Tsunami
Forecasts and Warnings 456
Wave Refraction and Littoral Drifting 458
Author Biographies
James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

State University–San Marcos, Texas. He is a broadly trained physical geographer
with strong interests in geomorphology and earth science education. He enjoys
writing about topics relating to physical geography for the public, particularly en
vironmental interpretation, and has written a landform guidebook for Enchanted
Rock State Natural Area in central Texas and a number of field guides. He is a
strong supporter of geographic education, having served as president of the Na
tional Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) in 2000 after more than
15 years of service to that organization. He has also written and served as a senior
consultant for nationally published educational materials at levels from middle school through university
and has led many workshops for geography teachers. In 2011, he was awarded the George J. Miller
Distinguished Service Award for distinguished service to geographic education, the highest honor given
by the NCGE.
Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Athens, Ohio, is a physical geographer who specializes in geomorphology. Her re
search emphasizes arid region landforms, including geomorphic evidence of pa
leolakes, which contributes to paleoclimate reconstruction. She has published
research results in a variety of professional journals, academic volumes, and Utah
Geological Survey maps and reports. She also has research interests and publica
tions on the history of geomorphology and the impact of off-road vehicles. Her
work has been funded by the National Geographic Society, NSF, Association of
American Geographers (AAG), American Chemical Society, and other sources.
She is active in professional organizations, having served as chair of the AAG Geomorphology Specialty
Group, chair of the AAG History of Geography Specialty Groups, and in several other offices for the
AAG, Geological Society of America, and History of Earth Sciences Society. She enjoys teaching and
research, and has received the Outstanding Teacher Award from Ohio University’s College of Arts and
Sciences.
Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Professor Gabler has taught geography at Hunter College, City of New York;
Columbia University; and Western Illinois University, in addition to 5 years in
public elementary and secondary schools. At times in his career at Western Illinois
he served as chair of the Geography and Geology Department, chair of the
Geography Department, and director of International Programs for the university.
He received three University Presidential Citations for teaching excellence and
university service, served two terms as chair of the Faculty Senate, edited the
Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical Society, and authored numerous articles in state
and national periodicals. He is a past president of the Illinois Geographical Society, former director of
coordinators and past president of the National Council for Geographic Education, and the recipient of
the NCGE George J. Miller Distinguished Service Award.
xix
Physical Geography: Earth
Environments and Systems 1
:: Outline
The Study of Geography
Major Perspectives in
Physical Geography
Models and Systems
The Earth in Space
Physical Geography
and You
“The Blue Marble,” lunar

astronauts’ view of Earth:
an oasis of life in the
vastness of space.
NASA
2 C H A P T E R 1 • P H Y S I C A L G E O G R A P H Y: E A R T H E N V I R O N M E N T S A N D S Y S T E M S
:: Objectives
When you complete this chapter you should be able to: ■■ Conceptualize Earth as a system of interacting parts that respond to
■■ Explain physical geography as a discipline and profession that con- both natural and human-induced processes.
siders both the natural world and the human interface with the natu- ■■ Discuss several interactions between humans and their environ-
ral world. ments, including examples that are advantageous and others that are
■■ Understand how geographic information and techniques are directly detrimental or risky.
applicable in many career fields. ■■ Recognize how knowledge of physical geography invites better un-
■■ Describe the three major perspectives of physical geography: the derstanding of our environment.
spatial perspective, the physical science perspective, and the envi-
ronmental perspective.
In 1972, as the last astronaut mission to the moon was on its spatial science (the science of locational space) because it
way, the three crew members looked back to photograph a spec- includes analyzing and explaining the locations, distributions,
tacular view of Earth. Seeing our planet surrounded by the patterns, variations, and similarities or differences among phe-
emptiness of space illustrated the fact that life on Earth depends nomena on Earth’s surface.
on self-contained environmental and natural resources that are Geographers study the processes that influenced Earth’s land-
not limitless. Today, it is said that more people have seen this scapes in the past, how they continue to affect them today, how
photograph than any other in history. This iconic Earth image landscapes and environments might change in the future, and the
continues to be an internationally known symbol for environ- significance or impact of these changes. Geography is distinctive
mental awareness, and it has increased our concern for conserv- among the sciences by virtue of its definition and central purpose,
ing our planet’s resources and environments. and it can involve studying any topic related to the scientific anal-
Viewed from far enough away to see an entire hemi- ysis of natural or human processes on Earth (■ Fig. 1.1).
sphere, Earth is beautiful and intriguing. From this perspective
we can begin to appreciate the big picture, a global view of our
planet’s physical geography. If we look carefully, we can recog- PHYSICAL SCIENCE
nize geographic patterns shaped by the processes that make
Geology
our world dynamic and ever changing. Characteristics of the
gy Bio
oceans, atmosphere, landmasses, and evidence of life, revealed olo log
or y
by vegetated regions, are apparent. e te Geomorphology
M
From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

and almost limitless. In contrast, viewing the big picture reveals Climatology Biogeography
Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the
Pe
y
no m
do
geogr
vast dark emptiness of space. Except for the external addition of ical ap
logy
ys h
Astro
Mathematical Soils
energy from the sun, our planet is a self-contained system that
Ph
Geography Geography
has all the requirements to sustain life. The nature of Earth and Environment
its environments provide the life-support systems for all living Geography
People
things. It is important to gain an understanding of the planet Social Political
nce
Socio
Geography Geography
that sustains us, and learn about the components and processes Hu
hy
Scie
ma p
that operate to change or regulate the Earth system. Learning n geogra
logy
© Cengage Learning
ical
the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

lit
Economic Cultural
Po
answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

and processes interact to develop the environmental diversity on Historical
Ec g
our planet is the goal of a course in physical geography.
y
on Geography
om olo
op
i cs thr
An
Histor y
The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE
Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

