Emassfile - 871developing Cross Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation 2Nd Edition Edition Keith T Chan Full Chapter PDF

Developing Cross-Cultural
Measurement In Social Work Research

And Evaluation 2nd Edition Edition
Keith T. Chan
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/developing-cross-cultural-measurement-in-social-wor
k-research-and-evaluation-2nd-edition-edition-keith-t-chan/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Fundamentals of Social Work Research 2nd Edition,

(Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/fundamentals-of-social-work-
research-2nd-edition-ebook-pdf/
The Practice of Research in Social Work 4th Edition,

(Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-practice-of-research-in-social-
work-4th-edition-ebook-pdf/
Sensitive Research in Social Work 1st ed. 2022 Edition

Sharif Haider
https://ebookmass.com/product/sensitive-research-in-social-
work-1st-ed-2022-edition-sharif-haider/
(eTextbook PDF) for World Architecture: A Cross-

Cultural History 2nd Edition
https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-pdf-for-world-
architecture-a-cross-cultural-history-2nd-edition/
Research Methods for Social Work 9e Edition Allen Rubin
https://ebookmass.com/product/research-methods-for-social-
work-9e-edition-allen-rubin/
Measurement and Evaluation in Human Performance 5th

Edition, with Audio/Video (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/measurement-and-evaluation-in-
human-performance-5th-edition-with-audio-video-ebook-pdf/
Introduction to Social Work: An Advocacy Based

Profession (Social Work in the New Century) 2nd
Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-social-work-an-
advocacy-based-profession-social-work-in-the-new-century-2nd-
edition-ebook-pdf/
Consumer Behaviour 2nd Edition Chan
https://ebookmass.com/product/consumer-behaviour-2nd-edition-
chan/
Empowerment Series: Research Methods for Social Work

9th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/empowerment-series-research-
methods-for-social-work-9th-edition-ebook-pdf/
i
Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement

in Social Work Research and Evaluation
ii
POCKET GUIDES TO
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH METHODS
Series Editor
Tony Tripodi, DSW
Professor Emeritus, Ohio State University
Determining Sample Size Structural Equation Modeling
Balancing Power, Precision, and Practicality Natasha K. Bowen and Shenyang Guo
Patrick Dattalo Finding and Evaluating Evidence
Preparing Research Articles Systematic Reviews and Evidence-Based
Bruce A. Thyer Practice
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Denise E. Bronson and Tamara S. Davis
Julia H. Littell, Jacqueline Corcoran, and Policy Creation and Evaluation
Vijayan Pillai Understanding Welfare Reform in the
Historical Research United States
Elizabeth Ann Danto Richard Hoefer
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Grounded Theory
Donna Harrington Julianne S. Oktay
Randomized Controlled Trials Systematic Synthesis of Qualitative Research
Design and Implementation for Michael Saini and Aron Shlonsky
Community-Based Psychosocial Interventions Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
Phyllis Solomon, Mary M. Cavanaugh, Bruce A. Thyer
and Jeffrey Draine Conducting Research in Juvenile and Criminal
Needs Assessment Justice Settings
David Royse, Michele Staton-Tindall, Karen Michael G. Vaughn, Carrie Pettus-Davis,
Badger, and J. Matthew Webster and Jeffrey J. Shook
Multiple Regression with Discrete Dependent Qualitative Methods for Practice Research
Variables Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch, and Janet Hoy
John G. Orme and Terri Combs-Orme Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables
Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement Patrick Dattalo
Thanh V. Tran Culturally Competent Research
Intervention Research Using Ethnography as a Meta-Framework
Developing Social Programs Mo Yee Lee and Amy Zaharlick
Mark W. Fraser, Jack M. Richman, Using Complexity Theory for Research and
Maeda J. Galinsky, and Steven H. Day Program Evaluation
Developing and Validating Rapid Assessment Michael Wolf-Branigin
Instruments Basic Statistics in Multivariate Analysis
Neil Abell, David W. Springer, Karen A. Randolph and Laura L. Myers
and Akihito Kamata
Research with Diverse Groups:
Clinical Data-Mining Diversity and Research-Design and
Integrating Practice and Research Measurement Equivalence
Irwin Epstein Antoinette Y. Farmer and G. Lawrence Farmer
Strategies to Approximate Random Sampling Conducting Substance Use Research
and Assignment Audrey L. Begun and Thomas K. Gregoire
Patrick Dattalo
A Social Justice
Analyzing Single System Design Data Approach to Survey Design and Analysis
William R. Nugent Llewellyn J. Cornelius and Donna Harrington
Survival Analysis Participatory Action Research
Shenyang Guo Hal A. Lawson, James Caringi, Loretta Pyles,
The Dissertation Janine Jurkowski, and Christine Bolzak
From Beginning to End Developing, Selecting, and Using Measures
Peter Lyons and Howard J. Doueck David F. Gillespie and Brian E. Perron
Cross-Cultural Research Mixed Methods Research
Jorge Delva, Paula Allen-Meares, and Sandra Daphne C. Watkins and Deborah Gioia
L. Momper
Content Analysis
Secondary Data Analysis James W. Drisko and Tina Maschi
Thomas P. Vartanian
Group Work Research
Narrative Inquiry Charles D. Garvin, Richard M. Tolman,
Kathleen Wells and Mark J. Macgowan
iii
THANH V. TR AN
TAM H. NGUYEN
KEITH T. CHAN
Developing Cross-Cultural
Measurement in Social
Work Research and
Evaluation
SECOND EDITION
1
iv
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2017
First Edition published in 2009

Second Edition published in 2017
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tran, Thanh V., author. | Nguyen, Tam H., author. |
Chan, Keith T., author.
Title: Developing cross-cultural measurement in social work research
and evaluation / Thanh V. Tran, Tam H. Nguyen, Keith T. Chan.
Other titles: Developing cross-cultural measurement
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2017] |
Series: Pocket guides to social work research methods | Earlier edition
published as: Developing cross–cultural measurement. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016027901 | ISBN 9780190496470 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social work with minorities—United States—Methodology.
| Cultural awareness—United States—Methodology.
Classification: LCC HV3176 .T714 2017 | DDC 361.3072—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016027901
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada

v
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments xiii
1 Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 1
2 Process and Critical Tasks of Cross-Cultural Research 13
3 Adopting or Adapting Existing Instruments 26
4 Assessing and Testing Cross-Cultural Measurement Equivalence 43
Appendix 4.1 85
5 Item Response Theory in Cross-Cultural Measurement 91
6 Developing New Instruments 129
7 Concluding Comments 164
Appendix 7.1 174
References 177
Index 191
v
vi
vii
Preface
T he United States historically has been a haven for immigrants and

refugees from almost every corner of the globe. As a result, social
workers have played a major role in helping newcomers settle and adjust
into their newly found communities. Cross-cultural issues are not new
among those of us who are trained as social workers or identify our-
selves within the discipline. The profession of social work has a long
tradition of advocating and serving clients from different cultural back-
grounds (Lubove, 1965; Green, 1982). The impact of cultural differences
in the implementation of services and the assessment of service out-
comes across different social, economic, racial, and national groups is
part of the stated mission in social work practice (NASW, 2015) and a
core competency in education (CSWE, 2015). Yet, the extent to which
social workers are concerned about this in research, education, and
practice remains insufficient. This short guide attempts to articulate the
process of cross-cultural research instrument development in order to
address this gap in social work research and evaluation.
vii
viii
viii Preface
MIGRATION AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

People migrate from place to place for different reasons, including but
not limited to the economic downturns, political turmoil, religious
persecution, war, and calamity. Immigration researchers often clas-
sify migration into two groups: the pulled and the pushed immigrants.
Pulled immigrants migrate out of their country of origin by choice, and
pushed immigrants migrate because of factors beyond their control. In
addition, modern transportation technologies and the global economy
have opened the borders of nations and continents, allowing more peo-
ple to easily migrate across those borders. The United Nations report
in 2016 that “the number of international migrants—persons living in
a country other than where they were born—reached 244 million in
2015 for the world as a whole, a 41% increase compared to 2000” (http://
www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/01/244-million-inter-
national-migrants-living-abroad-worldwide-new-un-statistics-reveal/).
This figure includes almost 20 million refugees. By the end of the twen-
tieth century, with the explosion of information science and technol-
ogy, people around the globe had been exposed to other cultures and
were able to virtually and instantaneously connect with foreigners and
strangers from every corner of the earth.
Changes in US immigration laws from 1965 to 1990 created oppor-
tunities for immigrants from diverse ethic/racial backgrounds, in par-
ticular from Asian and Latin American countries, to arrive as green
card holders and be eligible for citizenship.
Although the United States has modified its policy to make immi-
gration more difficult after the historic and tragic 9/11 event (Martin,
2003), the US immigrant population has continued to grow despite
these changes. The US foreign- born population has evolved and
grown throughout the history of the nation. In 1850, the foreign-born
population made up about 2.2% of the US population. This number
had increased to 12.9% by 2010. As reported by Camarota & Zeigler
(2014), “the nation’s immigrant population (legal and illegal) hit a
record 41.3 million in July 2013, an increase of 1.4 million since July
2010. Since 2000 the immigrant population is up 10.2 million,” (p. 1).
According to the Pew Research Center, the 2013 US immigrant popula-
tion had increased more than four times compared to the immigration
population in 1960 and 1970. Today, immigrants account for 29% of US
ix
Preface ix
population growth since the beginning of the twenty-first century. With

rapid growth since 1970, the share of foreign-born population in the
overall US population has been rising from 4.7% in 1970 to 13.1% in
2013 and could rise to 18% by 2065 (Pew Research Center, 2015). Recent
data from the Bureau of the Census revealed that there are 350 languages
spoken at homes in the United States. Language diversity can be found
in all large US metropolitan areas. The number of languages spoken at
homes in large metropolitan areas varied from 126 in the Detroit metro
area to 192 in the New York metro area (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). If
English language ability can be used as an indicator of acculturation
and adaptation for non–English speaking foreign-born immigrants,
only 50% had high English speaking ability. The remaining 50% spoke
some or no English at all (Gambino, Acosta, & Grieco, 2014). Roughly
speaking, 20 million immigrants in the United States could potentially
face barriers to obtaining health and social services due to their lim-
ited English language ability. Indeed, US Census data also revealed that
there were 11.9 million individuals considered “linguistically isolated,”
(Shin & Bruno, 2003). Consequently, this is a challenge for health and
social service providers and researchers. With demographic changes
and the reality of cultural diversity in the United States and other parts
of the world today, social work researchers are increasingly aware of the
need to conduct cross-cultural research and evaluation, whether for
hypothesis testing or outcome evaluation.
This book’s aims are twofold: to provide an overview of issues and
techniques relevant to the development of cross-cultural measures,
and to provide readers with a step-by-step approach to the assessment
of cross-cultural equivalence of measurement properties. There is no
discussion of statistical theory and principles underlying the statisti-
cal techniques presented in this book. Rather, this book is concerned
with applied theories and principles of cross-cultural research, and
draws information from existing work in the social sciences, public
domain secondary data, and primary data from the authors’ research.
In this second edition we made changes throughout the book and
added a new chapter on item response theory. We also expanded the
chapter on developing new cross-cultural instruments, with a con-
crete example.
Chapter 1 provides the readers with an overview of the definitions
of culture, a brief discussion of cross-cultural research backgrounds
x
x Preface
in anthropology, psychology, sociology, and political science, and the

