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Diagnostic Imaging Brain 4Th Edition Miral D Jhaveri Full Chapter PDF
Diagnostic Imaging Brain 4Th Edition Miral D Jhaveri Full Chapter PDF
Diagnostic Imaging Brain 4Th Edition Miral D Jhaveri Full Chapter PDF
Miral D. Jhaveri
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FOURTH EDITION
J ire v ah
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Vattoth | Gaddikeri
ii
FOURTH EDITION
Karen L. Salzman, MD
Professor of Radiology and Imaging Sciences
Neuroradiology Section Chief and Fellowship Director
Leslie W. Davis Endowed Chair in Neuroradiology
University of Utah School of Medicine
Salt Lake City, Utah
iii
Elsevier
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as
may be noted herein).
Notices
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein.
Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of
diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is
assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
iv
noitaci deD
v
vi
srohtu A gnitubirtnoC
Matthew Alexander, MD Kalen Riley, MD, MBA
Assistant Professor Neuroradiology Fellow
Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences University of Utah
Adjunct Assistant Professor of Neurosurgery Salt Lake City, Utah
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah Blair A. Winegar, MD
Associate Professor
Hediyeh Baradaran, MD Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences
Assistant Professor University of Utah School of Medicine
Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences Salt Lake City, Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
Kelly A. Dahlstrom, DO
Neuroradiology Fellow
University of Utah Health
Salt Lake City, Utah
vii
ecafe rP
Welcome to the 4th edition of our popular Diagnostic Imaging: Brain! The 3rd edition was
published in late 2015, and my goodness, has a lot changed since then! One thing that
has remained constant is our dedication to bringing you the latest and greatest “stuff” in
neuroimaging. We’ve added a bunch of new diagnoses and eliminated others that have
become outdated or superseded by new concepts that have supplanted old ones. We’ve
updated references, made some new signature graphics, expanded the digital image
galleries, and put in new illustrations of familiar entities.
Our 4th edition of Diagnostic Imaging: Brain author group, now headed by our longtime
colleague, Dr. Miral Jhaveri, welcomes several new faces to the project and features
expanded participation by others. Surjith Vattoth, Luke Linscott, Usha Nagaraj, Santhosh
Gaddikeri, Hediyeh Baradaran, Matthew Alexander, and Kelly Dahlstrom are welcome
additions to our team.
So, what’s new in the last 5 years that we feature in this edition? We’ve added new vascular
disorders, such as critical illness-associated microbleeds, [recently recognized as a cause
of altered mental status in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) who
are on ECMO or ventilator assistance], inflammatory cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and
cerebral proliferative angiopathy (a mimic of diffuse arteriovenous malformation). We’ve
also included new toxic-metabolic entities, such as gadolinium deposition in the brain and
new infectious diseases (e.g., Zika virus) in this edition.
When the 3rd edition went to press in late 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO)
had not yet published its revised, updated, “4-plus” Classification of Tumors of the Central
Nervous System (May 2016). The advent of molecular diagnostics has drastically changed
our understanding of brain tumors and markedly altered the way they are classified
(the most striking is the classification of diffuse astrocytomas by IDH mutation status
and the restructuring of medulloblastomas into 4 genetically based subtypes). As we
write this preface, and our 4th edition goes to press, the WHO neuropathologists are
readying yet another update (5e) to the official WHO Classification of CNS Neoplasms that
will be published in May 2021. They have published interim updates in journals, such as
Brain Pathology and Acta Neuropathologica. Where appropriate, we have included these
updates in our existing diagnoses and added new ones. You will find new tumor entities,
such as diffuse midline glioma, H3K27M-mutant, diffuse leptomeningeal glioneuronal
tumor, RELA fusion-positive ependymoma, multinodular and vacuolating neuronal
tumor (MVNT), and polymorphous low-grade neuroepitheal tumor of the young (PLNTY)
viii
included for the 1st time. You will search in vain for diagnoses that are now considered
outdated (for example, the term “PNET” is no longer used and has been superceded by
“other embryonal tumors” characterized by specific mutations, such as embryonal tumors
with multilayered rosettes, C19MC-altered).
We’ve also included some interesting new tumors and tumor mimics, such as calcifying
pseudoneoplasm of the neuraxis (CAPNON), IgG4-related disease, and inflammatory
myofibroblastic tumor.
There’s so much more that’s changed since the 3rd edition. Hopefully, we’ve given you
just a little taste of the diagnostic dilemmas and delights that await you in this newest
edition of Diagnostic Imaging: Brain. We hope you enjoy reading it as much as we liked
writing it!
Karen L. Salzman, MD
Professor of Radiology and Imaging Sciences
Neuroradiology Section Chief and Fellowship Director
Leslie W. Davis Endowed Chair in Neuroradiology
University of Utah School of Medicine
Salt Lake City, Utah
ix
x
stnemgde l wonkcA
LEAD EDITOR
Nina I. Bennett, BA
LEAD ILLUSTRATOR
Lane R. Bennion, MS
TEXT EDITORS
Arthur G. Gelsinger, MA
Rebecca L. Bluth, BA
Terry W. Ferrell, MS
Megg Morin, BA
Kathryn Watkins, BA
IMAGE EDITORS
Jeffrey J. Marmorstone, BS
Lisa A. M. Steadman, BS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Richard Coombs, MS
Laura C. Wissler, MA
PRODUCTION EDITORS
Emily C. Fassett, BA
John Pecorelli, BS
xi
xii
snoitceS
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
121 Ataxia-Telangiectasia
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
SECTION 3: SUBARACHNOID
122 PHACES Syndrome
HEMORRHAGE AND ANEURYSMS
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 218 Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Aneurysms Overview
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
SECTION 2: TRAUMA
128 Introduction to CNS Imaging, Trauma
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 220 Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
PRIMARY EFFECTS OF CNS TRAUMA 224 Perimesencephalic Nonaneurysmal Subarachnoid
134 Scalp and Skull Injuries Hemorrhage
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
138 Missile and Penetrating Injury 226 Convexal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
142 Epidural Hematoma, Classic 228 Superficial Siderosis, Classical
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
146 Epidural Hematoma, Variant 232 Superficial Siderosis, Cortical
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD,
152 Acute Subdural Hematoma FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
156 Subacute Subdural Hematoma ANEURSYMS
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 234 Saccular Aneurysm
160 Chronic Subdural Hematoma Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 238 Pseudoaneurysm
166 Traumatic Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 240 Vertebrobasilar Dolichoectasia
170 Cerebral Contusion Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 242 ASVD Fusiform Aneurysm
174 Diffuse Axonal Injury Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 244 Non-ASVD Fusiform Aneurysm
178 Subcortical Injury Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 246 Blood Blister-Like Aneurysm
182 Pneumocephalus Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
186 Abusive Head Trauma SECTION 4: STROKE
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 250 Stroke Overview
Karen L. Salzman, MD
SECONDARY EFFECTS OF CNS TRAUMA
190 Intracranial Herniation Syndromes NONTRAUMATIC INTRACRANIAL
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR HEMORRHAGE
194 Posttraumatic Brain Swelling 258 Evolution of Intracranial Hemorrhage
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Karen L. Salzman, MD
198 Traumatic Cerebral Ischemia/Infarction 262 Spontaneous Nontraumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Karen L. Salzman, MD
202 Brain Death 266 Hypertensive Intracranial Hemorrhage
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Karen L. Salzman, MD
204 Second-Impact Syndrome 270 Remote Cerebellar Hemorrhage
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Karen L. Salzman, MD
206 Traumatic Cerebrovascular Injury 272 Germinal Matrix Hemorrhage
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
210 Traumatic Carotid Cavernous Fistula 276 Critical Illness-Associated Microbleeds
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
212 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND CAROTID STENOSIS
214 Leptomeningeal Cyst (Growing Fracture)
278 Intracranial Atherosclerosis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Kevin R. Moore, MD
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
282 Extracranial Atherosclerosis
Hediyeh Baradaran, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD
xv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
286 Arteriolosclerosis 380 Multiple Embolic Cerebral Infarctions
Karen L. Salzman, MD Karen L. Salzman, MD
381 Fat Emboli Cerebral Infarction
NONATHEROMATOUS VASCULOPATHY Kalen Riley, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
290 Aberrant Internal Carotid Artery 382 Cerebral Embolism, Air
Karen L. Salzman, MD Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
294 Persistent Carotid Basilar Anastomoses 384 Lacunar Infarction
Hediyeh Baradaran, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD Hediyeh Baradaran, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD
296 Sickle Cell Disease, Brain 388 Cerebral Hyperperfusion Syndrome
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
300 Moyamoya 392 Dural Sinus Thrombosis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
304 Primary Arteritis of CNS 398 Cortical Venous Thrombosis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
310 Miscellaneous Vasculitis 404 Deep Cerebral Venous Thrombosis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
314 Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome 410 Dural Sinus and Aberrant Arachnoid Granulations