related to other disciplines and share some of their interests.
Geography refers to the examination, description, and expla- Geographers apply their own unique perspectives and
nation of Earth—its variability from place to place, how places approaches to these areas of study.
and features change over time, and the processes responsible What advantage might a geographer have when working with
for these variations and changes. Geography is often called the other physical scientists seeking a solution to a problem?
THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 3
© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
■ FIGURE 1.2 Physical geographers study the elements and processes that affect natural environments.
These include rock structures, landforms, soils, vegetation, climate, weather, and human impacts. This is in
the White River National Forest, Colorado.
What physical geography characteristics can you observe in this scene?
Geographers are also interested in how to divide areas Earth’s surface landscapes. Biogeographers study plants, ani-
into meaningful regions, which are areas identified by dis- mals, and environments, examining the processes that
tinctive characteristics that distinguish them from surround- influence, limit, or facilitate their characteristics, distribu-
ing areas. Physical, human, or a combination of factors can tions, and changes over time. Many soil scientists are geogra-
define a region. Regional geography concentrates on the char- phers who map and analyze soil types, determine the
acteristics of a region or of multiple regions. suitability of soils for certain uses, and work to conserve
soil resources.
Geographers are also widely involved in the study of
Physical Geography water bodies and water resources, including their processes,
Physical geography encompasses the processes and features movements, impacts, quality, and other characteristics. They
that make up Earth, including human activities where they can serve as hydrologists, oceanographers, or glaciologists. Many
interface with the environment. Geographers generally take a geographers also function as water resource managers, working
holistic approach, meaning that they often consider both the to ensure that lakes, watersheds, springs, and groundwater
natural and human phenomena that are relevant to understand- sources are adequate in quantity and quality to meet human
ing aspects of our planet. Physical geographers are concerned and environmental needs.
with nearly all aspects of Earth and are trained to view a natural Like other scientists, physical geographers typically apply
environment in its entirety, as well as how it functions as a unit the scientific method as they seek to learn about aspects of
(■ Fig. 1.2). Most physical geographers focus their expertise on Earth. The scientific method involves seeking the answers to
one or two specialties. For example, many meteorologists and cli- questions and determining the validity of new ideas by objec-
matologists have studied geography. Meteorologists are interested tively testing all pertinent evidence and facts that affect the
in the processes that affect daily weather, and they forecast issue being studied (■ Fig. 1.3). Using the scientific method,
weather conditions. Climatologists are interested in regional cli- new ideas or proposed answers to questions are only accepted
mates, the averages and extremes of long-term weather data, as valid if they are clearly supported by the evidence.
understanding climate change, climate hazards, and the human
and environmental impacts of climate.
Geomorphology is the study of the nature and develop-
Technology, Tools, and Methods
ment of landforms and is a major subfield of physical geog- The technologies that are used for learning about the physical
raphy. Geomorphologists are interested in understanding geography of our planet are rapidly changing. The abilities of
variations in landforms and the processes that produce computer systems to capture, process, model, and display
spatial data—functions that can now be performed on a per-

sonal computer—were only a dream in the 1980s. Today, the
Internet provides access to information and images on virtually
Make observation any topic. Continuous satellite imaging of Earth has been
that requires
explanation
ongoing for more than 30 years, which has given us a better
perspective on environmental changes. Using various energy
sources to produce images from space, we are able to see, mea-
sure, monitor, and map processes and the effects of certain
processes, including many that are invisible to the naked eye.
Propose
Graphic displays of environmental data and information are
hypothesis to becoming more vivid and striking as a result of sophisticated
explain the methods of data processing and visual representation. Increased
observation
computer power allows the development and display of high-
resolution images, three-dimensional scenes, and animated
images of Earth’s features, changes, and processes (■ Fig. 1.4).
Determine a
Go to
Oceanografic Office’s Visualization Laboratory; and cloud layer from SSEC, University of
Image by R.B. Husar, Washington University; land layer from the SeaWiFS Project; fire
technique and
alternative
collect data to
maps from the European Space Agency; sea surface temperature from the Naval
hypothesis
test hypothesis
Use technique to
test hypothesis
Wisconsin
Test supports Test rejects
hypothesis hypothesis ■ FIGURE 1.4 This computer-generated, three-dimensional
model of Antarctica was made by combining a 50-year history of
temperature records from locations on the continent with modern
satellite images of the ice surface. The red area shows the region
that has experienced the largest temperature increase in response
to global warming.
© Cengage Learning
Accept hypothesis
What global warming impacts have caused concern in recent
(explanation for
observation) years?
■ FIGURE 1.3 The scientific method, widely applicable in physical geography, involves the steps shown
here.
1. Making an observation that requires an explanation. On a trip to the mountains, you notice that it
gets colder as you go up in elevation. Is that just a result of local conditions on the day you were there, or is
it a universal relationship?
2. Restating the observation as a hypothesis. Here is an example: As we go higher in elevation, the
temperature gets cooler. (The answer may seem obvious, but although it is generally true, there are
exceptions depending on environmental conditions, which are discussed in later chapters.)
3. Determining a technique for testing the hypothesis and collecting necessary data. The next step
is finding a technique for evaluating data and facts that relate to the hypothesis. In this case, you would
gather temperature and elevation data (taken at about the same time for all data points) in the study area.
4. Applying the technique or strategy to test the validity of the hypothesis. Here we discover if the
hypothesis is supported by adequate evidence. The technique will recommend either accepting or rejecting
the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is rejected, we can test an alternative hypothesis, or we might just discover
that our hypothesized relationship is not valid.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 5
The Spatial Perspective

A central theme in geography is illustrated by its definition as
the spatial science. Physical geographers have many divergent
interests, but they share the common goals of understanding
and explaining spatial variations on Earth’s surface. The fol-
lowing examples illustrate spatial factors that geographers typi-
cally consider and the problems they address.
Location Geographic studies often begin with locational

information. Features are located using one of two methods:
absolute location, which is expressed by a coordinate system
(or address), or relative location, which identifies where a
feature exists in relation to something else, usually a fairly
well known location. For example, Pikes Peak, in the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado, with an elevation of 4302 meters
(14,115 ft), has a location of latitude 38°51 north and longi-
© Ashley Cooper/Corbis
tude 105°03 west. This is an example of an absolute location.