influences of these fields on social work.
Chapter 2 describes the process of cross-cultural instrument develop-
ment and discusses the preliminary tasks of a cross-cultural instrument
development process. The chapter offers guides and recommendations
for building a research support team for various critical tasks.
Chapter 3 addresses the issues of adopting and adapting existing
research instruments. The processes and issues of cross-cultural trans-
lation and assessment are presented and discussed in detail.
Chapter 4 focuses on the analytical techniques to evaluate cross-cul-
tural measurement equivalence. This chapter demonstrates the appli-
cations of item distribution analysis, internal consistency analysis, and
exploratory factor analysis, and the application of confirmatory factor
analysis and multisample confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the
factor structure and testing of cross-cultural measurement invariance.
Students learn how to generate data for confirmatory factor analy-
sis, present the results, and explain the statistical findings concerning
measurement invariance.
Chapter 5 explains the basic concepts of item response theory (IRT)
and its application in cross-cultural instrument development. Readers
and students will learn how to apply IRT to evaluate the psychometric
properties of a scale, especially in the process of selecting the right items
for a newly developed scale.
Chapter 6 addresses the process of cross-cultural instrument con-
struction. This chapter also demonstrates the process of the develop-
ment of the Boston College Social Work Student Empathy (BCSWE)
scale. This process involved all major steps of instrument construction,
including pilot data collection and analysis of the validity and reliability
of this empathy scale.
Chapter 7 emphasizes the importance of cross-cultural issues in
social work research, evaluation, and practices, and provides a list of
some online databases that can be useful for cross-cultural research.
As the world has become a global community through migration,
travel, social media, and trade, the issues of cross-cultural measurement
equivalence and assessment techniques are applicable beyond any spe-
cific geographical location and can be used with research across differ-
ent disciplines in the applied professions.
xi
Preface xi
DATA SOURCES
Several datasets are used to provide examples throughout this book.
The Chinese (n = 177), Russian (n = 300), and Vietnamese (n = 339) data
were collected in the Greater Boston area at various social service agen-
cies and social and religious institutions. These self-administered sur-
veys were conducted to study various aspects of health, mental health,
and service utilization among these immigrant communities (Tran,
Khatutsky, Aroian, Balsam & Convey, 2000; Wu, Tran & Amjad, 2004).
This instrument was translated from English to Chinese, Russian, and
Vietnamese by bilingual and bicultural social gerontologists, social
service providers, and health and mental health professionals. The
translations were also reviewed and evaluated by experts and prospec-
tive respondents to ensure cultural equivalence in the translations.
The Americans’ Changing Lives Survey: Waves I, II, and III offers
rich data for cross-cultural comparisons between African Americans
and whites regarding important variables concerning physical health,
psychological well-being, and cognitive functioning. This longitudinal
survey contains information from 3,617 respondents ages 25 years and
older in Wave I; 2,867 in Wave II; and 2,562 in Wave III (House, 2006).
The National Survey of Japanese Elderly (NSJE), 1987 has simi-
lar research variables to those used in the Americans’ Changing Lives
Survey. The purpose of this survey is to provide cross-cultural analyses
of aging in the United States and Japan. The 1987 NSJE Survey contains
data from 2,180 respondents ages 60 years and older (Liang, 1990). The
1988 National Survey of Hispanic Elderly people ages 65 years and older
(Davis, 1997) was conducted to investigate specific problems including
economic, health, and social status. This telephone survey was conducted
in both Spanish and English. There were 937 Mexicans, 368 Puerto
Rican-Americans, 714 Cuban-Americans, and 280 other Hispanics. In
this edition we use two new datasets: Children of Immigrants longitudi-
nal Study 1991–2006 (Portes & Rumbaut, 2012), and the Boston College
Social Work Student Empathy scale pilot data (2014).
These datasets are used because they provide both micro-(within
nation) and macro-(between nation) levels of cultural comparisons.
The statistical results presented throughout the book are only for illus-
tration. Readers should not interpret the findings beyond this purpose.
xii
xiii
Acknowledgments
W e appreciate the support from Boston College School of Social

Work, the William F. Connell School of Nursing, the School of
Social Welfare, University at Albany SUNY, and our families and sig-
nificant others during the preparation of this publication.
xiii
xiv
xv
Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement

in Social Work Research and Evaluation
xvi
1
Overview of Culture
and Cross-Cultural
Research
T his chapter discusses the concept of culture and reviews the basic
principles of multidisciplinary cross-cultural research. The read-
ers are introduced to cross-cultural research in anthropology, psychol-
ogy, political science, and sociology. These cross-cultural research fields
offer both theoretical and methodological resources to social work.
Readers will find that all cross-cultural research fields share the same
concern—t hat is, the equivalence of research instruments. One cannot
draw meaningful comparisons of behavioral problems, social values, or
psychological status between or across different cultural groups in the
absence of cross-culturally equivalent research instruments.
DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE
Different academic disciplines and schools of thought often have dif-
ferent definitions and categorizations of culture. In fact, no agreement
1
2
2 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation
has ever been reached in defining culture. This has led to confusion and
frustration for many researchers (Minkov & Hofstede, 2013).
Scholarly interests in cross-culture studies have their roots in Greece
beginning in the Middle Ages (see Jahoda & Krewer, 1997; Marsella,
Dubanoski, Hamada, & Morse, 2000). However, systematic studies of
cultures originated from the field of anthropology. Edward Burnet Tyler
(1832–1917) has been honored as the father of anthropology, and his
well-k nown definition of culture has been quoted numerous times in
almost every major book and paper on studies of cultures. He views cul-
ture as a “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society” (Tylor, Radin, & Tylor, 1958). Since Tyler’s definition
of culture, there have been hundreds of other definitions of culture by
writers and scholars from different disciplines and fields. As noted by
Chao and Moon (2005), culture is considered to be one of the more dif-
ficult and complex terms in the English language. This is also probably
true in other languages.
Kluckhohn (1954) defined culture as “the memory of a society.”
There have also been attempts to define culture by categorizing it into
different types. As suggested by Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby (1992),
there are three types of cultures: metaculture, evoked culture, and epi-
demiological culture. Metaculture can be viewed as what makes human
species different from other species. Evoked culture refers to the ways
people live under different ecological conditions, and these ecology-
based living conditions lead to differences within and between cultures
known as epidemiological culture. The conceptualization of this cultural
typology suggests reciprocal relationships between psychology and biol-
ogy in the development of culture and society.
Wedeen (2002) suggested a useful way to conceptualize culture
as semiotic practices or the processes of meaning-making. Cultural
symbols are inscribed in practices among societal members, and they
influence how people behave in various social situations. For example,
elder caregiving may have different symbolic meanings in different cul-
tures, and how members of a specific culture practice their caregiving
behaviors may have different consequences on the quality of life of the
recipients. Generally, culture can be viewed as a combination of values,
norms, institutions, and artifacts. Social values are desirable behaviors,
manners, and attitudes that are for all members of a group or society to
3
Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 3
follow or share. Norms are social controls that regulate group members’
behaviors. Institutions provide structures for society or community
to function. Artifacts include all material products of human societies
or groups. Minkov and Hofstede (2013) noted that there are some cul-
tural artifacts that are culturally specific or unique and thus not fea-
sible or meaningful for a comparative study across societies or cultures.
However, there are universal elements of culture such as social values,
beliefs, behavioral intentions, social attitudes, and concrete and observ-
able phenomena such as birth rate, crime rate, and such like that can be
documented and compared across cultures, groups, and societies.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organi
zation (UNESCO) has defined culture as the “set of distinctive spiri-
tual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social
group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, life-
styles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.”
Moreover, Article 5 of its Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity
declares, “Cultural rights are an integral part of human rights, which are
universal, indivisible and interdependent.” (UNESCO). This implies that
in cross-cultural research, health, and psychological and social interven-
tions, the respect of linguistic heritage is crucially important. Thus cli-
ents or research participants must have the opportunity to communicate
in their own languages. Hence cross-cultural translation is undoubtedly
an important element in the conduct of cross-cultural research.
All things considered, culture can be viewed as social markers that
make people unique and distinct from each other based on their country
of origin, race, or mother tongue. Although people are different because
of their cultures, languages, races, religions, and other aspects, there
are universal values and norms across human societies. The challenges
of social work research are to investigate the similarities in the midst of
obvious differences and diversity.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES OF CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropologists are pioneers in cross-cultural research and
have influenced other cross-cultural research disciplines in the social
sciences. Burton and White have suggested that cross-cultural research
4
offers a fundamental component of meaningful generalizations about

human societies (Burton & White, 1987). Cross-cultural anthropologi-
cal research has encompassed several key variables or focuses across
cultures or societies such as the roles of markets and labor, division of
labor and production, warfare and conflicts, socialization and gender
identity, reproductive rituals, households and polygyny, gender beliefs
and behaviors, expressive behavior, technology, settlement pattern and
demography, social and kinship organization, spirits and shaman-
ism, and others (Burton & White, 1987; Jorgensen, 1979). The field of
social anthropology can be divided into two schools: social anthropol-
ogy studies involved in the comparative study of social structures and
ethnology and comparative or historical cultural anthropology study
cultures (Singer, 1968, p. 527). Two classic theories that have dominated
the field of anthropology in the first half of the twentieth century are
process–pattern theory (which emphasizes the analysis of cultural pat-
tern) and structural–functional theory (which focuses on the study of
cultural structure). Salzman (2001) reviewed and discussed four major
theories that have guided cultural anthropology research, including
functionalism, which emphasizes interconnection and mutual depen-
dence among societal institutions or customs, and processualism,
which focuses on the assumption that members of a society have the
power to change the structures and institutions with which they lived or
that people are agents of their own actions and behaviors. Materialism
theory suggests that economic conditions are the determinant factors
of cultural transformation. Cultural patterns theory emphasizes that
different cultures have different principles that provide the framework
for their unique values. This theory assumes that one can only under-
stand a culture through its own values and perspectives. Culture evolu-
tion theory assumes that people, society, and culture change over time.
Today, anthropology has become a discipline with several specializa-
tions, as Nader (2000, p. 609) noted “For most of the twentieth century,
anthropology was marked by increased specialization.” She emphasizes
the new direction for anthropology in the twenty-first century as “an
anthropology that is inclusive of all humankind, reconnecting the par-
ticular with the universal, the local and the global, nature and culture.”
She also stressed that culture must be viewed as “part of nature and the
changing nature of nature is a subject for all of us” (p. 615).
5
Cross-Cultural Psychology
The fundamental focus of the field of cross-cultural psychology is the
understanding of human diversity and how cultural factors or con-
ditions affect human behavior (Berry, Poortinga, & Pandey, 1997).
Similarly, Triandis (2000) suggested that “one of the purposes of cross-
cultural psychology is to establish the generality of psychological find-
ings” and that “the theoretical framework is universalistic, and assumes
the psychic unity of humankind” (Kazdin, 2000, p. 361). A more com-
prehensive definition of cross-cultural psychology is offered by Berry
and associates as “the study of similarities and differences in individual
psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnic groups; of the
relationships between psychological variables and sociocultural, eco-
logical, and biological variables; and of current changes in these vari-
ables” (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1992, p. 2). Cross-cultural
psychology can be viewed as “the systematic study of behavior and
experience as it occurs in different cultures, is influenced by culture, or
results in changes in existing culture” (Berry & Triandis, 2004, p. 527).
Cross-cultural psychology has at least two traditions involving quan-
titative methods that rely on statistical comparisons across different
cultures and qualitative methods that employ field study methods used
by cultural anthropologists (see Berry & Triandis, 2004). Cross-cultural
psychology is also defined as the study of overt (behavioral) and covert
(cognitive, affective) differences between different cultures (Corsini,
1999, p. 238). Therefore, cross-cultural psychological research generally
encompasses systematic analysis, description, and comparisons of vari-
ous cultural groups or societies to develop general principles that may
account for their similarities and differences (Corsini, 1999, p. 238).
Cross-cultural psychology has paid close attention to emic and etic
approaches in psychological inquiry. An emic approach emphasizes
the variations within cultural phenomena, whereas an etic approach
focuses on differences across cultural groups. The emic approach is con-
cerned with the unique issues and problems that are specifically found
within one culture or group. More specifically, an emic approach stud-
ies behaviors, attitudes, and social values inside a culture using instru-
ments developed within it. On the other hand, the etic approach studies
behaviors, attitudes, and social values based on the assumption that
they are universal and can employ instruments developed outside of a
6
target population or society (Berry, 1969). However, both approaches

suffer from conceptual and methodological dilemma. A purely emic
approach can hinder true cross-cultural comparisons, and a purely etic
approach may not actually reveal true cultural differences because it can
impose external concepts and measures on unique culture or society.
Malpass (1977, p. 1069) articulated the purpose of cross-cultural psy-
chology as “a methodological strategy and a means of bringing into
focus methodological and conceptual issues that are frequently encoun-
tered in unicultural research.” Consequently, the development of sound
measurement instruments that can capture true cultural differences
and articulate cultural uniqueness are the fundamental challenges of
cross-cultural psychology research.
Cross-Cultural Political Science Research