Kelly A. Dahlstrom, DO and Karen L. Salzman, MD Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
316 Vasospasm
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR SECTION 5: VASCULAR
320 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus MALFORMATIONS
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 416 Vascular Malformations Overview
324 Cerebral Amyloid Disease Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Karen L. Salzman, MD
328 Cerebral Amyloid Disease, Inflammatory CVMS WITH AV SHUNTING
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 418 Arteriovenous Malformation
330 CADASIL Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Hediyeh Baradaran, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD 422 Dural AV Fistula
334 Behçet Disease Matthew Alexander, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Karen L. Salzman, MD 426 Pial AV Fistula
336 Susac Syndrome Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Jeffrey S. Anderson, MD, PhD 428 Vein of Galen Aneurysmal Malformation
338 Fibromuscular Dysplasia Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Matthew Alexander, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD 432 Cerebral Proliferative Angiopathy
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
CEREBRAL ISCHEMIA AND INFARCTION
340 Hydranencephaly CVMS WITHOUT AV SHUNTING
Luke L. Linscott, MD, Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR, and 434 Developmental Venous Anomaly
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
342 White Matter Injury of Prematurity 440 Sinus Pericranii
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
346 Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury 444 Cavernous Malformation
Luke L. Linscott, MD Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
350 Adult Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury 450 Capillary Telangiectasia
Karen L. Salzman, MD Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
354 Hypotensive Cerebral Infarction
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR SECTION 6: NEOPLASMS
360 Childhood Stroke
456 Neoplasms Overview
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
364 Cerebral Hemiatrophy
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Karen L. Salzman, MD ASTROCYTIC TUMORS, INFILTRATING
366 Acute Cerebral Ischemia/Infarction
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Edward P. Quigley, III, MD, 458 Diffuse Astrocytoma
PhD Karen L. Salzman, MD
372 Subacute Cerebral Infarction 462 Anaplastic Astrocytoma
Karen L. Salzman, MD Karen L. Salzman, MD
376 Chronic Cerebral Infarction 466 Glioblastoma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Karen L. Salzman, MD
xvi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
470 Gliosarcoma 542 Central Neurocytoma
Karen L. Salzman, MD Karen L. Salzman, MD
472 Gliomatosis Cerebri Imaging Pattern 546 Extraventricular Neurocytoma
Karen L. Salzman, MD Karen L. Salzman, MD
476 Diffuse Midline Glioma, H3K27M-Mutant 548 Cerebellar Liponeurocytoma
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Karen L. Salzman, MD
549 Papillary Glioneuronal Tumor
ASTROCYTIC TUMORS, LOCALIZED Karen L. Salzman, MD
478 Pilocytic Astrocytoma 550 Rosette-Forming Glioneuronal Tumor
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Chang Yueh Ho, MD Karen L. Salzman, MD
482 Pilomyxoid Astrocytoma 552 Multinodular and Vacuolating Tumor of Cerebrum
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
486 Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma 554 Diffuse Leptomeningeal Glioneuronal Tumor
Karen L. Salzman, MD Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
490 Anaplastic Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma 556 Cerebellar Dysplastic Gangliocytoma
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Luke L. Linscott, MD
492 Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma 560 PLNTY
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
xvii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
618 Hemangioblastoma 693 Hippocampal Sulcus Remnant Cysts
Karen L. Salzman, MD Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Chang Yueh Ho, MD
694 Enlarged Perivascular Spaces
HISTIOCYTIC TUMORS Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
622 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis, Skull and Brain 698 Pineal Cyst
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
626 Erdheim-Chester Disease 702 Choroid Plexus Cyst
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
628 Rosai-Dorfman Disease 706 Ependymal Cyst
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
630 Miscellaneous Histiocytoses 708 Porencephalic Cyst
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
712 Neurenteric Cyst
GERM CELL TUMORS Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
714 Nonneoplastic Tumor-Associated Cysts
632 Germinoma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
638 Teratoma SECTION 8: INFECTIOUS,
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR INFLAMMATORY, AND DEMYELINATING
642 Miscellaneous Malignant Germ Cell Neoplasms
DISEASE
Karen L. Salzman, MD
718 CNS Infectious Disease Overview
METASTATIC TUMORS Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD,
646 Parenchymal Metastases FACR
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
CONGENITAL/NEONATAL INFECTIONS
650 Miscellaneous Intracranial Metastases
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 720 TORCH Infections, Overview
652 Metastatic Intracranial Lymphoma Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Gary L. Hedlund, DO
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD 724 Congenital CMV
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA,
TUMOR-LIKE CONDITIONS and Gary L. Hedlund, DO
654 Ecchordosis Physaliphora 728 Congenital HIV
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
656 Calcifying Pseudoneoplasm of Neuraxis (CAPNON) 730 Neonatal Herpes Encephalitis
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Kevin R. Moore, MD, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA, and
658 Lipoma Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Luke L. Linscott, MD, A. James Barkovich, MD, and Surjith
Vattoth, MD, FRCR
ACQUIRED INFECTIONS
732 Group B Streptococcal Meningitis
SECTION 7: PRIMARY NONNEOPLASTIC Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Gary L. Hedlund, DO
CYSTS 736 Citrobacter Meningitis
664 Primary Nonneoplastic Cysts Overview Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Gary L. Hedlund, DO
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 740 Meningitis
668 Arachnoid Cyst Karen L. Salzman, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 744 Abscess
674 Colloid Cyst Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 748 Ventriculitis
678 Dermoid Cyst Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD, Chang Yueh Ho, MD, and Surjith 750 Empyema
Vattoth, MD, FRCR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
682 Epidermoid Cyst 754 Herpes Encephalitis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
686 Neuroglial Cyst 758 Miscellaneous Encephalitis
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA,
688 Periventricular Cyst and Karen L. Salzman, MD
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Susan I. Blaser, MD, 762 West Nile Virus Encephalitis
FRCPC Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
692 Choroid Fissure Cyst 764 HHV-6 Encephalitis
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Chang Yueh Ho, MD Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
xviii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
766 Cerebellitis 840 Autoimmune Encephalitis
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Karen L. Salzman, MD
768 Rasmussen Encephalitis 844 Guillain-Barré Spectrum Disorders
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and Gary L. Hedlund, DO Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
772 Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis 846 CIDP
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Gary L. Hedlund, DO, and Surjith Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Vattoth, MD, FRCR 848 CLIPPERS
774 Tuberculosis Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
778 Neurocysticercosis SECTION 9: INHERITED
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD METABOLIC/DEGENERATIVE DISORDERS
782 Hydatid Disease 852 Approach to Normal Brain Development and
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Metabolic Disorders
784 Amebiasis Kevin R. Moore, MD, A. James Barkovich, MD, and Surjith
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Vattoth, MD, FRCR
786 Cerebral Malaria
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR NORMAL VARIANTS
788 Miscellaneous Parasites
858 Hypomyelination
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA,
Blaise V. Jones, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
and Karen L. Salzman, MD
792 Fungal Diseases MITOCHONDRIAL DISORDERS
Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
796 Rickettsial Diseases 862 Mitochondrial Encephalopathies
Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Blaise V. Jones, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
798 Lyme Disease
LYSOSOMAL DISORDERS
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
800 Acquired HIV Encephalitis 866 Mucopolysaccharidoses
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Kevin R. Moore, MD, Bryson Borg, MD, and Surjith
804 Acquired Toxoplasmosis Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 870 Gangliosidosis (GM2)
806 Acquired CMV Kevin R. Moore, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 874 Metachromatic Leukodystrophy
808 Cryptococcosis Kevin R. Moore, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 878 Globoid Cell Leukodystrophy
810 Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) Blaise V. Jones, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 882 Fabry Disease
812 Miscellaneous JC Virus Infection Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD,
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA FACR
814 Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome
(IRIS) PEROXISOMAL DISORDERS
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 884 Zellweger Syndrome and Peroxisomal Biogenesis
816 HIV/AIDS, Miscellaneous Manifestations Disorders