However, it could also be stated that Pikes Peak is 36 kilome-
ters (22 mi) west of Colorado Springs (■ Fig. 1.6). This is an
example of a relative location.
■ FIGURE 1.5 A geographer uses computer technology to
analyze maps and imagery. Characteristics of Places Physical geographers
In what ways are computer-generated maps and landscape are interested in the environmental features and processes
images helpful in studying physical geography? that make a place unique, as well as in the shared or similar
characteristics between places. For example, what physical
geographic features make the Rocky Mountains appear as they
Satellite technology (GPS, the Global Positioning System) is do? Further, how are the Appalachian Mountains different
used to determine the precise location of a receiver on Earth’s from the Rockies, and what characteristics are common to
surface, a capability that has many useful applications for geog- these two mountain ranges? Another aspect of the character-
raphy and mapping. Today, most mapmaking (cartography) and istics of places is the analysis of the environmental advantages
many aspects of map analysis are computer-assisted operations, and challenges that exist in a place.
although the ability to visually interpret a map, a landscape, or
an environmental image remains an important geographic skill. Spatial Distribution and Pattern Spatial distri-
Physical geographers should be able to make observations bution is a locational characteristic that refers to the extent of
and gather data in the field, but they must also keep up with an area or areas where a feature exists. For example, where on
new technologies that support and facilitate traditional field- Earth do we find tropical rainforests? What is the distribution
work. Technology can provide maps, images, and data, but a of rainfall in the United States on a particular day? Where do
person who is knowledgeable about the geographical aspects of major earthquakes occur? Spatial pattern refers to how fea-
the subject being studied is essential to the processes of analy- tures are arranged in space: Are they regular or random, clus-
sis and problem solving. Many geographers are gainfully tered together or widely spaced? Population distributions can
employed in positions that apply technology to the problems be dense or sparse (■ Fig. 1.7). The spatial pattern of earth-
of understanding our planet and its environments, and their quakes may be aligned on a map because earthquake faults
numbers are certain to increase in the future (■ Fig. 1.5). display similar linear patterns.
Spatial Interaction Few processes on Earth operate in

isolation, because areas on our planet are interconnected. A
Major Perspectives in condition, an occurrence, or a process in one place generally
Physical Geography has an impact on other places. Unfortunately, the exact nature
of a spatial interaction—whether one event actually causes
Your textbook demonstrates three major perspectives that another—is often difficult to establish with certainty.
physical geography emphasizes: spatial science, physical sci- Examples of observed spatial interactions include the
ence, and environmental science. Although the focus on each occurrence of abnormally warm ocean waters off South Amer-
of these perspectives varies from chapter to chapter, take note ica’s west coast, a condition called El Niño, and its link to
of how each perspective relates to the unique nature of geogra- unusual weather in other parts of the world. Clearing the trop-
phy as a discipline. ical rainforest might also have an impact on world climates.
Pikes Peak Colorado Springs

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/Earth Observatory
WYOMING NEBRASKA
COLORADO
Colorado
Springs
KANSAS
UTAH
Pikes
Peak
NEW MEXICO
■ FIGURE 1.6 A three-dimensional digital model shows the relative location of Pikes Peak to Colorado
Springs, Colorado. Because this is a perspective view, the 36 km (22 mi) distance appears to be shorter
than its actual ground distance.
What physical geographic characteristics of this place can you extract from the image?
NASA Robert Simon/Chris Elvidge, NOAA, NGDC
■ FIGURE 1.7 A nighttime satellite image provides good illustrations of distribution and pattern. Spatial
distribution means where features are located (or, perhaps, absent). Spatial pattern refers to their arrangement.
Geographers seek to explain these spatial relationships.
Can you locate and propose possible explanations for two patterns and two distributions in this scene?
Geographers work to understand spatial relationships, interac- namis, or changes in sea level. Areas that were once forested
tions, and impacts at local, regional, and global scales. have been clear-cut, changing the nature of the environment
there. Desert-like conditions seem to be expanding in many
The Changing Earth Earth’s features and landscapes arid regions of the world. Volcanic islands have been created in
are continuously changing in a spatial context. Weather maps historic times.
show where and how weather elements change from day to World climates have changed throughout Earth’s history,
day, over the seasons, and from year to year. Storms, earth- with attendant shifts in the distributions of plant and animal
quakes, landslides, and stream processes modify the landscape. life. Recent global warming is affecting virtually all areas of the
Coastlines can change position because of storm waves, tsu- world, but the impact varies by geographic region and loca-
G e o g r a p h y ’ S s pat i a L P e r s p e c t i v e
:: NATURAL REGIONS
T
he term region has a precise areas covered by deserts and other ing. Natural regions are conceptual
meaning and special significance natural regions. models that help us comprehend
to geographers. Simply stated, a • Boundaries separating different and organize spatial relationships
region is an area that is defined by a natural or environmental regions and geographic distributions. Learn-
certain shared characteristic (or a set of tend to be indistinct or transi- ing geography is an invitation to think
characteristics) existing within its tional, rather than sharp. For ex- spatially, and regions provide an es-
boundaries. The concept of a region is ample, on a climate map, lines sential and extremely useful concep-
a tool for thinking about and analyzing separating desert from nondesert tual framework in that process.
logical divisions of areas based on their regions do not imply that extremely
geographic characteristics. Geogra- arid conditions instantly appear Understanding regions, through an
phers not only study and explain re- when the line is crossed. When we awareness of how areas can be di-
gions, including their locations and travel to a desert, the region is likely vided into geographically logical units
characteristics, but also strive to delimit to get progressively more arid as we and why it is useful to do so, is essen-
them: to outline their boundaries on a approach our destination. tial in geography. Regions help us to
map. An unlimited number of regions • Regions are spatial models de- understand, reason about, and make
can be derived for each of the four ma- vised by humans for geographic sense of the spatial aspects of our
jor Earth subsystems. analysis, study, and understand- world.
Regions help us understand the
arrangement and nature of areas on
our planet. Regions can also be di-
vided into subregions. For example,
North America is a region, but it can
be subdivided into many subregions.
Examples of subregions based on
natural characteristics include the At-
lantic Coastal Plain (similarity of land-
forms, geology, and locality), the
Prairies (ecological type), the Sonoran
Desert (climate type, ecological type,
and locality), the Pacific Northwest
(general locality), and Tornado Alley
(region of high potential for these
storms).
There are three important points to
remember about natural regions. Each
of these points has endless applica-
tions and adds considerably to the
questions that the process of defining
USDA Forest Service
regions based on spatial characteristics

seeks to answer.
• Natural regions can change in

size and shape over time in The Great Basin of the Western United States is a landform region that is clearly
response to environmental defined based on an important physical geographic characteristic. No rivers flow
changes. An example is desertifi- to the ocean from this arid and semiarid region of mountains and topographic ba-
sins. The rivers and streams that exist flow into enclosed basins where the water
cation, the expansion of desert re-
evaporates away from temporary lakes, or they flow into lakes like the Great Salt
gions that has occurred in recent Lake, which has no outlet to the sea. Topographic features called drainage di-
years. Using images from space, we vides (mountain ridges) form the outer edges of the Great Basin, defining and en-
can see and monitor changes in the closing this natural region.
1913 2005
Blasé Reardon (USGS), Courtesy of Glacier National Parks Archives