The foundation of political science is built on some fundamental theo-
ries such as freedom, democracy, and political equality, and political
research focuses on the causal relationships of these theoretical vari-
ables (King, Murray, Salomon, & Tandon, 2004). There have been con-
flicting views of culture within the field of political science concerning
the relevance of culture in political inquiry. Some view culture as having
no function in the understanding of politics; others see it as the possi-
ble causes of political outcomes, such as the development and transfor-
mation of democracy across societies (Wedeen, 2002). Cross-cultural
political scientists studied cultural changes and their consequences on
social and political structures. Political scientists found strong rela-
tionships between the values and beliefs of mass publics and the exist-
ence of democratic institutions. These researchers identified 12 areas of
human values and beliefs that can be found in different cultures of the
world: ecology, economy, education, family, gender and sexuality, gov-
ernment and politics, health, individual, leisure and friends, morality,
religion, society and nation, and work. Cultural changes that occur as
a result of economic development are best understood as an interaction
between economic development and the cultural heritage of a society.
That is, each society’s unique culture can mitigate or ignite the cultural
changes that accompany economic development (Inglehart, Basanez, &
Moreno, 1998; Inglehart, 1999, 2000). Studies of political cultures are
important to understand ethnic politics and the transformation of
7
democracy (Pye, 1997). The well-being of individuals and societies are

no doubt the product of different political systems. Indeed, political sys-
tems and structures can either foster or hinder the development of eco-
nomic well-being and the protection of human rights.
Comparative Sociology
European fathers of sociology such as Durkheim and Weber believed
that general social laws can be derived from the observed similarities
among societies. On the other hand, observed differences among soci-
eties provide the understanding of social changes in different areas of
the world (Steinhoff, 2001). Functionalism and modernization theo-
ries have served as two key theoretical frameworks for cross-cultural
sociology. The functionalists view society as a combination of differ-
ent components, and the society can only function smoothly if differ-
ent internal components can work together. The modernists see social
changes as the consequences of the transition from traditional values
to modern (Steinhoff, 2001). Although sociologists often argue that all
sociological research involves comparison (Grimshaw, 1973), compara-
tive sociology is recognized as “a method that is deemed to be quite dif-
ferent from other sociological methods of inquiry. When the concept
of comparative sociology is used, this phrase then refers to the method
of comparing different societies, nation-states or culture in order to
show whether and why they are similar or different in certain respects”
(Arts & Halman, 1999, p. 1). Kohn (1987, p. 714) attempted to categorize
comparative sociology into four types: “Those in which nation is object
of study; those in which nation is context of study; those in which
nation is unit of analysis; and those that are transnational in charac-
ter.” Kohn emphasized the importance of cross-national research that
views nation as context of study. This type of cross-national research
focuses on: “Testing the generality of findings and interpretations
about how certain social institutions impinge on personality” (p. 714).
Kohn also noted that the term cross-national research is more straight-
forward than cross-cultural research because cross-cultural research
can involve comparisons of different subgroups within a nation. Thus,
sociological research involving nations can be referred to as cross-
national research, and those involving subcultures within a nation are
cross-cultural research.
8
Cross-cultural researchers from these disciplines have employed

similar methodologies for data collection and analysis. The differences
are their research orientation and interests. Cross-cultural psychol-
ogy, with its emphasis on the effects of culture on social behavior and
social cognition, provides social work with practical guides in design-
ing social and psychological interventions that can confront both
unique and common problems among individuals and groups. Cross-
cultural–a nthological research can enhance social work research
because it provides social work researchers with both theoretical direc-
tions and methodological frameworks to understand how people from
different cultures cope with their daily life situations. Cross-cultural
political science research is useful to global social work practice and
research. Understanding cultural factors in political developments is
instrumental for social workers who are involved in global practices
in various countries or governments. Although this book is not about
global social work, globalization is the real process that is permeating
every society and every culture (Tomlinson, 1999). How each society
or political system reacts and accommodates globalization will impact
the well-being of its citizens. Social work will have to determine how
to confront the negative impacts of globalization on members of dif-
ferent societies. Comparative sociology research from both function-
alism and modernization perspectives can be useful for cross-cultural
research. For example, social work researchers can draw from these
two major theoretical frameworks in their efforts to explain the break-
down of family systems as the breakdown in the communication of
different family members or the ability of family members to move
from traditional values to modern. The study of the causes of family
dysfunction across society is beneficial for social work in the develop-
ment of culturally sensitive and appropriate family interventions.
The inquiry of the influences of culture on human behavior is also
fundamental to social work as we attempt to devise and provide effec-
tive interventions to both individual and societal problems in different
cultural contexts. The four dimensions of cultural values established by
Hofstede (1980) and dimensions of personality established by McCrae
and John (1992) could be useful for social work in developing cultural
competence guidelines and training.
It is fair to say that cross-cultural social work research differs
from other cross-cultural disciplines in its context and implications.
9
Cross-
cultural social work research can borrow both theories and
methodologies from other disciplines and refine them to meet the new
challenges of our profession in this global and diverse society.
ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL SOCIAL RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

The common aim of cross-cultural or -national research in the social
sciences is the systematic comparison of human behaviors, social val-
ues, and social structures and how these variables influence individuals
or social systems between or among different cultural groups, includ-
ing nations, societies, or subcultural groups within a larger national or
social system.
The social work profession has a long history of recognizing the
importance of cultural influences on human behaviors and social
work practices. In the Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Work, Robinson
(2000, p. 222) suggests that “To meet the needs of culturally diverse
populations, social workers must have an understanding of culturally
consistent assessment, evaluation and treatment skills, as well as theo-
retical content.” This prescription of multicultural social work appears
to embrace the ideas of cross-cultural comparability of assessment, out-
comes, treatment implementations, and causal explanations.
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) has its own
standards for cultural competency (NASW, 2001). In its document,
NASW endorses 10 cultural competence standards for its members
encompassing ethics and values, self-awareness, cross-cultural knowl-
edge, cross-cultural skills, service delivery, empowerment and advo-
cacy, diverse workforce, professional education, language diversity,
and cross-cultural leadership. Among these 10 standards, standard 4
describes cross-cultural skills with the following statement: “Social
workers shall use appropriate methodological approaches, skills, and
techniques that reflect the workers’ understanding of the role of culture
in the helping process.” This standard is relevant and important to social
work researchers and evaluators. This standard implies that social work
researchers and evaluators should employ appropriate research instru-
ments, methodologies, and statistical methods in conducting cross-
cultural social work research and evaluation. The Council on Social
Work Education (CSWE) also emphasizes the importance of cultural
10
diversity in its educational policy and accreditation standards (CSWE,

2001). It requires that accredited social work programs must “educate
students to recognize diversity within and between groups that may
influence assessment, planning, intervention, and research. Students
learn how to define, design, and implement strategies for effective prac-
tice with persons from diverse backgrounds” (CSWE, 2001, p. 9). Both
NASW’s standard of cultural competence and CSWE’s educational
policy and accreditation standards emphasize the importance of rec-
ognizing the cultural dimension of social work practice. This is also the
foundation of cross-cultural social work research and evaluation.
The following are a few examples of common goals of cross-cultural
social work research and evaluation:
1. To understand how people from different cultures cope with

their life situations, including economic, physical, psychological,
and social situations;
2. To identify the risk factors of psychological and social pathology
across cultures; and
3. To evaluate the appropriateness, effectiveness and impacts of
social policies, programs, and interventions on the well-being of
people from different cultures.
From the intervention perspective, we can define cross-cultural

social work as the implementation of evidence-based practices (inter-
ventions) across different cultural groups, communities, societies, and
nations. Therefore, cross-cultural social work research and evaluation
involves the study of the appropriateness and efficacy of evidence-
based social work interventions across different cultural groups. The
fundamental issue is whether a treatment or intervention is culturally
appropriate and produces similar outcomes among clients of different
cultures. We can also frame this issue as whether social workers can
successfully implement a treatment or intervention proved to be effec-
tive for one cultural group for other groups that have different cultural
backgrounds. The answer is contingent on several issues, but the most
important is the cross-cultural equivalence of treatment and outcome
measures. One cannot draw a valid conclusion about the efficacy of a
treatment across different cultural populations if the treatment was
operationalized and implemented in different manners for each cultural
11
group. Furthermore, if the outcome measure bears no similarities in

psychometric properties, then the comparison is not warranted.
Having a meaningful, appropriate, and practical research instru-
ment or questionnaire is a prerequisite for the quality of cross-cultural
social work research and evaluation. This allows social work research-
ers and evaluators to collect the correct data for either cross-cultural
hypothesis testing or outcome evaluation.
There are two issues concerning measurements in cross-cultural
social work research and evaluation: conceptual equivalence and sta-
tistical equivalence. Conceptual equivalence is the first step in design-
ing and planning a cross-cultural research or evaluation project. This
requires that key research variables and outcome measures must bear a
conceptual equivalence across cultural groups of clients or participants.
More specifically, both independent variables and dependent variables
must bear similar meanings between two or among several comparative
groups. Conceptual equivalence encompasses both linguistic equiva-
lence and cultural equivalence. Linguistic equivalence refers to the
equivalence of the translation of a concept or an instrument between
the selected languages of clients or participants. Cultural equivalence
requires that a research variable or treatment must be understood and
accepted by clients/participants who come from different social struc-
tures with unique social orientations and value systems such as indi-
vidualistic vs. collective social orientation.
Social work researchers and evaluators can achieve linguistic and
cultural equivalence for the selected research variables or treatments via
cultural translation and cultural evaluation of the content, format, and
structure of the questionnaire items or research instruments. For exam-
ple, when a question is developed to collect information on a symptom
of depression, we need to ensure that such a symptom exists across cul-
tural groups, that the language used in each cultural group reflects the
meaning of such depressive symptom, and that the format of the ques-
tion or item and the overall structure of the questionnaire are cultur-
ally relevant and appropriate for all cultural groups. Both linguistic and
cultural equivalence may be achieved by employing appropriate cross-
cultural translation procedures and expert evaluations.
How does a social work researcher know that a scale or an out-
come measure has conceptual equivalence in two or more com-
parative cultural groups? The answer to this question relies on the
12
information collected from both professionals and laypersons rep-

resenting the cultural groups under investigation. This can be done
through literature review, focus group meetings, town hall meetings,
in-depth interviews with professionals and laypersons or prospective
clients, and statistical analyses. When a scale is translated from one
language to another, there are cross-cultural translation procedures
that researchers and evaluators should follow. This book discusses
and illustrates the use of both descriptive statistics and confirma-
tory factor analysis to evaluate cross-cultural equivalence of research
instruments.
It should be noted that although this book emphasizes the impor-
tance of measurement equivalence in cross- cultural social work
research and evaluation, the issues of cultural sensitivity and cultural
appropriateness are the foundation of all types of social work research
and interventions. Social work researchers may employ sound cross-
cultural equivalent instruments in their research, but they will encoun-
ter resistance or non-cooperation from the target population if they are
culturally insensitive and inappropriate in their relationship with the
community. Similarly, evidence-based interventions must be imple-
mented in different ethnic communities with cultural sensitivity and
appropriateness.
In chapter 2. We will address the process and critical tasks of cross-
cultural research. The process can be applied at local (national) and
international settings. Most of the practical issues are discussed from a
national perspective. Researchers may have to modify some aspects of
this process in global or international settings.
13
Process and Critical