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Blaise V. Jones, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
820 Zika Virus Infection 886 X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy
Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD Kevin R. Moore, MD, Susan I. Blaser, MD, FRCPC, and
822 Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
ORGANIC AND AMINOACIDOPATHIES
INFLAMMATORY AND DEMYELINATING
890 Maple Syrup Urine Disease
DISEASE
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Susan I. Blaser, MD, FRCPC, and
826 Multiple Sclerosis Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 894 Urea Cycle Disorders
830 ADEM Kevin R. Moore, MD, P. Ellen Grant, MD, and Surjith
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA, and Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 896 Glutaric Aciduria Type 1
834 AHLE Kevin R. Moore, MD, Susan I. Blaser, MD, FRCPC, and
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
836 Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders 900 Canavan Disease
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR and P. Ellen Grant, MD
xix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
902 Alexander Disease 978 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
906 Miscellaneous Organic/Aminoacidopathies 982 Drug Abuse
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
986 Methanol Poisoning
MISCELLANEOUS Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
910 Megalencephaly With Leukoencephalopathy and 988 Cyanide Poisoning
Cysts Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Susan I. Blaser, MD, FRCPC, and 990 Metronidazole Toxicity
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
914 Neurodegeneration With Brain Iron Accumulation 992 Gadolinium Deposition
(NBIA) Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 994 Osmotic Demyelination Syndrome
918 PKAN Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Kevin R. Moore, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 998 Radiation and Chemotherapy
922 Huntington Disease Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 1002 Pseudoprogression
926 Wilson Disease Blair A. Winegar, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 1004 Pseudoresponse
Blair A. Winegar, MD and Karen L. Salzman, MD
SECTION 10: ACQUIRED 1006 Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
TOXIC/METABOLIC/DEGENERATIVE Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Kevin R. Moore, MD
DISORDERS 1010 Status Epilepticus
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
932 Acquired Toxic/Metabolic Disorders Overview 1014 Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
TOXIC, METABOLIC, NUTRITIONAL, DEMENTIAS AND DEGENERATIVE
SYSTEMIC DISEASES WITH CNS DISORDERS
MANIFESTATIONS
1016 Normal Aging Brain
936 Pediatric Hypoglycemia Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA, and 1020 Alzheimer Disease
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
940 Adult Hypoglycemia 1024 Vascular Dementia
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
942 Hyperglycemia 1028 Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration
Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
946 Kernicterus 1032 Dementia With Lewy Bodies
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA, and Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR 1034 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)
948 Thyroid Disorders Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1038 Parkinson Disease
952 Parathyroid Disorders Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1042 Multiple System Atrophy
954 Fahr Disease Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1046 Corticobasal Degeneration
958 Alcoholic Encephalopathy Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1050 Progressive Supranuclear Palsy
962 Hepatic Encephalopathy Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1054 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
966 Uremic Encephalopathy Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1058 Wallerian Degeneration
968 Hyperthermic Encephalopathy (Heatstroke) Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1062 Crossed Cerebellar Diaschisis
970 Acute Hypertensive Encephalopathy, PRES Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD, 1064 Hypertrophic Olivary Degeneration
FACR Santhosh Gaddikeri, MD and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA
974 Chronic Hypertensive Encephalopathy 1068 Spinocerebellar Ataxia
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
xx
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1072 Fragile X-Associated Tremor/Ataxia (FXTAS) 1142 Pituitary Apoplexy
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Karen L. Salzman, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1146 Craniopharyngioma
Part II: Anatomy-Based Diagnoses Karen L. Salzman, MD
1150 Pituicytoma
Karen L. Salzman, MD
SECTION 1: VENTRICLES AND CISTERNS 1152 Spindle Cell Oncocytoma
1076 Ventricles and Cisterns Overview Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Karen L. Salzman, MD
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1153 Granular Cell Tumor
Karen L. Salzman, MD
NORMAL VARIANTS
1082 Cavum Septi Pellucidi (CSP)
MISCELLANEOUS
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD, 1154 Empty Sella
FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1083 Cavum Velum Interpositum (CVI) 1158 Pituitary Hyperplasia
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD, Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
FACR 1160 Lymphocytic Hypophysitis
1084 Benign Enlarged Subarachnoid Spaces Kalen Riley, MD, MBA and Karen L. Salzman, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
SECTION 3: SKULL, SCALP, AND
HYDROCEPHALUS MENINGES
1088 Intraventricular Obstructive Hydrocephalus 1164 Skull, Scalp, and Meninges Overview
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Karen L. Salzman, MD
1092 Extraventricular Obstructive Hydrocephalus
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA CONGENITAL
1094 Aqueductal Stenosis 1168 Congenital Calvarial Defects
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR Kevin R. Moore, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
1098 Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus 1172 Craniosynostoses
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA Kevin R. Moore, MD and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
1102 CSF Shunts and Complications 1176 Cephalocele
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Kevin R. Moore, MD Usha D. Nagaraj, MD, A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP,
1106 Corpus Callosum Impingement Syndrome and Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA 1178 Atretic Cephalocele
Kevin R. Moore, MD, Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR, and
CSF DISORDERS Surjith Vattoth, MD, FRCR
1108 Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA NONNEOPLASTIC AND TUMOR-LIKE
1112 Intracranial Hypotension DISORDERS
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 1182 Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
SECTION 2: SELLA AND PITUITARY 1184 IgG4-Related Disease
1118 Sella and Pituitary Overview Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 1186 Fibrous Dysplasia
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
CONGENITAL 1190 Paget Disease
1122 Pituitary Anomalies Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD,
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Kevin R. Moore, MD MBA
1126 Hypothalamic Hamartoma 1194 Extramedullary Hematopoiesis
Karen L. Salzman, MD Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Charles Raybaud, MD,
1130 Rathke Cleft Cyst FRCPC
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR 1198 Thick Skull
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD,
NEOPLASMS MBA
1134 Pituitary Microadenoma 1200 Neurosarcoid
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1138 Pituitary Macroadenoma 1206 Sebaceous Cyst
Karen L. Salzman, MD and Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
xxi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NEOPLASMS
1208 Meningioma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1214 Atypical and Malignant Meningioma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1218 Solitary Fibrous Tumor/Hemangiopericytoma
Karen L. Salzman, MD
1222 Miscellaneous Benign Mesenchymal Tumors
Miral D. Jhaveri, MD, MBA and Anne G. Osborn, MD,
FACR
1226 Miscellaneous Malignant Mesenchymal Tumors
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1230 Calvarial Hemangioma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1234 Dura/Venous Sinuses Hemangioma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR
1236 Myeloma
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD,
MBA
1240 Skull and Meningeal Metastases
Anne G. Osborn, MD, FACR and Miral D. Jhaveri, MD,
MBA
xxii
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FOURTH EDITION
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Vattoth | Gaddikeri
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PART I
SECTION 1
Congenital Malformations
Chiari Malformations
Chiari 1 Malformation 8
Chiari 2 Malformation 12
Chiari 3 Malformation 16
Hindbrain Malformations
Dandy-Walker Continuum 18
Rhombencephalosynapsis 22
Unclassified Cerebellar Dysplasias 26
Molar Tooth Malformations (Joubert) 28
Cerebellar Hypoplasia 32
Disorders of Diverticulation/Cleavage
Holoprosencephaly 36
Syntelencephaly (Middle Interhemispheric Variant) 40
Septo-Optic Dysplasia 44
Commissural Abnormalities 48
A General Imaging Approach to Brain the surrounding CSF spaces. This is the basis for development
Malformations of the Dandy-Walker malformation; it requires abnormal
development of the cerebellum itself and of the overlying
Whenever an infant or child is referred for imaging because of leptomeninges. Looking at the midline image also gives an
either seizures or delayed development, the possibility of a idea of the relative head size through assessment of the
brain malformation should be carefully investigated. If the craniofacial ratio. In the normal neonate, the ratio of the
child appears dysmorphic in any way (low-set ears, abnormal cranial vault to the face on midline images is 5:1 or 6:1. By 2
facies, hypotelorism), the likelihood of an underlying brain years, it should be 2.5:1, and by 10 years, it should be about
malformation is even higher, but a normal appearance is no 1.5:1.