Aiden (USGS), Courtesy of Glacier National Parks Archives
■ FIGURE 1.8 Photographs taken 92 years apart in Montana’s Glacier National Park show that Shepard
Glacier, like other glaciers in the park, has dramatically receded during that time. This retreat is in response
to climate warming and droughts.
What other kinds of environmental change might require long-term observation and recording of evidence?
tion. Today, changes in Earth’s climates and environments circulatory system, and digestive system). Examining the Earth
are complicated by the impact of human activities. Most of system as a set of interdependent subsystems facilitates the
Earth’s glaciers are shrinking in response to global warming study of physical geography.
(■ Fig. 1.8). Earth and its environments are always changing,
although at different time scales, so the impacts and direction Earth’s Four Major Subsystems The Earth sys-
of certain changes can be difficult to determine. tem has four major subsystems (■ Fig. 1.9). The atmosphere
is the gaseous blanket of air that envelops, shields, and insu-
lates Earth. The lithosphere makes up the solid Earth—
The Physical Science Perspective landforms, rocks, soils, and minerals. The hydrosphere in-
Physical geographers observe phenomena, compile data, and cludes the waters of Earth—oceans, lakes, rivers, and glaciers.
seek answers to questions that are also of interest to researchers The biosphere is composed of all living things: people, other
in other physical sciences. However, physical geographers bring animals, and plants.
distinctive points of view to scientific studies: a holistic perspec- The characteristics of these subsystems interact to create and
tive and a spatial perspective. By examining the factors, features, nurture the conditions necessary for life on Earth, but the impact
and processes that influence an environment and how these ele- and intensity of those interactions are not equal everywhere. This
ments work together, we can better understand our planet’s inequality leads to our planet’s environmental diversity and pro-
dynamic physical geography. We can also appreciate the impor- duces the wide variety of geographic patterns on Earth.
tance of viewing Earth as a constantly functioning system.
Earth Impacts The Earth system is dynamic, respond-
The Earth System A system is any entity that consists ing to continuous changes, and we can directly observe some
of a set of interrelated and interacting parts or components. of these changes: the seasons, the ocean tides, earthquakes,
Our planetary environment, the Earth system, operates on in- floods, volcanic eruptions. Certain interactions that change
teractions among a vast combination of factors. The individual our planet function in cycles and processes that operate at
components of a system, termed variables, change through in- widely varying rates. Many aspects of our planet can take
teractions with one another as parts of a functioning unit. For years, or even more than a lifetime, to accumulate enough
example, in a mountainous environment, elevation changes change so that humans can recognize their impact. Long-term
influence the rainfall distribution and the temperature regime, changes in our planet are often difficult to understand or fore-
which in turn affect the density, type, and variety of vegeta- cast with certainty. The evidence must be carefully and scien-
tion. Plants, moisture, and the underlying rock affect the soil tifically studied to determine what is occurring and what the
that forms in an area. Vegetation and soils influence the im- potential consequences might be. Changes of this type include
pact of erosion on the land surface. A change in one environ- climate change, drought cycles, the spread of deserts, erosion
mental factor nearly always has an impact on other parts of an of coastlines, and major changes in river systems. Volcanic
environmental system. islands have been created in historic times (■ Fig. 1.10), and
Systems can be divided into subsystems, which are func- a new Hawaiian island is now forming beneath the waters of
tioning units of a system that demonstrate strong internal con- the Pacific Ocean. Change may be naturally caused or human
nections. For example, the human body is a system that is induced, or it can result from a combination of these factors.
composed of many subsystems (such as the respiratory system, Today, much of the concern about environmental changes,
Atmosphere Biosphere
All, © Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi; center inset, NASA
Hydrosphere Lithosphere
■ FIGURE 1.9 Earth’s four major subsystems. Studying Earth as a system is central to
understanding changes in our planet’s environments and adjusting to or dealing with these
changes. Earth consists of many interconnected subsystems.
How do these systems overlap? For example, how does the atmosphere overlap with
the hydrosphere, or with the biosphere?
such as global warming, centers on the increasing

impact that human activities are exerting on Earth’s
natural systems.
The Environmental
Perspective
In the broadest sense, our environment can be
defined as our surroundings, consisting of all physi-
cal, social, and cultural aspects of our world that
affect our growth, our health, and our way of living.
Physical environments are systems composed of a
wide variety of features, characteristics, and pro-
cesses that involve interconnections among weather,
NASA
climate, soils, rocks, terrain, plants, animals, water,