Tasks of Cross-Cultural
Research
Research instrument is defined as a systematic and standardized tool

for data collection. It includes all types of research questionnaires and
standardized scales. There are three methods of cross-cultural research
instrument development: adopting an existing instrument, adapting
or modifying an existing instrument, and developing a new instru-
ment. To develop a cross- culturally valid questionnaire or instru-
ment, the concepts or constructs selected for the investigation must be
clearly defined and bear the same meanings across the selected cultural
groups. Having a clear definition of measurement constructs is a matter
of utmost importance for all levels of cultural comparative research and
evaluation, whether it is a sex or racial/ethnic comparison within one
society or across nations. As Smith (2004) noted, “An essential goal of
cross-national survey research is to construct questionnaires that are
functionally equivalent across populations” (p. 3).
Adoption of existing instruments uses direct translation of the
research instrument or questionnaire from the source language to the
13
14
target language without considering cultural differences. This is an effi-

cient and cost-effective method, but it suffers from potential problems
of cultural inequivalence because researchers often pay too much atten-
tion to the linguistic equivalence and ignore the culturally conceptual
equivalence. The problem with a measurement adoption approach is the
assumption of cultural equivalence between the source language and
the target language. The researchers impose their cultural values or
biases on the target population by assuming that the instruments they
adopt carry the same meanings between their culture and the target
culture.
Adaptation of an existing instrument calls for careful translation
and modification to achieve cultural equivalence between the source
language and the target language (Pan & De La Puente, 2005). This
approach requires the researchers or the research team to be compe-
tent in both cultures. There are different levels of adaptation, includ-
ing the elimination of a part of the original instrument, replacing some
items of the original scale with new items, or the application of a mul-
tilevel translation procedure that avoids verbatim translation and thus
emphasizes the equivalence of concepts, not the equivalence of language
between cultures.
Development a new instrument often requires the researchers to
start from a vague idea and go through numerous iterations of identi-
fying and defining the research concepts and variables, transforming
concepts to variables, and developing questions or items to capture the
meanings of the research variables across different research populations.
The flowchart in Figure 2.1 outlines a process of cross-cultural
instrument development. This flowchart demonstrates a self-reflective
process in that one must always evaluate the current phase and go back
to the previous phases for revision or modification until all members of
the research team can accept the final instrument. The first four steps
of the process are similar for the efforts of developing a new instrument
and adopting or adapting an existing instrument. The process of cross-
cultural questionnaire development illustrated in Figure 2.1 will be
developed throughout the book.
The flowchart in Figure 2.1 delineates the necessary steps in the
process of cross- cultural instrument development. It begins with
the preliminary tasks, including formulating the research aims from
15
Research Aims
Setting Boundary
and Target
Populations
Setting Boundary
and Target
Populations
Identifying & Defining

Research Variables
Literature Review
Developing Adopt or
New Adapt Exiting
Instruments Instruments
Developing new
Translation
Indicators
Cross-cultural Cross-cultural
Evaluation Evaluation
Revision
Pilot Testing Pilot Testing
Instrument
Assessment
Final
Instrument
Figure 2.1 The Process of Cross-Cultural Instrument Development.

16
the context of cross-cultural settings. The sources and motivation of

research aims are generally as follows:
1. Funding agencies or institutions. Researchers are expected to

develop the research aims that reflect the interests of a funding
agency or institution. In this situation, researchers often do not
have the flexibilities to do what they want to do.
2. Community or national needs. The researchers have to develop
research aims that address the needs of communities or nations.
3. Individual and team interests. Researchers are free to do what
interests them with less external constraints.
Once the research aims, questions, or hypotheses are identified,

formulated, and agreed upon by key research personnel, the scope and
cross-cultural comparisons, and the target populations must be thor-
oughly discussed. Some of the keys elements of this task are:
1. Research locations. Choosing the geographical areas to conduct

the research project depends on the available resources, the
representative nature of the locations, and the availability of and
accessibility to the research participants.
2. Number of comparison groups and sample sizes. The research
team must agree on the number of comparison groups and the
number of participants representing each comparison group.
3. Key characteristics of participants. It is also important to decide
on selection criteria such as age, sex, education, incomes, and
nature of social or psychological illness.
Representatives from the selected target populations, communities, or

groups must be included in the evaluation of the research aims, questions,
and hypotheses before other research tasks can be developed and imple-
mented. The selected research aims must have similar levels of importance
and meaningfulness among the participating cultural groups or populations.
The key research variables are derived from the research aims, ques-
tions, and hypotheses. The task of identifying and defining the selected
research variables is as important as identifying and formulating the
cross-cultural research aims. The variables must reflect the aims from a
cross-cultural perspective.
17
Process and Critical Tasks of Cross-Cultural Research 17
After the variables are identified and defined, researchers can adopt
or adapt existing instruments or develop new ones. Conducting a com-
prehensive and systematic literature review can help researchers find
existing instruments for their research aims. If there is a need to develop
new instruments, then researchers should involve both experts and pro-
spective participants in their attempts to define and measure the research
variables. Adopting and adapting existing instruments requires the
application of multilevel translation procedures to successfully translate
the existing instruments from a source language to the target languages.
Developing new instruments that can be used across different cultural or
linguistic groups is complicated and expensive. In either case, systematic
assessments of conceptual equivalence and measurement equivalence
are required before the implementation of data collection and analysis.
The process illustrated in the flowchart suggests two general levels of
analysis, qualitative and quantitative.
The qualitative level involves the following:
1. Formulating the common research aims. Researchers can use

experts, in-depth interviews, and focus groups during the
process of formulating the cross-cultural research aims for their
projects.
2. Setting the research boundaries and populations. It is important
for the researchers to have current demographic information
about the prospective research populations.
3. Generating common hypotheses and variables across cultural
groups. The involvement of experts, community leaders,
practitioners, and prospective research subjects through in-
depth interviews and focus groups is needed.
4. Building the research team and support staff. The research team
and support staff must be both methodologically and culturally
competent. All team members must be familiar with the
cultures of the research populations. If possible, research team
and support staff should also be members of the research groups,
communities, or societies.
5. Establishing rapport with the communities and prospective
participants. Well-designed research methods and instruments
are necessary but not sufficient for the success of the research
project. The researchers cannot implement their projects without
18
the participation of the research populations. Establishing

rapport with community leaders and providing relevant
information about the projects to the communities are essential.
The research team may use existing social media technology
to recruit and invite the community to engage in the research
projects.
The above tasks require in-depth discussion, exchange of ideas, and

negotiations among all key stakeholders. It is always challenging to find
consensus among a diverse group of stakeholders.
The quantitative level involves the following:
1. The collection of data.

2. Assessing cross-cultural validity and reliability of the
instruments.
Careful preparation and planning for data collection is crucial for

the success of data analyses. Assessing cross-cultural validity and reli-
ability involves the establishment of cross-cultural psychometric equiv-
alence, or the similarities in the reliability and factorial structures of the
measurement of key variables across cultural groups. Using the internal
consistency coefficient and the correlation of an item with the overall
scale is one way to check for statistical equivalence of a composite scale
or index across cultural target groups (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). If
a scale has five items, then the correlation of each item with the overall
scale should be similar across the comparative groups. When a scale
has a similar α-coefficient and correlation of item and overall scale, it
is considered to have one of the indicators of statistical equivalence.
Subsequently, researchers and evaluators can employ explanatory and
confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the factorial equivalence of a
scale or an index across selected cultural groups. However, this does
not constitute cross-cultural equivalence. One needs to look further
into the factorial equivalence of such a scale. For a scale to be consid-
ered to have conceptual and statistical equivalence between two cul-
tural groups under the investigation, its items (designed to capture the
selected behavior, attitude, or psychosocial problem) must bear similar
meanings in both cultural groups and should exhibit similar statistical
evidence in terms of reliability and factorial structures.
19
The results of descriptive reliability analysis, factor analysis, and

multisample confirmatory factor analyses will help the researchers to
decide whether an instrument can be used across different research
populations. This book will illustrate the application of SPSS, STATA
and LISREL for the assessments of cross-cultural equivalence of the
research instruments.
PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL

INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
As mentioned earlier, the quality of the results of a cross- cultural
research project depends on the quality of its measures. Following are a
few practical recommendations for cross-cultural research instrument
development.
Research Aims. A cross-cultural research project without mean-
ingful and clear research aims would only lead to confusion. Funding
sources often determine the scope and aims of a cross-cultural research
project. In this situation, the researchers respond to specific instruc-
tions of the funding institution, and the research aims must articulate
the vision and goals of the funding institution. Regardless of funding
sources, cross-cultural social work researchers should always involve
different stakeholders (e.g., clients, service providers, community lead-
ers) in defining and formulating the research aims. The researchers
should be aware that their research aims must bear similar meanings
across cultural groups, and the expected outcomes will improve or
enhance the well-being of the target populations in areas such as health,
mental health, quality of life, or living standards.
Setting Scope and Target Populations. Cross-cultural research
involves systematic comparisons of selected variables between two or
among more cultural groups. The researchers need to identify the key vari-
ables for the comparisons, among which they will make such comparisons.
Obviously, the scope of a cross-cultural research project is defined by the
available resources, the feasibility of the project, and the participation of
the target populations. The research team should seek community support
from various cultural groups at local levels. If the research involves cross-
national comparisons, then seeking support from governments, institu-
tions, and political leaders becomes crucial for the success of the project.
20
Cross-Cultural Evaluations of Research Aims. Once the preliminary

research aims, variables, and target populations are identified, the research
team should call for at least one focus group of stakeholders to evaluate
the importance and relevancy of the research aims. With current Internet
communication technology such as SKYPE (http://w ww.skype.com/en/
features/), the research team can communicate with each other long dis-
tance not only by voice, they can also participate from all over the world in
group video conferences to discuss their research project, send text mes-
sages, and documents. There are three basic questions that require clear
answers before the research project can move to the next phases:
1. Are the proposed research aims meaningful among the cultural

groups?
2. Do the proposed aims have cross-cultural equivalence among
the cultural groups?
3. Will the potential results have any meaningful impacts on the
quality of the life of the comparative populations?
If these questions are not satisfactorily answered, then the research

team should revise the research aims until they are acceptable.
Identifying and Defining Variables and Literature Review. Once
the research aims are evaluated by the research team and stakeholders,
the research team must identify and define the relevant variables that
reflect the research aims. The variables must bear similar meanings
across the selected comparative groups. Although Internet “chat room”
and video conferences over the Internet can be useful, the dynamic of
face-to-face interaction among the research team members is impor-
tant for the process of identifying and defining the research variables.
It is suggested that a focus group involving the research team and
stakeholders is necessary to generate meaningful variables for the
project. The goals of the focus group should include the following:
1. Develop a comprehensive list of variables representing the

research aims.
2. Select the variables that appear to carry some levels of cultural
equivalence among the comparative groups.
3. Define the selected variables that capture cultural differences
both within and between groups.
21
Once the variables are selected and defined, the researchers should
review the existing literature for the operationalization of the variables—
that is, to identify any existing instruments that can be used to measure
the selected variables. If the team members and the expert consultants
agree that an existing instrument is adequate and appropriate for the
project, the next step is to translate the instrument into the target lan-
guages. The translation will be subjected to in-depth evaluation and pilot
testing before it can be used. This chapter is devoted to the procedure
of cross-cultural translation. If there are no existing instruments, the
research team needs to develop a valid and reliable instrument that can
be used across the selected cultural groups.
Cross-Cultural Research Support Team. Building a strong research
support team is one of the most crucial tasks to secure the successful
implementation of the research projects. The support team includes cul-
tural experts, community advisors, interviewers for cognitive interviews,
moderators for focus groups, and translators for the translation process.
CULTURAL EXPERT RECRUITMENT CRITERIA

The research team will have to rely on cultural experts to assist the
process of instrument development from the evaluation of the existing
instruments to the construction of new instruments. The following cri-
teria can be used as a guide to select cultural experts to participate in the
development and evaluation of indicators.
Language Proficiency. It is difficult for a researcher who has no or
limited language skills to conduct a research project on an ethnic or cul-
tural group whose language is different from the researcher’s language.
In such a situation, the researcher should bring to the team individuals
who have the language skills to serve as cultural experts for the research
project.
Relevant Professional Credentials. A good cultural expert must
have appropriate training in the field related to the problem under
investigation. Having the right language skills relative to a cultural
group is necessary for a cultural expert, but this is not sufficient. This
expert must also be trained in the field. A cultural expert who is fluent
in the language of the research population and highly educated but who
lacks formal training related to the research project would not be able to
22
help the research team to evaluate the research instrument effectively.