guarantee of a normal brain. In all such cases, imaging should
be geared toward showing a structural abnormality. The After looking at the midline, evaluate the brain from outside
imaging sequences should maximize contrast between gray to inside. Start with the cerebral cortex. Is the thickness
matter and white matter, have high spatial resolution, and be normal (2-3 mm)? If it is too thick, think of pachygyria or
acquired as volumetric data whenever possible so that images polymicrogyria. Is the cortical white matter junction smooth or
can be reformatted in any plane or as a surface rendering. The irregular? If it is irregular, think of polymicrogyria or
high resolution and ability to reformat will aid in the diagnosis cobblestone cortex. Polymicrogyria is seen in many underlying
of subtle abnormalities. High-resolution T1-weighted disorders, including congenital cytomegalovirus and genetic
volumetric images are essential for this purpose. High- syndromes, among others. Cobblestone cortex may be
resolution 2D coronal T2 images remain a workhorse for associated with congenital muscular dystrophies, such as
evaluation of midline structures, hippocampi, and optic muscle-eye-brain disease. Pachygyria that is more severe in
nerves. High-resolution 3D FLAIR images may be particularly the parietal and occipital lobes suggests a mutation of LIS1 or
helpful in evaluating for focal cortical dysplasia. The use of TUBA1A (TUBA1A is also associated with microcephaly),
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to acquire color fractional whereas pachygyria that is worst in the frontal lobes suggests
anisotropy (FA) maps and perform tractography is useful to a mutation of DCX. Similarly, there are many different
better understand the connectivity of the malformed brain, polymicrogyria syndromes that depend upon the location of
particularly in the brainstem, and may become clinically useful the polymicrogyria. Bilateral frontal polymicrogyria is a
in the near future. different entity than bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria or
bilateral parasagittal parietooccipital polymicrogyria; it is
After acquisition of appropriate images, image analysis must important to be specific in reporting the location of the
take place in an orderly manner. The midline structures abnormality. If the cortex is abnormally thin and associated
(including cerebral commissures, septum pellucidum, nose with diminished underlying white matter, one should think of
and rhinencephalon, pituitary gland, optic chiasm, and a prenatal injury (infectious or ischemic), particularly if the
hypothalamus), the cerebral cortex (cortical thickness, gyral thinning is focal or multifocal.
pattern, and cortical gray matter-white matter junction), the
cerebral white matter (myelination, presence of nodules or After the cortex, look at the cerebral white matter. Make sure
clefts), the basal ganglia, the ventricular system (all ventricles myelination is appropriate for age (there are many sources of
completely present and of normal size and shape), the normal myelination charts, including journal articles and
interhemispheric fissure, and the midbrain hindbrain textbooks). Then, look for areas of abnormal myelination
structures (brainstem and cerebellum) should all be within the deep white matter. Diffuse layers of
scrutinized in every patient. hypomyelination or amyelination associated with overlying
polymicrogyria should raise suspicion for congenital
Evaluate the midline structures first, as many disease cytomegalovirus infection. Generalized ipsilateral ↑T1 & ↓T2
processes of children take place in the midline, including signal in the white matter of a neonate with overlying cortical
anomalies of the cerebral commissures (corpus callosum, malformation should prompt one to think of
anterior commissure, and hippocampal commissure), midline hemimegalencephaly, which is often accompanied by
tumors (suprasellar, pineal, brainstem, and 4th ventricle), ipsilateral hemisphere & ventricular enlargement. Focal
anomalies of the cerebellar vermis, and anomalies of the cortical dysplasias (FCDs) are often most conspicuous at birth
craniocervical junction. Anomalies of the cerebral with ↑T1 & ↓T2 in the subcortical white matter. After
commissures are the most common brain malformations; myelination, FCDs are typically most conspicuous on FLAIR,
more than 130 syndromes involving them have been where one may see a curvilinear cone-shaped abnormality
described. Many of these malformations are associated with coursing from the cortex to the superolateral margin of a
anomalies of the hypothalamus, so always look at the lateral ventricle (known as the transmantle sign). Narrowing
hypothalamus and pituitary gland to ensure that the posterior the window on FLAIR images increases conspicuity of FCD.
pituitary lobe is in the sella turcica and not in the median Also, look for nodules of heterotopic gray matter in the
eminence of the hypothalamus. The midline leptomeninges periventricular or deep white matter. Transmantle gray
are important in commissural development, so be sure to look matter heterotopia typically extends from the cortex all the
for other anomalies associated with abnormal midline way to the lateral ventricular wall, whereas periventricular
leptomeninges, such as interhemispheric lipomas and nodular heterotopia is more localized to the immediate
interhemispheric cysts, when the commissures are absent or subependymal/periventricular region. Heterotopia might be
dysmorphic. Remember that large cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) difficult to differentiate from unmyelinated or injured white
spaces in the posterior fossa may be a sign of associated matter on T1-weighted images, so be sure to look at T2-
anomalies of the cerebellum. The reason for this has only weighted images or FLAIR images to ensure that the lesion is
recently been discovered. Several cerebellar growth factors isointense to gray matter on all sequences.