■ FIGURE 1.10 This new volcanic island formed in the Red Sea beginning on and humans. Physical geography’s holistic approach
December 23, 2011 when volcanic eruptions from the seafloor began to reach is well suited to understanding environments,
the surface. The island at this time was about 500 meters long, but growing. because important environmental factors and pro-
Once this volcanic island cools, what other environmental changes could cesses are considered both individually and as parts
slowly begin to take place? of a functioning system.
G e o g r a p h y ’ S E N VIRO N M E N TA L P e r s p e c t i v e
:: HUMAN–ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
E
arth’s environmental characteristics Environmental Hazards become torrential rains that occur for
support all life on our planet. Yet The environment becomes a hazard to days or weeks and cause flooding.
the effects of natural processes on humans and other life forms when, oc- Some tropical storms gain strength
humans, as well as human impacts on casionally and often unpredictably, a and reach coastlines with great inten-
the environment, have become topics of natural process operates in an unusu- sity, such as hurricane Sandy in 2012.
increasing concern. Certain environmen- ally intense or violent fashion. Molten The extremely powerful earthquake in
tal processes can be hazardous to hu- rock and gases move upward toward Japan in 2011 and the tsunami wave it
man life and property, and certain hu- the surface and suddenly trigger mas- generated devastated coastal areas
man activities threaten to cause major, sive eruptions that can blow apart vol- and provided another example of the
and possibly irrevocable, damage to canic mountains. Rain showers can potential for occasional occurrences of
Earth environments. natural processes to far exceed our
expectable norm.
In September 2008, after Hurricane
Ike became a powerful storm in the At-
lantic Ocean, it passed over several is-
lands in the Caribbean Sea, causing
great damage, and continued into the
Gulf of Mexico. Moving northwest, Ike
made landfall near Galveston, Texas, a
coastal city that had been rebuilt after
being almost completely destroyed by
a hurricane in 1900. Ike brought violent
winds, high waves, and a massive
4.5- to 6.5-meter high (15–22 ft) surge
of seawater that swept low-lying coastal
areas for several kilometers inland.
A natural process that operates in
an extraordinary fashion is a noteworthy
environmental event, but it is not con-
sidered a natural hazard unless people
or their properties are affected. Many
natural hazards exist because people
live where potentially catastrophic envi-
ronmental events can occur. Nearly ev-
ery populated area of the world is
associated with a natural hazard or per-
Jocelyn Augustino, FEMA News Service
haps several hazards. Forested regions

are subject to fire; earthquakes, land-
slides, and volcanic activities plague
mountain regions; violent storms
threaten interior plains; and many
coastal regions experience periodic
hurricanes or severe winter storms.
Natural Hazards: Hurricane Ike caused great damage in 2008 and devas-
tated this coastal area near Galveston, Texas. This house is the only one left
standing in a beach community on the Texas coast of the Gulf of Mexico af-
ter Hurricane Ike made landfall.
Can you cite some examples of natural processes that can affect the
area where you live?
Environmental and developing nations struggle to in- As will become apparent in this study
Degradation dustrialize, human activities are exact- of geography, physical environments
Just as the environment can pose a ing an increasing toll on the air, water, are changing constantly, and all too of-
danger to humans, human activities soils, and forests. Environmental dete- ten human activities result in negative
can constitute a serious threat to the rioration is a worldwide concern, and environmental consequences. In addi-
environment. Issues such as global any effective solutions must involve in- tion, throughout Earth, humans live in
warming, acid precipitation, deforesta- ternational cooperation. As citizens of constant threat from various and spa-
tion and the extinction of species, the world’s wealthiest nation, Ameri- tially distributed environmental hazards
damage to the ozone layer, and de- cans must seriously consider what such as earthquake, fire, flood, and
sertification have risen to the top of steps can be taken to counter environ- storm. The natural processes involved
agendas at international conferences mental threats related to human activi- are related to the physical environ-
and when world leaders meet. Envi- ties. What are the causes of these ment, but causes and solutions are
ronmental concerns are recurring sub- threats? What can I do to help solve imbedded in human–environmental
jects of magazine and newspaper environmental problems? With limited interactions that include the economic,
articles, in books, on television, and on resources on Earth, what will we leave political, and social characteristics of
the Internet. for future generations? the cultures involved. The recognition
Much environmental damage has Examining environmental issues that geography is a holistic discipline—
resulted from atmospheric pollution from the physical geographer’s per- that it includes the study of all phe-
associated with industrialization, par- spective requires that characteristics of nomena on Earth—requires that
ticularly in wealthy, developed nations. the environment and the humans in- physical geographers play a major role
But as population pressures mount volved be given strong consideration. in the environmental sciences.
60° E
RUSSIA
UKRAINE KAZAKHSTAN
Aral Sea 45° N
UNEP/GRID-Sioux Falls
Black Sea Caspian UZBEKISTAN

Sea
TURKEY TURKMENISTAN
NASA
Mediterranean IRAN
Sea
IRAQ
Environmental Degradation: The Shrinking Aral Sea. Located in the central Asian desert between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the Aral
Sea is an inland lake that does not have an outlet stream. The water that flows in is eventually lost by evaporation. Before the 1960s,
rivers flowing from mountain regions supplied enough water to maintain what was the world’s fourth largest body of inland water.
Since then, agricultural diversion of river water has caused the Aral Sea to shrink. The image on the right shows what was left of the
Aral Sea in 2011. The environmental result has been the disappearance of many species that relied on the lake for survival, frequent
dust storms, and an economic disaster for the local population. Without the waters of the lake to moderate temperatures, winters
have become colder and the summers hotter. Today, efforts are under way to restore at least part of the lake and its environments.
What are some examples of how humans have affected the environment where you live?
ment in some way, but if we understand the factors and pro-

cesses involved, we can work to minimize negative impacts.
U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Alexander Tidd/Released
Human–Environment Interactions Physical

geography includes considering environmental relationships
that involve humans and their activities. Human–environment
interactions are two-way relationships, because the environ-
ment influences human behavior and humans affect the en-
vironment. People all over the world live in locations that are
subject to potentially hazardous acts of nature. Certain natural
processes can also have a detrimental impact on people and
their built environment. The term natural hazards refers to
natural processes, typically of unusual intensity, that put envi-
ronments and life or property at risk of damage or destruction.
News reports depict stories and images of disasters as people
are exposed to violent natural processes such as earthquakes,
floods, tornadoes, wildfires, and intense storms. In 2011, we
(a) witnessed the consequences of a major earthquake in Japan,
which generated a devastating tsunami wave (■ Fig. 1.11a).
In 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused considerable destruction in
the Caribbean and in the northeastern United States, leaving
thousands with damaged or destroyed homes (■ Fig. 1.11b).
Many communities went without electricity or running water
because of damage from winds, waves, and a surge of ocean
water that swept coastal areas. Unfortunately, these events were
also responsible for the loss of human life.
In addition to the impacts of natural processes on people,
we are also concerned about environmental degradation: dam-
age caused by human activities. One example is pollution, an
FEMA/Patsy Lynch
undesirable or unhealthy contamination in an environment.