When it is difficult to find ideal cultural experts, the researcher should
offer adequate training to the prospective experts before allowing them
to engage in the instrument development and evaluation process.
Knowledge of History, Geography, Arts, Literature, and Customs.
The cultural expert should have some knowledge of the history, geog-
raphy, arts, literature, and customs of a research population, giving the
researchers insights into the understanding of how members of that
group behave. The cultural expert who possesses these qualities will
better help the research team throughout the process of instrument
development.
Bilingual and Bicultural Ability. When the researchers borrow
a research concept that has been well defined in one language (e.g.,
English), it is useful to have cultural experts who are bilingual and
bicultural to help the research team with the translation of the selected
concept to the target language.
INTERVIEWER RECRUITMENT CRITERIA

Interviewers will be needed to conduct both cognitive interviews and
pilot survey interviews. The interviewers should have the following
characteristics:
1. Knowledge of the culture of the target research group or

population.
2. A sense of respect and tolerance for cultural differences.
3. Ability to communicate with interviewees.
4. Flexibility to adapt to interviewees’ situations.
PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT CRITERIA

Participants from different target populations will be needed to par-
ticipate in cognitive interviews, focus groups, and pilot surveys. They
should be selected based on the following criteria.
Having an ability to communicate openly. Selected participants
should have an ability to speak for themselves and on behalf of others.
23
Because the researchers want to learn how members of a cultural or

ethnic group communicate their feelings and attitudes toward a par-
ticular social or psychological phenomenon, it is important to recruit
prospective participants who can help the researcher to define such a
phenomenon in a common language that can be understood by other
group members. Participants’ observations of friends and relatives can
also give the researcher valuable insight into the concerns of interest.
Having previous experience relevant to the research concepts or
problems. If the researchers want to develop a measure of coping with
disasters, then only those prospective participants who have had direct
or indirect experiences with disasters should be invited to participate in
in-depth interviews.
Having the willingness to share experiences with others.
Participants who are willing to discuss their feelings or experiences
with others will help the researchers to collect relevant information in
defining and articulating the research concept.
FOCUS GROUP MODERATOR RECRUITMENT CRITERIA

The quality of the data collected from the focus groups also depends on
the quality of the focus group moderator. An effective focus moderator
should have the following qualifications.
Cultural Competency. The moderator has to have an in-depth
knowledge of the culture of the target population to appreciate the
nuances of behaviors and attitudes of the participants in light of their
own cultural meanings and context. This will help generate partici-
pants’ engagement in the group discussion.
Language Competency. The moderator is expected to be fluent in at
least two languages to fully facilitate the focus group in the evaluation of
linguistic and cultural comparability of the research instrument.
Creativity. The moderator has to be able to think on his/her feet and
be able to create group dynamics that generate meaningful discussion
and evaluation of the research instrument.
Analytical Skills. Good analytical skills help the moderator to raise
meaningful questions and guide participants to the right discussion.
Verbal Skills. The moderator should be able to communicate and
articulate the research aims, as well as the meanings of the research
24
variables and instruments, to the participants. The moderator’s verbal

skills will stimulate participants to stay focused on their tasks during
the focus group meetings.
Detail-Oriented. The moderator should be able to follow through
on the details of the instruments, research procedures, and goals and
objectives of the research instruments. This ability will help the mod-
erators to stay on course and probe for subtle information from the
participants.
Listening Skills. The success of a focus group largely depends on
the ability of the moderator to listen to the participants. Listening and
showing respect to participants’ ideas will help them to reveal the infor-
mation they would not reveal if they thought the moderator was not
interested in them.
Empathy. Being able to share participants’ feelings and appreciate
their attitudes in a group setting will hold the attention of participants
and enhance their willingness to share their views and thoughts about
the purpose of the focus group meeting.
COMMUNITY ADVISOR RECRUITMENT CRITERIA

Having knowledgeable and committed committee advisors will
strengthen the research project. Following is a list of people the research-
ers may want to invite to serve as advisors for a cross-cultural research
project.
Prospective Consumers Research. Professionals who will use the
results of the research to improve their practices and interventions
affecting the lives of their clients.
Prospective Participants or Subjects. Individuals who are members
of the research population from which the research will be conducted.
These are the people who will be directly affected by the outcomes of
the research.
Community or Civic Leaders. Individuals who hold notable com-
munity leadership positions in the community such as religious leaders,
educators, politicians, and leaders of various social organizations in the
community in which the research will be conducted.
25
Trained Professionals in the Field of Interest. Researchers who

have conducted research that is similar to the current project or who
have special training in areas related to the current research project.
This chapter has provided a list of essential tasks and recommenda-
tions for the researchers to prepare before engaging in the construction
and assessment of cross-cultural research instruments. Without clear and
meaningful research aims, it is difficult for the researchers to move ahead
with the project. Similarly, without a strong research support staff and
the right participants, the research team will not be able to successfully
develop meaningful research instruments.
Chapter 3 is about the translation of existing research instruments
from a source language to different target languages. The potential pit-
falls of research instrument translation are numerous, including both
technical and conceptual aspects. Readers will find examples of hands-
on experience and practical guides to carry out the translation of a
research instrument successfully.
26
Adopting or Adapting
Existing Instruments
CROSS-CULTURAL TRANSLATION AND RELATED ISSUES

Cross-cultural researchers in health, psychology, social sciences, and
social work often have used existing measures or scales from English
and translated them into the target languages. Both adopting (using
the original scale as it is) and adapting (modifying the original scale)
existing research instruments often require translating the selected
instrument from a source language to a target language. Cross-cultural
translation is one of the major tasks in cross-cultural research. The task
of translation becomes more challenging when an instrument is trans-
lated into two or more target languages simultaneously, especially with
the translation of special constructs (Symon, Nagpal, Maniecka-Bryla,
Nowakowska, Rahidian, Khabiri & Wu, 2013; Price, Klaassen, Bolton-
Maggs, Grainger, Curtis, Wakefield & Young, 2009).
This chapter will (1) review existing cross- cultural translation
approaches and offer the reader practical guidelines; (2) present a multi-
level translation process encompassing back-translation, expert evalua-
tion, cognitive interviews, focus group evaluation, and field evaluation;
and (3) offer a guide for best practices in selecting translators to perform
26
27
Adopting or Adapting Existing Instruments 27
cross-cultural translation. Several examples will be presented to illus-

trate potential biases in cross-cultural translation and cross-cultural
data analysis.
Researchers have employed a variety of translation approaches,
and it appears that no single approach has become universal. In cross-
cultural psychology, Brislin, Lonner, and Thorndike (1973) recom-
mended that cross-cultural translation should involve back-translation,
bilingual techniques, a committee approach, and pretest. More specifi-
cally, back-translation is a process wherein an instrument is translated
from its original language to a different language, and the translated
version of the instrument is translated back to the original language to
assure conceptual equivalence.
Maneesriwongul and Dixon (2004) reviewed 47 studies that involved
cross-cultural translation and concluded that there is a lack of consen-
sus on standards for cross-cultural translation. There are three common
approaches of cross-cultural translation that have been used:
1. A forward-only translation approach is a one-way translation

from the source language to a target language. This approach is
not recommended because of the lack of reliability and validity
evaluation.
2. Forward translation with testing approach is stronger, but it
also does not address the issue of cross-cultural validity and
reliability.
3. A back-translation approach appears to be stronger than the
previous two approaches, but it also tends to emphasize the
literal translation or linguistic equivalence, which does not
constitute cross-cultural equivalence.
Harkness (2003) has offered a more desirable approach to the

survey questionnaire translation process called Translation, Review,
Adjudication, Pre-testing and Documentation (TRAPD). This approach
is a committee-based approach that involves translators, reviewers,
and adjudicator. Committee or team approaches to translation have
been recognized as more effective compared with other approaches
(Guillemin, Bombardier, & Beaton, 1993; Harkness, Pennell & Schoua-
Glusber, 2004). The translation can be performed via parallel transla-
tions or split translations. In parallel translations, translators work
28
independently before submitting their work for committee review and