derive from the overlying leptomeninges. Therefore,
abnormalities of the cerebellar leptomeninges may result in The basal ganglia are sometimes abnormal in neuronal-
anomalies of the cerebellum itself, as well as abnormalities of migration disorders, as they are formed from neurons
4
Congenital Malformations Overview
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Brain Anomaly Imaging Checklist
Anomaly Findings
Anomalies of Cerebral Cortex
Agyria/pachygyria Thick cortex, smooth inner margin, few shallow sulci
Polymicrogyria Nodular cortex & gray-white junction
Cobblestone cortex Thick cortex, irregular inner margin, abnormal myelin
Focal cortical dysplasia Thick cortex, blurred gray-white junction, ± deep sulcus
White Matter Abnormalities With Cortical Malformation
Hemimegalencephaly ↑ T1, ↓T2 in neonatal white matter; dysplastic neurons
Cobblestone cortex Delayed myelination, patchy hypomyelination
Congenital cytomegalovirus Deep layers of hypomyelination/gliosis
Focal cortical dysplasia Tail of signal abnormality extending toward ventricle
Malformations Associated With Absent Septum Pellucidum
Septo-optic dysplasia ON hypoplasia, pituitary anomaly, ± PMG/schizencephaly
Holoprosencephaly Varying degrees of incomplete hemispheric separation
Malformations with severe prolonged hydrocephalus Absent septum typically thought to be destructive
generated in the medial and lateral ganglionic eminences, the normal vermian fissures. If the fissuration of the vermis looks
same germinal zones that produce GABAergic neurons that abnormal, refer to an axial or coronal image to make sure the
migrate to the cerebral cortex. In particular, the basal ganglia vermis is present; if the cerebellar hemispheres are
tend to be dysmorphic in appearance in patients with continuous without a vermis between them, make a diagnosis
subcortical heterotopia. In addition, the hippocampi are often of rhombencephalosynapsis. Whenever aqueductal stenosis is
abnormal in cortical-development malformations. In patients encountered, look carefully for rhombencephalosynapsis. If
with lissencephaly, in particular, the hippocampi are the 4th ventricle has an abnormal rectangular shape (with a
incompletely folded. Sometimes the only structural horizontal superior margin) with a narrow isthmus and small
abnormalities in children with developmental delay are vermis, consider a molar tooth malformation. To confirm this
hippocampal; always ensure that they are fully folded and not diagnosis, look on axial images for the molar tooth sign of the
too round. In the case of longstanding seizures, carefully lower midbrain, consisting of large, horizontal superior
inspect the hippocampi for asymmetric atrophy and increased cerebellar peduncles extending posteriorly toward the
signal to suggest hippocampal sclerosis. cerebellum, and a longitudinal cleft in the superior vermis.
Always look at the entire interhemispheric fissure (IHF); if the Make sure that the brainstem components are of normal size;
in a child, the height of the pons should be double that of the
cerebral hemispheres are continuous across the midline,
midbrain on the midline sagittal image. Looking at the size of
holoprosencephaly should be diagnosed. In severe
the pons compared to that of the cerebellar vermis can
holoprosencephalies, the IHF is completely absent, whereas in
provide an important clue. Because much of the anterior pons
milder forms of holoprosencephaly, certain areas of the IHF
is composed of the decussation of the middle cerebellar
will be absent (anterior IHF in semilobar holoprosencephaly,
peduncles, development hypoplasia of the cerebellum is
central IHF in syntelencephaly). Look at the septum
nearly always associated with hypoplasia of the ventral pons. If
pellucidum; absence of the septum is seen in corpus callosum
the pons is normal in the setting of a small cerebellum, it is
dysgenesis/agenesis and septo-optic dysplasia. When septo-
most likely that the cerebellum lost volume near the end of
optic dysplasia is identified, look carefully for pituitary
gestation or after birth. Remember that, in a small posterior
abnormalities, most commonly an ectopic posterior pituitary.
fossa, intracranial hypotension or intracranial hypertension
Additionally, whenever septo-optic dysplasia is suspected, a
can result in descent of the cerebellum below the foramen
careful search for associated schizencephaly or polymicrogyria
magnum. Look for causes of a small posterior fossa (clival
is warranted. If present, a diagnosis of septo-optic dysplasia
anomaly, anomaly of the craniovertebral junction), intracranial
plus is established. While checking the septum, look at the
hypertension (space-occupying mass, hydrocephalus), or
lateral ventricles to ensure they are normal in size and shape.
evidence of intracranial hypotension (large dural venous
Abnormally enlarged trigones and temporal horns are often
sinuses, large pituitary gland, "slumping" brainstem) before
associated with callosal anomalies and pachygyria. Enlarged
making a diagnosis of Chiari 1 malformation. Finally,
frontal horns are often seen in bilateral frontal polymicrogyria.
remember to look at the size of the CSF spaces in the
Remember to look carefully at the posterior fossa; anomalies posterior fossa, enlargement of which may be a sign of
of the brainstem and cerebellum are commonly overlooked. abnormal leptomeningeal development.
Make sure that the 4th ventricle and cerebellar vermis are
normally sized. In newborns, the vermis should extend from Selected References
the inferior colliculi to the obex, whereas infants and older 1. Choi JJ et al: Brain malformations at all ages: from Aunt Minnie to zebras for
children should have a vermis that extends from the general radiologists. Radiol Clin North Am. 58(3):463-74, 2020
intercollicular sulcus to the obex. Also, make sure you see 2. Desikan RS et al: Malformations of cortical development. Ann Neurol.
80(6):797-810, 2016
5
Pathology-Based Diagnoses: Congenital Malformations Overview
Congenital Malformations
Polymicrogyria in Congenital
Pachygyria Cytomegalovirus
(Left) Coronal T2WI MR in a 1
year old with seizures shows
marked thickening of multiple
gyri and decreased sulcation
symmetrically within both
frontal lobes, consistent with
pachygyria. Ventricles may be
enlarged secondary to small
brain volume. (Right) Axial
T2WI MR in a 4 year old with
congenital CMV shows cortical
thickening with irregular
cortical surface & an irregular
GM-WM junction with shallow
sulci, consistent with
polymicrogyria . Note the
white matter abnormalities
, findings often seen in
congenital CMV.
6
Congenital Malformations Overview
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Bilateral Schizencephaly in Septo-Optic
Septo-Optic Dysplasia Dysplasia
(Left) Coronal T2WI MR in a 5
year old with septo-optic
dysplasia shows absence of
septum pellucidum & a very
small left optic nerve . Right
optic nerve looks grossly
normal in size. Asymmetric
optic nerve hypoplasia is very
common in this diagnosis.
(Right) Axial T1WI MR shows
bilateral schizencephaly lined
by dysplastic gray matter. The
right side is open lip , & the
left is closed lip . Again note
the bifrontal polymicrogyria
& absence of the septum
pellucidum st in this patient
with septo-optic dysplasia plus
syndrome.