Critical resources such as air, water, and land areas can become
so polluted that they become unusable or even lethal to some
(b) life forms. Air pollution is a serious problem for urban areas
around the world. It is important to realize, however, that pol-
■ FIGURE 1.11 Environmental hazards: (a) The devastated port
town of Wakuya, Japan, after being battered by powerful tsunami
lutants are often transported by winds and waterways hundreds
waves generated by a massive earthquake in 2011. (b) What was or even thousands of kilometers from their source. Lead from
left of a home on the New Jersey shore after Hurricane Sandy’s automobile exhaust has been found in the ice of Antarctica, as
storm surge swept the coast in 2012. has the insecticide DDT. Pollution is a global problem that does
not stop at political, or even continental, boundaries.
A Life-Support System The most critical and

The study of relationships between organisms and their unique attribute of Earth is that it is a life-support system,
environments is the science of ecology. The word ecosystem a set of interrelated components that are necessary for the
(a contraction of ecological system) refers to a community of existence of living organisms. On Earth, natural processes
organisms and the relationships of those organisms to one produce an adequate supply of oxygen; the sun interacts
another and to their environment. Ecosystems are dynamic in with the atmosphere, oceans, and land to maintain tolerable
that their various parts are always changing. For instance, temperatures; and photosynthesis or other processes provide
plants grow, rain falls, animals eat, and soils develop, all food supplies for living things. Other than the input of en-
changing the environment of a particular ecosystem. Because ergy from the sun, the Earth system provides the necessary
each member of an ecosystem interacts with other parts of that environmental constituents and conditions that allow life to
system, a change in one often affects the environment for the exist (■ Fig. 1.12). Despite the wealth of resources available
others. The ecosystem concept can be applied on almost any on Earth, however, we realize that natural resources, criti-
scale from local to regional or global, in virtually any geo- cal parts of our planet’s life-support system, can be abused,
graphic location. Your backyard, a farm pond, a grass-covered wasted, or exhausted. A concern is that humans are rapidly
field, a marsh, a forest, or a portion of a desert can be viewed depleting nonrenewable natural resources, such as coal and
as an ecosystem. Many human activities affect the environ- oil, which, once exhausted, will not be replaced.
Another random document with
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ATLAMOL EN GRÖNLENZKU
The Greenland Ballad of Atli
[Contents]
Introductory Note
Many of the chief facts regarding the Atlamol, which follows the
Atlakvitha in the Codex Regius, are outlined in the introductory note
to the earlier Atli lay. That the superscription in the manuscript is
correct, and that the poem was actually composed in Greenland, is
generally accepted; the specific reference to polar bears (stanza 17),
and the general color of the entire poem make this origin
exceedingly likely. Most critics, again, agree in dating the poem
nearer 1100 than 1050. As to its state of preservation there is some
dispute, but, barring one or two possible gaps of some importance,
and the usual number of passages in which the interpolation or
omission of one or two lines may be suspected, the Atlamol has
clearly come down to us in fairly good shape.
Throughout the poem the epic quality of the story itself is

overshadowed by the romantically sentimental tendencies of the
poet, and by his desire to adapt the narrative to the understanding of
his fellow-Greenlanders. The substance of the poem is the same as
that of the Atlakvitha; it tells of Atli’s message to the sons of Gjuki,
their journey to Atli’s home, the slaying of Hogni and Gunnar,
Guthrun’s bitterness over the death of her brothers, and her bloody
revenge on Atli. Thus in its bare outline the Atlamol represents
simply the Frankish blending of the legends of the slaughter of the
Burgundians and the death of Attila (cf. Gripisspo, introductory note).
But here the resemblance ends. The poet has added characters,
apparently of his own creation, for the sake of episodes which would
appeal to both the men and the women of the Greenland settlement.
Sea voyages take the place of journeys by land; Atli is reproached,
not for cowardice in battle, but for weakness at the Thing or great
council. The additions made by the poet are responsible for the
Atlamol’s being the longest of all the heroic poems in the Eddic
collection, and they give it a kind of emotional vividness, but it has
little of the compressed intensity of the older poems. Its greatest
interest lies in its demonstration of the manner in which a story
brought to the North from the South Germanic lands could be
adapted to the understanding and tastes of its [500]eleventh century
hearers without any material change of the basic narrative.
In what form or forms the story of the Gjukungs and Atli reached the
Greenland poet cannot be determined, but it seems likely that he
was familiar with older poems on the subject, and possibly with the
Atlakvitha itself. That the details which are peculiar to the Atlamol,
such as the figures of Kostbera and Glaumvor, existed in earlier
tradition seems doubtful, but the son of Hogni, who aids Guthrun in
the slaying of Atli, appears, though under another name, in other late
versions of the story, and it is impossible to say just how much the
poet relied on his own imagination and how far he found suggestions
and hints in the prose or verse stories of Atli with which he was
familiar.
The poem is in Malahattr (cf. Introduction) throughout, the verse

being far more regular than in the Atlakvitha. The compilers of the
Volsungasaga evidently knew it in very much the form in which we
now have it, for in the main it is paraphrased with great fidelity.
[Contents]
1. There are many who know | how of old did men
In counsel gather; | little good did they get;
In secret they plotted, | it was sore for them later,
And for Gjuki’s sons, | whose trust they deceived.
2. Fate grew for the princes, | to death they were

given;
Ill counsel was Atli’s, | though keenness he had;
[501]
He felled his staunch bulwark, | his own sorrow
fashioned,
Soon a message he sent | that his kinsmen should
seek him.
3. Wise was the woman, | she fain would use

wisdom,
She saw well what meant | all they said in secret;
From her heart it was hid | how help she might
render,
The sea they should sail, | while herself she
should go not.
4. Runes did she fashion, | but false Vingi made

them,
The speeder of hatred, | ere to give them he
sought;
Then soon fared the warriors | whom Atli had sent,
And to Limafjord came, | to the home of the kings.
5. They were kindly with ale, | and fires they
kindled, [502]
They thought not of craft | from the guests who
had come;
The gifts did they take | that the noble one gave
them,
On the pillars they hung them, | no fear did they
harbor.
6. Forth did Kostbera, wife | of Hogni, then come,