evaluation. When two or more nations and groups share the same lan-
guage, each group can translate a part of the whole research instrument.
Neither the committee approach nor the TRADP process address the
issue of sex representation in translation or evaluation. In this book, sex
representation is required in the questionnaire construction and trans-
lation process. Harkness (2003) has suggested that translators should be
“skilled practitioners who have received training on translating ques-
tionnaires” (p. 36). Skilled translators should have adequate knowledge
of the research topic and target population to perform valid translation.
It would be difficult for a translator whose formal training is in engi-
neering perform a translation of a research questionnaire for a study
of depression. This same principle should also be applied to the review-
ers of the questionnaire translation and those who adjudicate the final
translation of the questionnaire. Harkness also recommends the use
of “team approaches” for cross-cultural translation of research instru-
ments. The key advantage of this approach is that team members with
diverse backgrounds will help the team to determine the best transla-
tion outcomes (Guillemin, Bombardier, & Beaton, 1993).
Figure 3.1 illustrates the cross-cultural translation process from the
source language (e.g., English) to the target language (e.g., Vietnamese).
Because there is no gold standard for cross-cultural translation procedures,
this book combines the previously used cross-cultural translation proce-
dures into the following schematic description. This translation process is
time consuming and requires the researchers to carefully select advisory
committees and translators and to use different methods of translation
evaluation to achieve quality cross-cultural translation of an instrument.
The five-step flowchart depicted in Figure 3.1 illustrates a com-
prehensive procedure for cross- cultural translation involving one
target group.
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
The first step in the cross-cultural translation procedure is to form an
advisory committee that will work with the research team to select an
appropriate instrument or a survey questionnaire that can be used to
collect data for the research project. This advisory committee should be
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
several weeks and singing the Marseilles hymn morning and evening,
with the English jack spread over her round house, got under way,
and arrived safe at Toulon, which had been evacuated by the fleet
and army; and all this because Tunis was a neutral port. Now
everybody knew that before the squadron sailed, and also that Tunis
was nothing less than a nest of thieves; besides, we were out of
gunshot of their forts and might have taken the whole with the
greatest ease imaginable.
We had a rugged-headed, squint-eyed boatswain’s mate, who
early one morning passed the word for all those who were quartered
on the main deck to come below and fight the lower-deck guns. He
was instantly obeyed, and the people of their own accord were
absolutely going to bring the French 74 to action, and the above
boatswain’s mate as the head of the party was in the act of setting the
example, when the second lieutenant snatched the match out of his
hand just as he was going to fire. Lord Nelson, who commanded the
Agamemnon, happened to come on board soon after, and when this
was told him he seemed quite pleased: ‘For then,’ says he, ‘we must
have taken them.’ If he had commanded, we certainly should have
taken them,[94] and not have stayed wasting our time for months in
the bay doing nothing.
Our squadron used to water near the Goletta, a small channel
leading to the ancient harbour of Carthage, fortified on each side and
a chain across. On the left of this channel they have a gun with
marble shot of immense size; the diameter of the bore twenty two
inches and a half. On the other side are a few wells dug in the sand,
from which the squadron got their water. On one occasion I went in
the launch to fill our casks, a messmate of mine (the present Captain
Valobra) taking a trip with me; having given directions about filling,
I proposed to cross the Goletta (which has a drawbridge over it) and
take a look at the large fort they have close by. On getting into the
interior, which is a square, we saw a door open and went into what
appeared a guard room, from the number of arms tastefully arranged
about the walls, and several Turks rolled up in blankets lying on the
floor. Having examined the place we were going away, when one of
the Turks, as I approached the door, caught hold of me by the collar
and pushed me back. I did not relish this and tried to make the
blackguard understand, but all to no purpose. However, I again
made a movement to get out, when a young Turk, with a short stick
that had something round like a ball fixed to the end of it, made a
blow at my head which would certainly have done for me had I not
stepped back in time. We had left our side arms in the launch and
had nothing to defend ourselves against this ruffian. One of the
Turks we heard say ‘Spagniolle!’ upon which Valobra called out
‘Angleise!’ Whether this had the effect to liberate us I know not; but
an old withered Turk came up, and after a deal of altercation with the
fellow who struck at me, he pointed to the door and showed us the
way out, and glad enough we were of it. Having filled our casks we
returned on board (the rascally Turks pelting us with stones as long
as we were in reach), and made a complaint to Sir John Collins, who
went on shore the next day to represent the business to the
commandant of the fort, and this vagabond had the impudence to
say we might think ourselves well off that we were not sent up the
country and made slaves. Went with Lieutenant Shirley to see the
ruins of Carthage.... Saw several remains of antiquity, broken
columns, underground passages, pieces of frieze, and the remarkable
arches supposed to be the stables of the elephants. I went into a
room like a cellar and got a piece of the flooring, of beautiful green
and white marble, which I brought home; but some thief in England
stole it from me—the devil do him good with it. The ground about the
ruins was covered with reptiles of almost every description, which
made it dangerous to explore. I carried a piece of frieze several miles
intending to bring it home also, but was obliged to leave it from
fatigue. As Lieutenant Shirley, who was very tired, sat on a broken
column, I observed it might have been the same that Caius Marius
rested on when in exile and from which he made this memorable
reply (to show the instability of human greatness) to him that was
sent by the governor to warn him off: ‘Go,’ says he, ‘and say that thou
hast seen Caius Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage.’
A short time before we left Tunis the bey sent a present to the
squadron, of bullocks, butter, poultry, scented candles and some otto
of roses. We in the cockpit had some butter, poultry, and a scented
candle or two; as for the otto of roses we could smell it near the
wardroom, but not a drop could we see in the cockpit. However, we
were more regaled with the scent of a seapie, made in a pitch kettle
that contained, besides other delicacies, upwards of thirty fowls. We
sat round the cauldron in the cockpit, like the witches in ‘Macbeth,’
and would not have exchanged this glorious mess for all the otto of
roses belonging to the bey or his ministers. At the same time, the
devil thank some people for their kindness in not paying the
compliment; they might have sent us one small bottle to counteract
the bilge water; but never mind; they, poor souls, are all dead; and
most of us are alive notwithstanding. As for the butter, it was only fit
to grease the topmasts, and for that purpose we resigned it. We had a
few of the candles, made of beeswax and scented.
The bullocks were very small, and here I must relate a droll
circumstance. Our purser’s steward was one that dearly loved grog,
and it so happened that on the day the bullocks were slaughtered, he
got beastly drunk. Some of the midshipmen seeing him in that
situation in the first watch, lying near the steward room, agreed to
sew him up in one of the bullocks’ hides, which was accordingly
done. The horns being on, were fixed to a nicety on his head and
fastened under the chin, firm as a rock. A little before twelve he came
to himself and got up (for his legs and arms were free) and tried to
get into the steward room, but the key was secured. He then began to
bellow, just as the quartermaster came down to call the watch, and
was knocking his horns against the bulk head, his tail near the
cockpit ladder. The quartermaster, holding up his lantern, looked at
him for some time in amazement; at last, letting it fall, he took to his
heels, swearing that the devil was in the cockpit; while those who
slept abaft on the lower deck jumped out of their hammocks and
followed his example. ’Twas a most laughable sight; particularly so
when the officer of the watch came down to see what was the matter
and, evidently under the influence of fear, did not venture down the
cockpit ladder until one of the midshipmen came up and said it was
Colquhoun, the steward, transformed into a bullock. It had a good
effect on the steward, as he was afraid ever after to bouse his jib up;
and whenever he put his head up the cockpit ladder, those on the
lower deck would sing out, ‘What’s become of your horns?’
Left Tunis for Porto Farino to get a supply of water for the fleet.
The plague had made great ravages before our arrival, but had in
some measure abated. This place is a Turkish arsenal, and several of
their men of war were fitting out. A number of Neapolitan slaves
were at work in the different storehouses; some of them could speak
English, and gave us an interesting account of the conduct of their
masters. I saw an old Turk, upwards of seventy, with a long stick in
his hand thrashing several of the poor wretches. I could not refrain
from telling him he was a damned old scoundrel; whether he
understood or not, I cannot say, but he called out repeatedly, ‘Esau,
Esau’; and Lieutenant Shirley bawling in his ear, ‘Will you have Isaac
and Jacob also?’
Porto Farino is situated near the mouth of the Bagrada,[95] where
Attilius Regulus, the Roman consul, lay encamped in the first Punic
war, when the serpent attacked and destroyed several of his soldiers
who came to the river to obtain water.... The ancient city of Utica,
famous for the death of Cato in the civil war, was at no great distance
from this port.
A short time before we sailed the Turkish governor paid a visit to
the ship, with his retinue, among whom was the Turkish admiral—a
fine looking fellow near seven feet high. We saluted the governor
with eleven guns, and he minutely inspected every part of the ship
and seemed highly delighted with the bread room, and also with the
68-pounders we had on the forecastle. One of his attendants spoke
English, and said he was in England at the time the Foudroyant was
captured by the Monmouth,[96] and that he lived at Wapping. We
suspected he was an Englishman although he said his name was
Mustapha.
Sailed from this port to cruise off the Island of Pantalaria. You
that are fond of romance are aware that in this island the famous
captain of banditti met his death; all Italy speaks of him, from the
Apennines to the Straits of Messina, and the shepherds of the Sicilian
vales sing the praises of the valoroso Capitano Rinaldini. But they
did not (in this island) sing the praises of little Tommy Yates, our
purser, who went on shore to purchase some articles, and put the
whole island under quarantine when they found out we had just left
the Turkish port; and if Tommy had gone on shore the second time
he probably would have left his bones there.
We encountered off this island the heaviest gale I ever was in;
particularly a squall that lasted from seven bells in the middle watch
until two bells in the morning watch. The storm staysails were blown
from the bolt rope, and the ship during this prodigious gust lay with
her main deck guns in the water. The sea was one white sheet, and
during the whole course of my servitude I never witnessed anything
equal to it; and many who had been in the hurricane of 1780 in the
West Indies, declared that this squall was equally terrible. After the
cruise we put into Trapani, the ancient Drepanum. It was here
Aeneas landed, according to Virgil, when the fight with the gauntlet
took place between Dares and Entellus, and it was also famous for
that between Hercules and Eryx, in which the latter was killed. It was
a noted place in the first Punic war for military events, as that of the
defeat of the Roman fleet under the Consul Claudius Pulcher,
wherein (according to Valerius Maximus) the Romans lost 90
galleys, 8,000 men killed or drowned, and 20,000 taken prisoners
by the Carthaginians without the loss of a man or a single galley on
their side.[97]
I must here relate an anecdote which will show how careful
people ought to be when joking with those whom they think don’t
understand their language. The day after we arrived at Trapani, near
thirty Sicilian clergymen came on board to see the ship, and while on
the quarter deck making their observations, Palmer, our fourth
lieutenant, in a frolicsome mood, went up to one of them and, while
bowing and scraping, said, ‘Pray, sir, were you ever knocked down
with a fathom of ——?’ when, to Palmer’s horror and amazement, the
other answered in good English, ‘Never in my life, sir,’ and then
addressed his companions, who cast their eyes upon Palmer and
began to laugh at his expense. This he could not stand, and in going
down the quarter deck ladder declared he would sooner face the devil
than a Trapani parson.
The islands Maretimo, Levanzo, and Faviguano are near this
place; in the last-mentioned island the Turkish prisoners are sent as
slaves. We saw several of them at work in the moat, one of them a
man of prodigious stature. These islands were the ancient Ægades,
where Lutatius Catulus, the Roman consul, defeated the
Carthaginian fleet and put an end to the first Punic War.[97]
Before we left Trapani we went to see a church, or rather
cemetery, where several rows of dead bodies were placed in niches
one over the other. They were naked, some standing up and others
lying at full length, and presenting an appearance truly horrible; we
understood they belonged to a particular order. While lying here, a
mutiny took place among the ship’s company, in consequence of
some bullocks that were anything but fat being sent for the use of the
people. Now John Bull, having more regard for fat and lean, swore
he’d be damned if he’d have anything to do with skin and bone. A
survey was then held and the report stated that as no other meat
could be obtained, double allowance of this lean kine should be
served out to make up the deficiency; but all to no purpose; and John
Bull, forgetting his duty and only thinking of his maw, broke out into
open rebellion. Some of the scoundrels were put in irons, but were
immediately released by the others and the irons thrown overboard.
They then assembled on the lower deck, got the hammocks down,
and a breastwork made in the bay, with the two foremost guns
pointed aft. The officers at last prevailed on them to return to their
duty, and, Sir John Collins being an easy man, no examples were
made. Sailed for Leghorn, where we arrived in Carnival time. We
were not long at an anchor before the ship was surrounded by boats
with musicians playing fine Italian airs and women singing most
delightfully.
Several men of war were in the roads; among which was the
Aquilon, 32, with Prince Augustus Frederick (now Duke of Sussex)
on his travels. Got leave with some difficulty to go on shore with two
messmates, Graves and Valobra; saw the brazen men so much
spoken of, consisting of the father and three sons (Turks) in bronze
chained to the four corners of a pedestal, with a marble statue of a
Tuscan prince on the top. Visited the Jews’ synagogue, which was
well worth seeing, being a magnificent temple; also the churches,
opera house and many other places, with fine paintings and statuary,
and had glorious fun at the Carnival, where we met our little purser,
Tommy Yates, with a mask and a black domino on, cutting such
capers that Heraclitus would have wiped away his tears had he seen
him, and joined in the laugh. He was a wet little soul and generous to
a degree, and everyone respected him.
Early next morning, after a sumptuous breakfast, we set off for
Pisa, about fourteen or fifteen miles from Leghorn, in one of the gilt
coaches with horses that, had they seen the devil would not have
taken fright. We were three hours going the distance and had full
time to observe the beautiful prospect along the Vale of Arno. About
ten we entered Pisa, where they were celebrating the Carnival in a
magnificent style, and we were told that six hundred coaches were in
the procession. The prince was among the number and appeared
much gratified. Pelting with sugar plums is customary on this
occasion; and one of our midshipmen pelted Lord Hervey in his
coach; and when told it was the British ambassador, and that he
looked very angry, he immediately hove another volley at Lady
Hervey, observing that she looked better tempered than his
Excellency.
We spent a very pleasant evening at the theatre, and next
morning went to the cathedral—a gorgeous fabric, with gates of
bronze highly decorated with passages from scripture in
compartments in basso relievo. We also saw the baptistery with a
whispering gallery, and the campo santo, with the paintings on the
wall in fresco round the cloisters, the work of the oldest masters. One
painting I well recollect, representing the Last Judgment—the work I
believe of Buffalmaco, who in this painting drew all his friends going
to heaven, and his enemies going to the devil; the faces of all being
an exact resemblance of those of both parties. The tombs of some of
the masters are at the foot of their works.[98] The campo santo is an
oblong figure, and the earth in the centre was brought from the Holy
Land some centuries ago, and people of religious celebrity are here
interred.
We next visited the Observatory and Botanical Gardens, and
then to the top of the Leaning Tower, 187 feet high, and whose
summit overlooks the base fifteen feet. One of our party began
ringing the bells, which brought up a posse of friars; and Graves,
pointing to one of them, a very fat man, exclaimed, ‘I’ll be damned if
that fellow is not fitted for foreign service with six months’ provisions
in his guts.’ I suppose they did not understand him, as they behaved
with great civility. Some in this country, who I could mention, would
have behaved in a different manner. There’s an old saying
That Pisa looks ill
If you sit still.
This was not the case with us, as we were constantly on the move and
saw everything and enjoyed ourselves greatly, particularly among the
masks while parading the Lung’ Arno. The day before our departure
we took a long and delightful walk upon the banks of the Arno and
were within a few miles of the spot where Catiline and his whole
army were destroyed 63 B.C., in the consulship of Marcus Tullius
Cicero and Caius Antonius Nepos.
Pisa has a university and formerly contained 100,000
inhabitants, but has greatly fallen off and grass grows in the streets.
It contains many churches and other superb buildings, particularly
the Grand Duke’s palace in the Lung’ Arno, the Hospital, and
Exchange. There are three bridges over the Arno, one of them of
marble. Several Roman antiquities are to be seen. It was our
intention to have gone to Lucca and from thence to Florence; but all
sublunary things are vain, as we were ordered to sea sooner than was
expected, and returned to Leghorn after five days’ absence, where we
dined at an excellent ordinary at one of the best houses in the city.
We had a strong party of English officers at the dinner, some of
whom got rather merry before the cloth was off the table, and
catching hold of the waiter they rolled him in the cloth with plates
and dishes, the fellow roaring out all the while to no purpose. One
midshipman took a loaf and let if fall out of the window (we were on
the second floor) upon the jaw of an Italian in the street, which
floored him, while others pelted legs and wings of fowls at those
looking out of the opposite windows; but to their kind forbearance
everything was taken as a joke and only laughed at. Would this have
been the case in England?—where every hole and corner has a board
threatening prosecution, and if you pass two or three stopping in the
street, their conversation will be about law, hanging, or trade.
Sallied out in the evening and went to a house in Scratch Alley—
you that have been at Leghorn I daresay know the place well. In the
middle of this lane lived an old woman of enormous size, who was
named the Boatswain of Scratch Alley. Saw a figure there I never
shall forget—a fellow dressed as a lady, with a fine cap trimmed with
blue ribbon and a white frock on, a face like Vulcan with a long black
beard. When he came in the room we were sitting in, he danced a
fandango and cut such astonishing capers that my old messmate
Vosper said drily, ‘Gardner, if that fellow is not the devil he must be
his near relation.’ The next evening three of us took a cruise, and, it
being very late before we returned, our lodging was shut up and with
difficulty we got entrance to a house near the Mole. The
accommodations vile in the extreme; only one bed, with sheets as if a
sweep had slept in them. At this time it began to rain with drops as
big as pistol balls, which obliged us to stay where we were. However,
we sat on the chairs, but got very little sleep for the rats and people
passing and re-passing to a sewer at the end of the room. The
morning luckily turned out fine, and after clearing our uniforms of a
few bugs that thought fit to billet themselves on us without being
invited, we gladly started from this infernal hotel to breathe the fresh
air. Went to Montenero, where the learned Smelfungus has a
monument near his remains.[99]
Having received orders to sail immediately and join the
squadron under Vice-Admiral Hotham off Toulon, we first put into
St. Fiorenzo for a short time. Went to see the Mortella tower that
beat off the Fortitude, 74, and Juno frigate; the former ship had
upwards of sixty killed and wounded, and was on fire in several
places from the red-hot shot. This tower had but two guns; one of
them was dismounted during the attack and defended by twenty
Frenchmen, only one of whom was killed. The tower was taken by
mounting some guns on a spot that overlooked it.[100]
Sailed from St. Fiorenzo and joined the squadron. Our captain,
Sir John Collins, being ill, we had Captain William Shield acting. Sir
John soon after departed this life and was committed to the deep.
Sixteen minute guns were fired at the funeral to denote the number
of years he had been a post captain. Sir John was a well-meaning
man, but fractious from long illness. He died with the gout in his
head and stomach. The ship’s company paid respect to his memory;
they divided their black silk handkerchiefs,[101] and wore one part
round their hats and the other round their arms, and requested they
might see the corpse before the interment; which request was
granted, and they walked through the cabin in ranks and bowed to
the coffin while passing, and most of them in tears—a sight truly
impressive. Billy Shield remained with us about a month after Sir
John’s death, and then George Campbell, as good a fellow as ever
lived, took command.
I have already stated our reconnoitring the enemy’s fleet in the
roads. Out of many instances I shall mention one that had nearly
been of serious consequences. Having stood in with a fine breeze, the
enemy never fired a shot until we hove in stays. At this time it fell on
a sudden a dead calm, and we were within gunshot. They then began
to blaze away from all their forts, the red-hot shot flying in every
direction. I was looking out of the gunroom port when a shot came
right under our counter, which made the water hiss and had nearly
struck the rudder. At this time things looked queer, all the boats were
hoisted out and began to tow, but still we drifted in, the shot flying
full half a mile beyond us, when luckily a breeze came off the land
and saved the Berwick from being sunk or blown up, for she never
would have been taken. Fortunately we had none killed or wounded,
which was astonishing, as the shot flew like hail. Captain Campbell
soon after left the ship, being appointed to the Terrible, 74, and
Captain George Henry Towry succeeded him.
Our squadron under Admiral Hotham consisted of eight sail of
the line, two of them three-deckers (the Britannia, 100, and St.
George, 98) and two frigates; and, after several weeks’ cruise, the
French fleet put to sea from Toulon with seven sail of the line, one of
them a three-decker, and six or seven frigates or smaller vessels.
Now, mark me, several of those ships had been put down as burnt at
the evacuation of Toulon, but now had the impudence to rise from
their ashes like the Phœnix,[102] or like the snake that had slept the
winter, but on the return of spring appears renewed in youth and
with new fury burns:
Qualis ubi in lucem coluber, mala gramina pastus,
Frigida sub terra tumidum quem bruma tegebat,
Nunc positis novus exuviis, nitidusque juventa,
Lubrica convolvit sublato pectore terga,
Arduus ad solem, et linguis micat ore trisulcis.—Aeneid.
June 1794.—We were at dinner when the drum beat to quarters,