7
Chiari 1 Malformation
KEY FACTS
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Congenital Malformations
8
Chiari 1 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
Definitions General Features
• Chiari 1 malformation (CM1): Compressed & pointed • Etiology
cerebellar tonsils extending below foramen magnum with ○ Primary congenital malformation vs. secondarily
effacement of CSF spaces acquired morphologic changes
○ Primary: Posterior fossa underdevelopment theory most
IMAGING common
General Features – Underdevelopment of endochondral occipital bone →
small posterior fossa vault + downward hindbrain
• Best diagnostic clue
herniation
○ Pointed cerebellar tonsils (unilateral or bilateral)
○ Secondary: Premature closure of cranial sutures &/or
extending ≥ 5 mm below foramen magnum (basion-
generalized abnormal bone formation
opisthion line, a.k.a. McRae line)
– Shunted infantile hydrocephalus
– No consensus statement on exact definition
– Calvarial thickening of bone dysplasias or thalassemia
CT Findings – Genetic syndromes
• Crowding of foramen magnum on axial CT images ○ Seen in 2-10% of patients with idiopathic intracranial
○ Sagittal reconstructed images are very helpful hypertension (a.k.a. pseudotumor cerebri)
• Associated osseous anomalies may include small posterior
fossa, short horizontal clivus, retroverted dens, basilar CLINICAL ISSUES
invagination, platybasia, hypoplastic occipital condyles, Presentation
segmentation anomalies (such as atlantooccipital
• Most common signs/symptoms
assimilation), scoliosis
○ Occipital headache
MR Findings – Exacerbated by cough, Valsalva, neck extension, or
• T1WI, T2WI, FLAIR physical exertion
○ Pointed (not rounded) cerebellar tonsils extending ≥ 5 ○ Less common: Cerebellar, brainstem, bulbar, cord
mm below foramen magnum motor/sensory symptoms
○ Crowded foramen magnum with small/effaced cisterns ± ○ 15-30% of adults with CM1 are asymptomatic, up to 35%
brainstem compression (kinking) of children with 5-10 mm of tonsillar herniation are
○ ± small posterior fossa, elongated 4th ventricle asymptomatic
○ ± syringohydromyelia/syrinx, scoliosis Demographics
○ Other descriptions usually considered subtypes
• True prevalence is unknown given how frequently it is
– Chiari 1.5: Brainstem herniation picked up incidentally
– Complex Chiari: Medullary kink, retroflexed dens, • Epidemiology: 0.5-3.5% of general population
abnormal clival-cervical angle, atlantooccipital
• Age: Evenly distributed in adult & pediatric patients
assimilation, basilar invagination, platybasia
• MR cine Treatment
○ Restricted CSF flow through foramen magnum ± ↑ • Posterior fossa decompression: Suboccipital craniectomy
brainstem/cerebellar tonsil motion (pistoning) with C1 laminectomy ± duraplasty, arachnoid
opening/dissection, cerebellar tonsil cautery/resection
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS • Conservative management for asymptomatic or minimally
Normal Variation of Cerebellar Tonsil Position symptomatic children without syrinx
• Tonsils may normally lie below foramen magnum DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Chiari 2 Malformation Consider
• Numerous intracranial findings centered around very small • Degree of tonsillar descent does not always correlate with
posterior fossa with hindbrain herniation in setting of open symptoms: CM1 frequently picked up incidentally
spinal dysraphism
Tonsillar Herniation Secondary to Increased SELECTED REFERENCES
Intracranial Pressure 1. Taylor DG et al: Cerebrospinal fluid area and syringogenesis in Chiari
malformation type I. J Neurosurg. 1-6, 2020
• Neoplasm, hemorrhage, hydrocephalus, infarct
2. Dangouloff-Ros V et al: Incidental brain MRI findings in children: a systematic
Intracranial Hypotension review and meta-analysis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 40(11):1818-23, 2019
3. Saletti V et al: Chiari I malformation in defined genetic syndromes in children:
• Look for "slumped" brainstem are there common pathways? Childs Nerv Syst. 35(10):1727-39, 2019
4. Poretti A et al: Chiari type 1 deformity in children: pathogenetic, clinical,
Chiari 0 neuroimaging, and management aspects. Neuropediatrics. 47(5):293-307,
2016
• Syringomyelia without cerebellar tonsillar ectopia; syrinx
5. Arnautovic A et al: Pediatric and adult Chiari malformation type I surgical
resolves after posterior fossa decompression series 1965-2013: a review of demographics, operative treatment, and
outcomes. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 15(2):161-77, 2015
9
Pathology-Based Diagnoses: Chiari 1 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
(Left) Sagittal T2 MR in a 5
year old with occipital
headaches demonstrates
pointed, low-lying cerebellar
tonsils ſt with associated
effacement of CSF spaces.
Note the short horizontal
clivus , retroverted dens ,
and segmentation anomaly at
the C3-4 levels . (Right)
Coronal T2 MR in the same
patient demonstrates pointed,
low-lying cerebellar tonsils ſt
extending below the C1 ring
, typical of CM1.
10
Chiari 1 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
(Left) A 5-year-old girl with
CM1 demonstrates downward
displacement of the cerebellar
tonsils below the plane of the
foramen magnum caudal to
the posterior arch of C1
with an abnormal pointed
morphology. (Right) Sagittal
T1 MR in the same patient
status post suboccipital
decompression with
suboccipital craniectomy, C1
laminectomy, expansive
duraplasty, and cerebellar
tonsillar shrinkage is shown.
There is no residual cerebellar
ectopia, and the inferior
cerebellum has a normal,
rounded morphology.
(Left) Sagittal T1 MR in a
patient with osteopetrosis
shows cerebellar tonsillar
ectopia with extension of the
elongated cerebellar tonsils
ſt to the C2/C3 level. The
hypointense marrow signal
reflects diffuse sclerosis.
(Right) Axial T2 MR in the
same patient reveals
characteristic crowding of the
foramen magnum with
extension of the ectopic
cerebellar tonsils ſt into the
upper cervical spinal canal.
11
Chiari 2 Malformation
KEY FACTS
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Congenital Malformations
12
Chiari 2 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
TERMINOLOGY Chiari 3 Malformation
• Posterior fossa contents herniating through suboccipital
Definitions encephalocele in association with high cervical spinal
• Chiari 2 malformation: Constellation of intracranial dysraphism
anomalies, mainly hindbrain herniation, in setting of open
spinal dysraphism [either myelomeningocele (MMC) or Intracranial Hypotension
myelocele/myeloschisis] • Dural enhancement, venous sinus engorgement, ± subdural
collections
IMAGING • Typically in setting of CSF leak with postural headaches
General Features Severe Chronically Shunted Hydrocephalus
• Best diagnostic clue • May cause collapsed and dysmorphic brain with upward
○ Small posterior fossa with inferior cerebellar and cerebellar herniation
brainstem herniation in presence of open spinal
dysraphism PATHOLOGY
Radiographic Findings General Features
• Radiography • Etiology
○ Lacunar skull (lückenschädel) → numerous undulations of ○ Unified theory of McLone & Knepper
inner calvarium – Abnormal neurulation → CSF escapes through open
neural tube defect (NTD) → failure to maintain 4th
MR Findings ventricular distention → hypoplastic posterior fossa
• Hindbrain herniation (postnatal repair) chondrocranium → displaced/distorted PF contents
○ Caudal descent of pointed tonsils/vermis into foramen ○ Folate deficiency during pregnancy leading preventable
magnum risk factor
○ Towering appearance of cerebellum with upward – Folic acid supplementation linked to decreased
herniation through widened incisura disease incidence
○ Cerebellar hemispheres wrap around brainstem
○ Elongated, effaced, inferiorly displaced 4th ventricle with CLINICAL ISSUES
flattened fastigium
Presentation
○ Cerebellar atrophy over time; most severe form:
Vanishing cerebellum • Most common signs/symptoms
• Significant hindbrain herniation is not usually present in ○ Varying degrees of lower extremity paresis/spasticity,
setting of prenatal repair clubfoot, bowel/bladder dysfunction
• Small posterior fossa with downward-sloping tentorium, ○ ± epilepsy, symptoms from brainstem compression
low torcular Herophili (swallowing difficulties, stridor, apnea)
• Tectal beaking, brainstem caudal displacement ± Demographics
cervicomedullary kink
• Epidemiology
• ± ventriculomegaly
○ Incidence: 0.44 per 1,000 births; ↓ risk with folate
• Midline anomalies: Large massa intermedia, callosal replacement therapy
hypogenesis/dysgenesis, absent septum pellucidum
• ± neuronal migrational anomalies: Heterotopia, Treatment
polymicrogyria, rhombencephalosynapsis • Surgical management
• Falx insufficiency with interdigitation of hemispheric gyri ○ MMC classically repaired in first 48 hours after delivery
• Stenogyria (elongated, compact gyri) after shunting (differs ○ CSF diversion/shunting ultimately required in 80-90%
from polymicrogyria) ○ Posterior fossa decompression in those who do not
• Significant hindbrain herniation not always present on fetal improve with shunting
MR in setting of open spinal dysraphism (~ 8%) • Fetal MMC repair in select patients
Ultrasonographic Findings ○ Must have hindbrain herniation and upper level of spinal
defect T1-S1
• Grayscale ultrasound
○ Reduces need for shunting; may improve neurologic
○ Prenatal US key for early diagnosis
outcomes in some patients
– Lemon sign: Bifrontal concavity of calvarium
– Banana sign: Cerebellum wraps around brainstem SELECTED REFERENCES
1. Calle S et al: Postnatal intracranial findings following fetal repair of spinal
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS dysraphisms. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 44(1):65-9, 2020
Chiari 1 Malformation 2. Maurice P et al: New insights in cerebral findings associated with fetal
myelomeningocele: a retrospective cohort study in a single tertiary centre.