Full kindly she was, | and she welcomed them
both;
And glad too was Glaumvor, | the wife of Gunnar,
She knew well to care | for the needs of the
guests.
7. Then Hogni they asked | if more eager he were,

Full clear was the guile, | if on guard they had
been;
Then Gunnar made promise, | if Hogni would go,
And Hogni made answer | as the other counseled.
8. Then the famed ones brought mead, | and fair

was the feast, [503]
Full many were the horns, | till the men had drunk
deep;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
Then the mates made ready | their beds for
resting.
9. Wise was Kostbera, | and cunning in rune-craft,

The letters would she read | by the light of the fire;
But full quickly her tongue | to her palate clave,
So strange did they seem | that their meaning she
saw not.
10. Full soon then his bed | came Hogni to seek,

. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
The clear-souled one dreamed, | and her dream
she kept not,
To the warrior the wise one | spake when she
wakened:
11. “Thou wouldst go hence, Hogni, | but heed my

counsel,— [504]
Known to few are the runes,— | and put off thy
faring;
I have read now the runes | that thy sister wrote,
And this time the bright one | did not bid thee to
come.
12. “Full much do I wonder, | nor well can I see,

Why the woman wise | so wildly hath written;
But to me it seems | that the meaning beneath
Is that both shall be slain | if soon ye shall go.
But one rune she missed, | or else others have
marred it.”
Hogni spake:
13. “All women are fearful; | not so do I feel,

Ill I seek not to find | till I soon must avenge it;
The king now will give us | the glow-ruddy gold;
I never shall fear, | though of dangers I know.”
Kostbera spake:
14. “In danger ye fare, | if forth ye go thither, [505]

No welcoming friendly | this time shall ye find;
For I dreamed now, Hogni, | and nought will I hide,
Full evil thy faring, | if rightly I fear.
15. “Thy bed-covering saw I | in the flames

burning,
And the fire burst high | through the walls of my
home.”
Hogni spake:
“Yon garment of linen | lies little of worth,

It will soon be burned, | so thou sawest the bed-
cover.”
Kostbera spake:
16. “A bear saw I enter, | the pillars he broke,
And he brandished his claws | so that craven we
were;
With his mouth seized he many, | and nought was
our might,
And loud was the tumult, | not little it was.”
[506]
Hogni spake:
17. “Now a storm is brewing, | and wild it grows

swiftly,
A dream of an ice-bear | means a gale from the
east.”
Kostbera spake:
18. “An eagle I saw flying | from the end through

the house,
Our fate must be bad, | for with blood he sprinkled
us;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
From the evil I fear | that ’twas Atli’s spirit.”
Hogni spake:
19. “They will slaughter soon, | and so blood do we

see,
Oft oxen it means | when of eagles one dreams;
[507]
True is Atli’s heart, | whatever thou dreamest.”
Then silent they were, | and nought further they
said.
20. The high-born ones wakened, | and like

speech they had,
Then did Glaumvor tell | how in terror she
dreamed,
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . Gunnar | two roads they should go.
Glaumvor spake:
21. “A gallows saw I ready, | thou didst go to thy

hanging,
Thy flesh serpents ate, | and yet living I found
thee;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
The gods’ doom descended; | now say what it
boded.”
* * * * * *
22. “A sword drawn bloody | from thy garments I

saw,— [508]
Such a dream is hard | to a husband to tell,—
A spear stood, methought, | through thy body
thrust,
And at head and feet | the wolves were howling.”
Gunnar spake:
23. “The hounds are running, | loud their barking is

heard,
Oft hounds’ clamor follows | the flying of spears.”
Glaumvor spake:
24. “A river the length | of the hall saw I run,

Full swiftly it roared, | o’er the benches it swept;
O’er the feet did it break | of ye brothers twain,
The water would yield not; | some meaning there
was.”
* * * * * *
25. “I dreamed that by night | came dead women

hither, [509]
Sad were their garments, | and thee were they
seeking;
They bade thee come swiftly | forth to their
benches,
And nothing, methinks, | could the Norns avail
thee.”
Gunnar spake:
26. “Too late is thy speaking, | for so is it settled;

From the faring I turn not, | the going is fixed,
Though likely it is | that our lives shall be short.”
27. Then bright shone the morning, | the men all

were ready,
They said, and yet each | would the other hold
back;
Five were the warriors, | and their followers all
But twice as many,— | their minds knew not
wisdom.
28. Snævar and Solar, | they were sons of Hogni,

Orkning was he called | who came with the others,
[510]
Blithe was the shield-tree, | the brother of
Kostbera;
The fair-decked ones followed, | till the fjord
divided them,
Full hard did they plead, | but the others would
hear not.
29. Then did Glaumvor speak forth, | the wife of

Gunnar,
To Vingi she said | that which wise to her seemed:
“I know not if well | thou requitest our welcome,
Full ill was thy coming | if evil shall follow.”
30. Then did Vingi swear, | and full glib was his
speech,
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
“May giants now take me | if lies I have told ye,
And the gallows if hostile | thought did I have.”
31. Then did Bera speak forth, | and fair was her
thought, [511]
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
“May ye sail now happy, | and victory have,
To fare as I bid ye, | may nought your way bar.”
32. Then Hogni made answer,— | dear held he his

kin,—
courage, ye wise ones, | whatsoever may come;
Though many may speak, | yet is evil oft mighty,
And words avail little | to lead one homeward.
33. They tenderly looked | till each turned on his

way,
Then with changing fate | were their farings
divided.
34. Full stoutly they rowed, | and the keel clove

asunder,
Their backs strained at the oars, | and their
strength was fierce; [512]
The oar-loops were burst, | the thole-pins were
broken,
Nor the ship made they fast | ere from her they
fared.
35. Not long was it after— | the end must I tell—