and on going upon deck saw the ‘Resurgam Squadron’ coming out,
under topsails and foresail, on the starboard tack, in line of battle,
the Sans Culotte,[103] 136 guns, their leading ship; the wind westerly;
our squadron standing in on the larboard tack, and to the best of my
recollection about three leagues from the enemy; and, had we stood
on and tacked, we should have got in their wake. But our admiral
made a signal—it being at this time evening—that a movement would
take place after dusk. Now, what do you think this movement was?
Why, to bear up and sail large! ‘Tell it not in Gath, nor publish it in
the streets of Askalon.’ The Meleager, 32, was left behind to watch
the enemy. All this appeared strange; but the admiral, we supposed,
knew
What was what and that as high
As metaphysic wit could fly.
Now we had an opinion also, and that opinion was that the
French might have been brought to action that evening; at any rate
we should have prevented them from getting back to the roads, and
could have attacked them in the morning if a night action was
considered hazardous. It was said the admiral was fearful they
should escape us and throw relief into Calvi, at that time besieged.
Whatever was the reason, off we set as if hell kicked us and joined
Lord Hood—I think the next day; and then, as brave as Hercules,
crowded sail with fourteen or fifteen sail of the line and got sight of
them the day after, in the morning, working in near Gourjean Bay,
[104]
where they anchored in the afternoon under the forts. Lord Hood
made every preparation to attack them, and a general chase with
some hopes of success took place. We were ordered to attack the fort
on the starboard hand until the fleet had passed, and then to follow;
and the Illustrious, 74, was ordered against the frigates in the other
quarter in shore, near the other line-of-battle ships. But all this
ended in disappointment, as towards night the wind blew strong off
the land and the attack was given up in the morning, and we were
detached with the sick to St. Fiorenzo, and then to Calvi to assist in
the siege. It was here that Lord Nelson lost his eye and Captain
Serocold his life. We remained but a short time at Calvi and then
returned to St. Fiorenzo. The Yankee historian (James) gives a very
incorrect account of this; in fact, he says little or nothing about our
squadron under Admiral Hotham when the French put to sea; which
appears strange, as this calumniator always felt happy in finding
fault with naval officers, and here he missed a good opportunity.
While cruising in the Gulf of Genoa we picked up parts of the
booms belonging to the Ardent, 64, who had been missing a long
time; and from the appearance of the spars it was evident she was
blown up with all hands,[105] as nothing has been heard of her since.
It was a sad business that we did not bring the French to action the
day they left Toulon; the disappointment was bitterly felt by those
who expected prize money and promotion, and here a glorious
opportunity was thrown away in the most unaccountable manner.
For personal bravery Admiral Hotham stood pre-eminent; but it has
been said he was not fit to command in chief, but very able as a
second. In the American war he greatly distinguished himself,
particularly when he was commodore on board the Preston, 50, he
engaged and would have taken a French 84,[106] one of D’Estaing’s
squadron, which a gale of wind coming suddenly on alone prevented;
and the public accounts respecting this action say, ‘Now for the glory
and honour of the British army.’
While speaking of the honour of the British navy, I must say a
word or two more about the seamen and marines. When Lord Hood
besieged Bastia he proposed to General Dundas, who commanded
the troops, to make a joint attack; but the general thought it too
hazardous. Now Lord Hood had a different opinion,
and while General Dundas
And his eighteen manœuvres sat still on the grass
he attacked the place with the seamen and marines who covered
themselves with glory and carried all the works, and Bastia was
obliged to surrender.
Having letters of recommendation to Lord Hood and to Admiral
Goodall, I went on board the Victory and was told by the secretary
(McArthur), that several were before me on the list for promotion;
but if I would take my chance his lordship would remove me to the
Victory immediately. This I thought would be of little service; and as
the Gorgon, 44, was under orders for England I requested to be sent
on board of her and try my interest at home. My request being
granted, Captain Towry in the kindest manner recommended me to
Captain Wallis of the Gorgon, which kindness I shall always
remember, and am sorry that the service has lost by his death so
good an officer. He served with his Majesty[107] in the Andromeda
and Valiant.
Before leaving the Berwick I must mention a few droll hands
that belonged to her; and first I shall bring forward old Bell, the mate
of the hold. We pressed him and several mates of merchantmen out
of a cartel from Marseilles to Gibraltar, and put them on the quarter
deck. He was a hard-drinking man and also a hard-working man. We
had a set on board full of fun; and when old Bell was half seas over,
they used to paint his face with red ochre, his eyebrows blacked,
large moustache, with a flaxen wig made from the fag ends of the
tiller rope; a cocked hat over all, tied under the chin; his shirt off and
his body painted like an ancient Briton. In this costume I have seen
him chasing the midshipmen through the tier with a drawn sword, a
fit subject for a pencil like Hogarth’s.
Next to him was old Collier, who drank like a fish, and when
drunk used to sing the Thirty-fourth Psalm and prognosticate that
the ship would founder with all hands. They used to make fast his
shirt sleeves at the wrist and then haul the shirt over his head, so that
he could not clear his hands. In this situation he would be powdered
and painted, with a red night cap on his head, and placed alongside
of old Bell, while the whole cockpit would be in a roar.
We had a little slovenly surgeon’s mate whose name was Vag.
The midshipmen annoyed him sadly by calling out Vag-Veg-Vig-Vog-
Vug, while others in a cockney cadence would sing out Wig-Wag-
Wog, which enraged him almost to madness. I happened to come
into the berth where he was sitting at a time they were calling out as
above, when he, without any provocation on my part, snatched up
the snuffers and with the sharp end stabbed me in the chest and then
run a-muck after the rest, who were glad enough to steer clear of
him.
Some of our lads had a custom of taking an afternoon’s nap,
particularly Graves, who went with me to Pisa. The others, always on
the watch for mischief, would clap a spritsail yard upon his nose.
This was done by cutting a notch on the outside of a piece of hoop
and bending it so as to form a forceps and then put it on the nose like
a spring. The first time it was fixed he started up and swore lustily
that a rat (for we had hundreds of them on board) had seized him by
the nose. On another occasion some wicked fellow made a curious
mark on his forehead with caustic that remained for several weeks.
Our chaplain was a learned gentleman and always going on
shore to make researches after antiquities. When we sailed from
Toulon he was left behind; and on making his escape (so we were
told) when the enemy entered, he got upon a wall where a rope
ladder was placed about ten feet high. When he got on the top the
ladder gave way and he had no means of alighting on the other side,
and was afraid to jump down. In this predicament a party of French
came up and one of them let fly a stone, which fortunately for him
first struck the wall and then hit him on the hip, and canted him the
right way; and by that means he luckily made his escape to the boats
with little hurt, but damnably frightened. In the gale of July 1793,
when we carried away our main topmast and half the main top, an
arm chest full of black pieces[108] fell out of the top with thundering
sound upon the quarter deck, and several of the muskets stuck with
their muzzles in the deck, which bent some of the barrels. Old Billy
Chantrell, our first lieutenant, taking up one of them, said with a
grin, ‘I shall take this home; it will do when I go a-shooting to kill
sparrows round a hayrick.’ When it fell it was within an inch of his
head, and he was knocked down with a piece of the chest which
broke through the netting. I passed a very happy life during the time
I belonged to the Berwick and parted with many valuable friends
with deep regret. Our first lieutenant (Chantrell), Mr. Chas. Duncan,
the master, and Tomlinson, the clerk, left the ship at the same time
and joined the Gorgon as supernumeraries for a passage to England;
and also two of my old shipmates, Yetts and Allardice, formerly of
the Edgar, invalided home, which made the Gorgon very agreeable to
me. The following are the names of the officers:—
Sir John Collins, Knt., Captain.
Dead. A good man but fractious from severe illness; he
commanded the Ruby, 64, detached from the grand fleet at the
relief of Gibraltar, 1782, being one of eight sail of the line sent
to reinforce the fleet in the West Indies. On the passage she
captured, after a smart action, the Solitaire, a French 64, for
which Captain Collins was knighted.
Wm. Shield, Esq., Captain.
A retired rear-admiral. [Died 1842.—Marshall, iii. 89.]
Geo. Campbell, Esq., Captain.
Dead. A vice-admiral; a better fellow never existed. [As a rear-
admiral, second in command under Nelson off Toulon 1803–4.
Died, admiral and G.C.B., in 1821.]
Geo. Henry Towry, Esq., Captain.
Dead [1808]. In him the service lost a most worthy officer.
William Chantrell, 1st Lieutenant.
Dead. See Barfleur.
William Bullock, 2nd Lieutenant.
Dead. A commander; well-meaning and droll.
Chas. Stewart [or Stuart], 3rd Lieutenant.
Dead [1814]. A post captain [1796]; gouty and proud.
Nisbet Palmer, 4th Lieutenant.
Dead [1811]. He commanded the Alacrity, an 18-gun brig, in
the Mediterranean, and was captured by a French brig of the
same force. In the action Captain Palmer was wounded and
died soon after. James in his Naval History [v. 248 seq.] gives
a sad account of this. He says, ‘Capt. Palmer was only wounded
in the finger, that he ordered the colours to be struck to an
enemy of equal force, and that his death was occasioned by a
locked jaw.’ In justice to the memory of Captain Palmer it must
be recollected that the Alacrity was weakly manned—a great
number of her crew being absent in prizes. The Yankee
historian must have known this, but he had not the generosity
to state it. [James does state it; but nevertheless comments
very severely on the conduct of Palmer; not unmindful,
perhaps, of the fact that by the death of the captain, he was
commanding officer of the Berwick when captured on March 7,
1795.]
Thomas Shirley, 5th Lieutenant.
Dead. Half mad, but good-natured.
Chas. Duncan, Master.
A superannuated master attendant; a very good man.
[John] Dodgson, Surgeon.
Dead. A worthy fellow.
Thos. L. Yates, Purser.
Dead. Generous and thoughtless.
[Alexander John] Scott, Chaplain.
A Doctor of Divinity; was with Lord Nelson on board the
Victory at Trafalgar. [Died 1840.—D.N.B.]
[Hector] Tause, Gunner.
Dead. Crabbed.
Philip Myers, Carpenter.
Dead. A droll fellow.
[Joseph] Kemble, Boatswain.
Uncertain. A snappish cur.
Edward Hutchinson, Mate.
A commander; a good officer; a good navigator; a good seaman
and a most worthy messmate. [Captain, retired, 1840; died
1851.—O’Byrne.]
Robt. Tucker, Mate.
A commander; a good seaman, but given to drinking. [Died,
retired captain, 1846.—O’Byrne.]
J. A. Gardner, Mate.
A commander.
Wm. Vosper, Signal midshipman.
Lieutenant of the Royal Asylum, Greenwich Hospital. We were
at three schools together at Gosport, and in two ships; a very
able officer and seaman.
James Valobra, Midshipman.
A commander; a very worthy fellow. [Died 1861.—O’Byrne.]
Augustus Collins, Midshipman; son of the captain.
Dead. I believe a commander.
John Graves, Midshipman.
Dead. A lieutenant. Poor Jack was a worthy fellow.
James Galloway, Midshipman.
A commander [1806], out-pension. [Died 1846.—Marshall, x.
345; O’Byrne.]
John Lawrence, Midshipman.
A post captain [1817]; C.B. [Died 1849.—Marshall, viii. 123;
O’Byrne.]
[Richard] Scovell, Midshipman.
Killed in battle.
[Nicholas] Le Bair, Midshipman.
Poor fellow! was taken in the Berwick, and died in French
prison. [DD. in the pay-book, April 19, 1795. Toulon.]
Alex. Mackenzie, Midshipman.
Dead [1825]. A post captain. This man, when he was a
midshipman, used to sneak after the lieutenants; when made a
lieutenant, sneaking after the captains, and when made a
captain, was at his old tricks, sneaking after the admirals. Had
he lived to be made a flag officer, he would have sneaked after
the devil.—[Marshall, vii. 75.]
John Rose, Midshipman.
A commander; a good fellow.
[William] Barber, Midshipman.
Dead. A lieutenant; a good fellow.
[Thomas] Pitt, Midshipman.
Uncertain. I believe a master.
[Thomas] Hewlett, Midshipman.
A master; I believe dead.
[John] Bell, Mate of the hold.
Uncertain. A droll fellow; drank hard.
[Walter] Dempster, Midshipman.
Uncertain. A quiet, good fellow.
[John] Collier, Midshipman.
Uncertain. Good natured; drank hard.
Lord Proby, Midshipman.
Dead [1804]. A post captain. [William Allen Proby, eldest son
of the first Earl of Carysfort.]
John Lambrick, Midshipman.
A commander.—[O’Byrne.]
Wm. McCulloch, Midshipman.
Dead [1825]. A post captain [1814]; a smart officer.—[Marshall,
vii. 398.]
John Briggs, 1st Assistant Surgeon.
A surgeon R.N.; a most worthy gentleman.
[Henry] Vagg, 3rd Assistant Surgeon.
Uncertain. A sloven; Vig-Vag-Vog-Vug.
GORGON, 44
UPON TWO DECKS
Adieu, ye vales, that smiling peace bestow