• Absence of associated open spinal dysraphism BJOG. ePub, 2020
3. Miller JL et al: Spinal dysraphia, Chiari 2 malformation, unified theory, and
advances in fetoscopic repair. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 29(3):357-66, 2019
4. Kim I et al: Decompression for Chiari malformation type II in individuals with
myelomeningocele in the National Spina Bifida Patient Registry. J Neurosurg
Pediatr. 22(6):652-8, 2018
13
Pathology-Based Diagnoses: Chiari 2 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
14
Chiari 2 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
(Left) Sagittal T2 MR of a 24-
week fetus with Chiari 2
malformation shows hindbrain
herniation . There is
effacement of the 4th
ventricle and cisterna magna,
consistent with a grade 3
Chiari 2 malformation. (Right)
Sagittal T1 MR in the same
patient at 1 month of age
shows marked interval
improvement in the degree of
hindbrain herniation after
prenatal repair of open spinal
dysraphism. This is the typical
appearance after prenatal
repair. Note subtle tectal
beaking .
15
Chiari 3 Malformation
KEY FACTS
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Congenital Malformations
16
Chiari 3 Malformation
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
○ Corpus callosum anomalies, gray matter heterotopia,
TERMINOLOGY syringohydromyelia, tethered cord
Synonyms ○ Previously described in combination with intracranial
• Chiari III, Chiari 3 malformation (CM3) rhombencephalocele CM2 manifestations
– Now thought that tectum, lower brainstem findings
Definitions actually reflect distortion related to cerebellar
• CM3: Originally described by Dr. Chiari as herniation of displacement into sac
cerebellum ± brainstem through posterior C1-2 dysraphic
defect Gross Pathologic & Surgical Features
• However, many imagers more loosely define CM3 as low • Severity classified by cephalocele sac contents
occipital or high cervical meningoencephalocele ○ 1 or more of meninges, cerebellum, brainstem ± cervical
cord, occipital lobe poles, arterial and venous vessels,
IMAGING disorganized and gliotic brain tissue
○ Sac lining may contain gray matter heterotopia
General Features
• Best diagnostic clue Microscopic Features
○ Skin-covered combined cephalocele + upper cervical • Disorganized (neuronal migration anomalies, cortical
myelocele containing cerebellum ± brainstem, meninges, dysplasias, gliotic) brain tissue within sac
vessels, CSF herniating through high cervical ± low
supraoccipital bone/opisthion osseous defect CLINICAL ISSUES
CT Findings Presentation
• NECT • Most common signs/symptoms
○ Midline posterior cephalocele containing cerebellum ○ Occipital/upper cervical cephalocele, microcephaly
• Bone CT ○ Discovered by fetal ultrasound/MR or surprise at birth
○ Opisthion, upper cervical osseous dysraphic bone defect • Other signs/symptoms
• CTA ○ Mechanical brainstem traction, respiratory deterioration,
○ Basilar artery "pulled" into defect along with brainstem lower cranial nerve dysfunction
into cephalocele sac • Clinical profile
○ ± veins/dural sinuses within cephalocele sac ○ Severe developmental delay, spasticity, hypotonia,
○ Anomalous &/or ptotic veins, dural sinuses seizures
MR Findings Demographics
• T1WI • Age
○ High cervical cephalocele sac containing meninges and ○ Newborn
cerebellum ± brainstem, upper cervical cord • Sex
• T2WI ○ F > M [as in all neural tube defects (NTDs)] in most series
○ Tissues in cephalocele sac may be bright (gliosis), strand- • Epidemiology
like (necrotic), or hypointense (hemorrhagic) ○ Rare; 1-4.5% of all Chiari malformations
Imaging Recommendations Natural History & Prognosis
• Best imaging tool • Prognosis usually dismal; severe disability, early death
○ Multiplanar brain MR + MRV to characterize • Very occasionally patients show less severe clinical course
occipitocervical encephalocele, vessels
Treatment
○ Multiplanar bone CT to evaluate osseous defects
• Surgical resection, encephalocele repair
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS ○ Resect or repair sac (most structures in sac are
nonfunctioning)
Isolated Occipital Encephalocele ○ If amount of CNS tissue in sac > intracranial → not
• Spares foramen magnum, lacks intracranial Chiari 2 findings surgical candidate
Other Occipital Encephaloceles • CSF diversion for hydrocephalus
• Iniencephaly DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
• Syndromic occipital encephalocele
○ Meckel-Gruber, Goldenhar-Gorlin, MURCS (müllerian, Consider
renal, cervical spine), Walker-Warburg, amniotic band • CM3 in newborn presenting with low occipital
encephalocele
PATHOLOGY
General Features
SELECTED REFERENCES
1. Azahraa Haddad F et al: The newer classifications of the chiari malformations
• Genetics with clarifications: an anatomical review. Clin Anat. 31(3):314-22, 2018
○ 677C → T mutation on methylenetetrahydrofolate 2. Ivashchuk G et al: Chiari III malformation: a comprehensive review of this
reductase (MTHFR) gene (≤ 50%) enigmatic anomaly. Childs Nerv Syst. 31(11):2035-40, 2015
• Associated abnormalities
17
Dandy-Walker Continuum
KEY FACTS
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
Congenital Malformations
18
Dandy-Walker Continuum
Congenital Malformations
Pathology-Based Diagnoses:
○ DWM: Large PF
TERMINOLOGY
– Torcular-lambdoid inversion (torcular above lambdoid
Abbreviations sutures)
• Classic Dandy-Walker (DW) malformation (DWM) ○ Scalloped occipital bone, remodeled in all types of DW
continuum
Synonyms
• Terms DW spectrum, DW variant, & DW complex have MR Findings
complicated clinical & imaging implications in literature • T1WI, T2WI, FLAIR
○ DWM
Definitions
– Vermian agenesis/hypogenesis, hypoplastic vermis
• DW continuum represents clinically & radiologically with superior rotation/elevation
heterogeneous group of posterior fossa (PF) – Variable cerebellar hemisphere & brainstem
malformations hypoplasia &/or compression
• Referred to as continuum by some based on belief that – Enlarged 4th ventricle communicating with
DWM, vermian hypoplasia (VH), Blake pouch (BP) retrocerebellar cystic space
remnant/cyst, & mega cisterna magna (MCM) are spectrum – Elevated torcular Herophili with upward-slanting
of developmental anomalies of rhombencephalic vesicle tentorium
roof
– Hydrocephalus common, though not originally
○ Terminology controversial & not uniformly accepted described as part of DWM
○ Clinical severity ranges widely in this group ○ VH
– Varying degrees of vermian tissue present
IMAGING
– Vertical height of vermis does not reach level of obex
General Features – ± rotation of vermis
• Best diagnostic clue □ Normal tegmentovermian angle usually close to 0°;
○ Classic DWM triad: Vermian agenesis/hypogenesis, 4th however, < 18° has been reported as normal, angle