That the home they beheld | that Buthli once had;
Loud the gates resounded | when Hogni smote
them;
Vingi spake then a word | that were better unsaid:
36. “Go ye far from the house, | for false is its

entrance,
Soon shall I burn you, | ye are swiftly smitten;
I bade ye come fairly, | but falseness was under,
Now bide ye afar | while your gallows I fashion.”
37. Then Hogni made answer, | his heart yielded

little, [513]
And nought did he fear | that his fate held in store:
“Seek not to affright us, | thou shalt seldom
succeed;
If thy words are more, | then the worse grows thy
fate.”
38. Then Vingi did they smite, | and they sent him
to hell,
With their axes they clove him | while the death-
rattle came.
39. Atli summoned his men, | in mail-coats they

hastened,
All ready they came, | and between was the
courtyard.
* * * * * *
40. Then came they to words, | and full wrathful

they were: [514]
“Long since did we plan | how soon we might slay
you.”
Hogni spake:
41. “Little it matters | if long ye have planned it;

For unarmed do ye wait, | and one have we felled,
We smote him to hell, | of your host was he once.”
42. Then wild was their anger | when all heard his
words;
Their fingers were swift | on their bowstrings to
seize,
Full sharply they shot, | by their shields were they
guarded.
43. In the house came the word | how the heroes
without [515]
Fought in front of the hall; | they heard a thrall tell
it;
Grim then was Guthrun, | the grief when she
heard,
With necklaces fair, | and she flung them all from
her,
(The silver she hurled | so the rings burst
asunder.)
44. Then out did she go, | she flung open the
doors,
All fearless she went, | and the guests did she
welcome;
To the Niflungs she went— | her last greeting it
was,—
In her speech truth was clear, | and much would
she speak.
45. “For your safety I sought | that at home ye

should stay;
None escapes his fate, | so ye hither must fare.”
Full wisely she spake, | if yet peace they might
win, [516]
But to nought would they hearken, | and “No” said
they all.
46. Then the high-born one saw | that hard was
their battle,
In fierceness of heart | she flung off her mantle;
Her naked sword grasped she | her kin’s lives to
guard,
Not gentle her hands | in the hewing of battle.
47. Then the daughter of Gjuki | two warriors

smote down,
Atli’s brother she slew, | and forth then they bore
him;
(So fiercely she fought | that his feet she clove off;)
Another she smote | so that never he stood,
To hell did she send him,— | her hands trembled
never.
[517]
48. Full wide was the fame | of the battle they

fought,
’Twas the greatest of deeds | of the sons of Gjuki;
Men say that the Niflungs, | while themselves they
were living,
With their swords fought mightily, | mail-coats they
sundered,
And helms did they hew, | as their hearts were
fearless.
49. All the morning they fought | until midday
shone,
(All the dusk as well | and the dawning of day,)
When the battle was ended, | the field flowed with
blood;
Ere they fell, eighteen | of their foemen were slain,
By the two sons of Bera | and her brother as well.
50. Then the warrior spake, | and wild was his

anger:
“This is evil to see, | and thy doing is all; [518]
Once we were thirty, | we thanes keen for battle,
Now eleven are left, | and great is our lack.
51. “There were five of us brothers | when Buthli

we lost,
Now Hel has the half, | and two smitten lie here;
A great kinship had I,— | the truth may I hide not,
—
From a wife bringing slaughter | small joy could I
win.
52. We lay seldom together | since to me thou

wast given,
Now my kin all are gone, | of my gold am I robbed;
Nay, and worst, thou didst send | my sister to hell.”
[519]
Guthrun spake:
53. “Hear me now, Atli! | the first evil was thine;

My mother didst thou take, | and for gold didst
murder her,
My sister’s daughter | thou didst starve in a prison.
A jest does it seem | that thy sorrow thou tellest,
And good do I find it | that grief to thee comes.”
Atli spake:
54. “Go now, ye warriors, | and make greater the

grief
Of the woman so fair, | for fain would I see it;
So fierce be thy warring | that Guthrun shall weep,
I would gladly behold | her happiness lost.
55. “Seize ye now Hogni, | and with knives shall ye

hew him,
His heart shall ye cut out, | this haste ye to do;
And grim-hearted Gunnar | shall ye bind on the
gallows, [520]
Swift shall ye do it, | to serpents now cast him.”
Hogni spake:
56. “Do now as thou wilt, | for glad I await it,

Brave shalt thou find me, | I have faced worse
before;
We held thee at bay | while whole we were
fighting,
Now with wounds are we spent, | so thy will canst
thou work.”
57. Then did Beiti speak, | he was Atli’s steward:

“Let us seize now Hjalli, | and Hogni spare we!
Let us fell the sluggard, | he is fit for death,
He has lived too long, | and lazy men call him.”
58. Afraid was the pot-watcher, | he fled here and

yon,
And crazed with his terror | he climbed in the
corners: [521]
“Ill for me is this fighting, | if I pay for your
fierceness,
And sad is the day | to die leaving my swine
And all the fair victuals | that of old did I have.”
59. They seized Buthli’s cook, | and they came

with the knife,
The frightened thrall howled | ere the edge did he
feel;
He was willing, he cried, | to dung well the
courtyard,
Do the basest of work, | if spare him they would;
Full happy were Hjalli | if his life he might have.
60. Then fain was Hogni— | there are few would

do thus—
To beg for the slave | that safe hence he should
go;
“I would find it far better | this knife-play to feel,
Why must we all hark | to this howling longer?”
61. Then the brave one they seized; | to the

warriors bold
No chance was there left | to delay his fate longer;
Loud did Hogni laugh, | all the sons of day heard
him, [522]
So valiant he was | that well he could suffer.
* * * * * *
62. A harp Gunnar seized, | with his toes he smote

it;
So well did he strike | that the women all wept,
And the men, when clear | they heard it, lamented;
Full noble was his song, | the rafters burst
asunder.
63. Then the heroes died | ere the day was yet
come;
Their fame did they leave | ever lofty to live.

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Fundamentals of Physical Geography

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F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

New Features To Integrate the Illustrations

Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.

Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75

5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101

6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

9 Biogeography and Soils 223

10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255

11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283

12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313

13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341

14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363

15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393

16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421

17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449

1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32

Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105

Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207

Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384

Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Models and Systems

The Earth in Space

“The Blue Marble,” lunar

From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the

the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE

Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

spatial data—functions that can now be performed on a per-

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

Location Geographic studies often begin with locational

Spatial Interaction Few processes on Earth operate in

Human–Environment Interactions Physical

A Life-Support System The most critical and