Where Eden’s blossoms ever vernal blow,
Ye fairy scenes where fancy loves to dwell,
And young delight, for ever, oh, farewell!—Falconer.
In July 1794 I joined the Gorgon, Captain James Wallis, at St.

Fiorenzo, and after considerable delay sailed for Gibraltar with the
convoy bound for England under Vice-Admiral P. Cosby, who had his
flag on board the Alcide, 74. The following men of war, to the best of
my recollection, in company:—
Alcide 74 Vice-Admiral Cosby

Commerce de Marseilles[109] 136
Gorgon 44
Pearl[109] 36
Topaze[109] 36
St. Fiorenzo 36
Modeste 32
We had a very pleasant passage to Gibraltar, where we remained

some time in the New Mole, and then started for Cadiz to take in
money and to join the convoy assembling there for England. On the
passage we got on shore a few leagues to the southward of Cadiz, and
had very near taken up our quarters on the shoals, and, what was
remarkable, a frigate had been sent before us for the same purpose,
but got on shore in this place, and was obliged to return, and we
(being clever) after laughing at the circumstance, were sent to repair
her errors and went bump on shore on the very spot. The America,
64, having arrived at Cadiz to take charge of the convoy, we were put
under her orders, and having got on board the money, sailed with the
convoy for Lisbon.
Farewell and adieu, ye fair Spanish Ladies,
Farewell and adieu, ye Ladies of Spain;
For we’ve received orders to sail for old England,
In hopes in short time for to see you again.—Old Song.
After a passage of near three weeks we arrived in the Tagus,

fortunately the day before a tremendous hurricane, which blew dead
upon the shore, came on and lasted a considerable time. We
remained several weeks at Lisbon collecting the convoy. At last when
everything was ready we got under way, I think the latter end of
September, the following men of war in company:—
America 64 Hon. John Rodney, Commodore, having charge of the

convoy
Gorgon 44 Captain Wallis
Pearl 36
Topaze 36
St. 36 Capt. Sir C. Hamilton (?)
Fiorenzo
Modeste 32 Captain [Byam Martin]
Alert 18
We had a most dreadful passage home, blowing a gale of wind

the whole time with seldom more sail set than a close-reefed main
topsail. The French squadron that captured the Alexander, 74, had
been on the look-out for us. We had several French emigrants on
board who were in the greatest tribulation for fear of being taken;
and fortunately for them and for us the Jacobin squadron got on the
wrong scent. I don’t know how it happened, but some people kept an
odd kind of reckoning, and we had some idea of making the banks of
Newfoundland instead of the British Channel. However, at last we
got to the northward and westward of Scilly, with the wind at SW;
but it must be understood, to give the devil his due, that we had not
an observation for a long time, and our dead reckoning was not to be

Emassfile - 871developing Cross Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation 2Nd Edition Edition Keith T Chan Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Emassfile - 871developing Cross Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation 2Nd Edition Edition Keith T Chan Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Developing Cross-Cultural

Measurement In Social Work Research

Fundamentals of Social Work Research 2nd Edition,

The Practice of Research in Social Work 4th Edition,

Sensitive Research in Social Work 1st ed. 2022 Edition

(eTextbook PDF) for World Architecture: A Cross-

Measurement and Evaluation in Human Performance 5th

Introduction to Social Work: An Advocacy Based

Consumer Behaviour 2nd Edition Chan

Empowerment Series: Research Methods for Social Work

Developing Cross-​Cultural Measurement

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press 2017

First Edition published in 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

You must not circulate this work in any other form

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

Printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada

T he United States historically has been a haven for immigrants and

MIGRATION AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

population growth since the beginning of the twenty-​first century. With

in anthropology, psychology, sociology, and political science, and the

W e appreciate the support from Boston College School of Social

Developing Cross-​Cultural Measurement

2 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 3

MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES OF CROSS-​CULTURAL RESEARCH

4 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

offers a fundamental component of meaningful generalizations about

Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 5

6 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

target population or society (Berry, 1969). However, both approaches

Cross-​Cultural Political Science Research

Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 7

democracy (Pye, 1997). The well-​being of individuals and societies are

8 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

Cross-​cultural researchers from these disciplines have employed

Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 9

ISSUES IN CROSS-​CULTURAL SOCIAL RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

10 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

diversity in its educational policy and accreditation standards (CSWE,

1. To understand how people from different cultures cope with

From the intervention perspective, we can define cross-​cultural

Overview of Culture and Cross-Cultural Research 11

group. Furthermore, if the outcome measure bears no similarities in

12 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

information collected from both professionals and laypersons rep-

Process and Critical

Research instrument is defined as a systematic and standardized tool

14 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

target language without considering cultural differences. This is an effi-

Identifying & Defining

Figure 2.1 The Process of Cross-​Cultural Instrument Development.

16 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

the context of cross-​cultural settings. The sources and motivation of

1. Funding agencies or institutions. Researchers are expected to

Once the research aims, questions, or hypotheses are identified,

1. Research locations. Choosing the geographical areas to conduct

Representatives from the selected target populations, communities, or

Process and Critical Tasks of Cross-Cultural Research 17

1. Formulating the common research aims. Researchers can use

18 Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation

the participation of the research populations. Establishing

Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

population growth since the beginning of the twenty-first century. With

Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement

MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES OF CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

Cross-Cultural Political Science Research

democracy (Pye, 1997). The well-being of individuals and societies are

Cross-cultural researchers from these disciplines have employed

ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL SOCIAL RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

From the intervention perspective, we can define cross-cultural

Figure 2.1 The Process of Cross-Cultural Instrument Development.

the context of cross-cultural settings. The sources and motivation of

The above tasks require in-depth discussion, exchange of ideas, and

PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL

Cross-Cultural Evaluations of Research Aims. Once the preliminary

CROSS-CULTURAL TRANSLATION AND RELATED ISSUES

cross-cultural translation. Several examples will be presented to illus-

1. A forward-only translation approach is a one-way translation