ventricle cystic dilatation, & enlarged PF with elevation of as large as 30° may be normal before 20-weeks
torcular Herophili (torcular-lambdoid inversion) gestational age on fetal MR
○ VH: Vermis is small & usually rotated, may be dysplastic, – ± abnormal foliation/dysplasia
without torcular-lambdoid inversion – May be difficult to distinguish from DWM, particularly
○ BP: Vermis is normal in size & morphology with rotation in fetus in which there are no reliable landmarks to
marked by elevated tegmentovermian angle (≥ 18°) identify lambdoid sutures
○ MCM: Enlarged retrocerebellar CSF space (≥ 10 mm) with ○ BP remnant
vermis normal in size, shape, & orientation (normal – Rotated but normal-appearing vermis
tegmentovermian angle) – 4th ventricle communicates inferiorly with
• Morphology retrocerebellar CSF cystic space
○ DW continuum (from most to least severe) – Cyst wall variably present & often imperceptible on
– DWM classic triad MR
□ Complete or partial agenesis of vermis – Choroid plexus may be seen along inferior surface of
□ Cystic dilatation of 4th ventricle → rotation of vermis (superior margin of cyst wall)
hypoplastic vermis ○ MCM
□ Enlarged PF with upward displacement of – Enlarged retrocerebellar CSF space
tentorium & torcular Herophili (torcular-lambdoid – Normal vermis (not rotated, dysplastic, or hypoplastic)
inversion) ○ ± callosal anomalies, polymicrogyria, gray matter
– VH heterotopia, occipital cephalocele, myelination delay
□ Variable degree of VH ± rotation Ultrasonographic Findings
□ ± abnormal vermian foliation/dysplasia
• Pre- & postnatal US will visualize similar findings to MR
□ No PF enlargement, no torcular-lambdoid inversion
□ May be difficult to distinguish from DWM Imaging Recommendations
– BP remnant (a.k.a. BP "cyst") • Protocol advice
□ Elevated tegmentovermian angle (a.k.a. "open" 4th ○ Routine MR with thin-section sagittal true FISP/FIESTA to
ventricle) look for cyst wall
□ Normal size & morphology of vermis
– MCM DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
□ Enlarged retrocerebellar cistern (≥ 10 mm) without
Posterior Fossa Arachnoid Cyst
mass effect on hindbrain
□ Normal vermis, 4th ventricle, & tegmentovermian • True cyst that does not communicate with 4th ventricle
angle • ± mass effect on adjacent structures
□ In isolation, incidental finding Joubert Syndrome & Related Disorders
CT Findings • Hypoplastic/dysplastic vermis, "bat wing" 4th ventricle,
• NECT thickened & horizontal superior cerebellar peduncles with
midbrain cleft → molar tooth appearance on axial images
19
Pathology-Based Diagnoses: Dandy-Walker Continuum
Congenital Malformations
20
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petit salon et dormir dans son lit ; il pourrait même, au besoin,
s’absenter durant quelques jours et vaquer, dans son pays, à
quelques affaires urgentes demeurées en suspens.
Mais il était trop bien dressé à l’école de son royal camarade
pour ne pas lui servir de second dans ses passes d’armes avec la
béguine. La double attaque, d’ailleurs, n’embarrassait pas autrement
celle-ci.
— M’est-il permis de vous demander, questionnait Osterrek avec
la plus fine politesse, si l’on vous a écrit, du couvent, depuis votre
départ ?
— On ne m’a pas écrit, Monsieur.
— Et toi, intervenait Paul, tu n’as pas écrit non plus ?
— Non.
— Rien à Stéphanie ?
— Non.
— Ni à l’aumônier ?
— Non.
— Pourquoi cela ?
— Je n’ai pas senti qu’il fallût écrire.
— Mademoiselle, reprenait Osterrek, j’ai l’impression que tout
votre couvent doit s’imaginer que vous avez fait une fugue
amoureuse.
— Oh ! pour cela, Monsieur, répliquait la jeune fille, non sans
gaîté, je crois que vous vous trompez. Et puis, qu’importe ce qu’on
imagine ? Cela ne change rien à la vérité des choses.
— Vous ne croyez pas qu’ils soient mécontents, là-bas, furieux
contre vous et qu’ils parlent de vous sans bienveillance ?
— Je ne sais pas, Monsieur.
Le prince frappait de la main sur sa couverture.
— Est-elle énervante, hein, Henri, avec son flegme ?
Et, s’adressant à Madeleine :
— Au fond, tu es une petite orgueilleuse. Tu es convaincue
d’avance que ce que tu fais est ce qu’on peut faire de mieux.
— Non, Monseigneur. Je ne suis certaine que d’une chose :
d’avoir fait ce qui me semblait le mieux.
— Mais c’est de l’orgueil, cela !
— Est-ce que vous avez lu, Monseigneur, les épîtres de saint
Paul ?
— Tu as lu ça, Henri ?
— Pas très récemment, Monseigneur. Mais Mademoiselle va
nous renseigner.
— Pourquoi me demandes-tu ça, petite ?
— Parce que, dix fois au moins dans ses épîtres, saint Paul
recommande de s’enorgueillir en Dieu.
Alors le prince riait franchement.
— Qu’est-ce que tu en dis, Henri ? Est-elle réussie dans son
genre, notre missionnaire ? Écoute, Madeleine. Les nonnes de la
Sainte-Quarantaine sont-elles toutes fabriquées sur ton modèle ?
— Il n’y a pas deux personnes tout à fait pareilles dans le monde,
Monseigneur.
— Leibniz l’a dit avant toi : « Si deux êtres étaient identiques de
tout point, ils occuperaient la même place dans le monde et ne
feraient qu’un. » Mais c’est bien répondu tout de même… Va te
reposer, mon enfant, nous t’avons assez tourmentée. Tu es
charmante.
Et tandis qu’elle se retirait, il disait au comte :
— Mon vieux copain, avec son air de rien, cette gosse nous
« obtient » à chaque coup.
— Elle est rudement forte, répliquait Osterrek. Mais, pour Dieu,
ne la décourageons pas ! On ne la remplacerait pas facilement.
En dehors du prince, d’Osterrek, du valet de chambre et de la
femme de chambre, Madeleine ne parlait qu’avec le docteur Burcart.
Ce Suisse barbu avait vite apprécié la valeur de la nouvelle
infirmière et, chaque jour après la visite, dans un français laborieux à
consonances germaniques, il lui donnait ses instructions. Madeleine
abrégeait le colloque autant que possible, car elle devinait l’attente
angoissée du malade, et sa suspicion en éveil sur des propos qu’il
n’entendait pas. Si courts fussent-ils, Madeleine y apprit l’état vrai du
prince et en connut le danger.
Burcart les résumait ainsi :
— Voyez-vous, Mademoiselle, la blessure que nous soignons ne
comporterait rien de périlleux pour un homme de quarante-trois ans
dont la constitution serait en état normal. Le long decubitus
l’affaiblirait un peu ; mais, une fois levé, quelques jours de
convalescence le remettraient d’aplomb. Malheureusement, le
prince, à quarante-trois ans, est un vieillard. Mais oui, un vieillard :
bien des sexagénaires sont plus solides que lui. Congénitalement
délicat, il a, depuis l’adolescence, abusé de tous ses organes.
L’alcool, le jeu… les nuits sans sommeil… l’opium, la drogue
blanche, les femmes : tout cela en même temps et sans répit ! Alors,
le réseau artériel est en ruines, la congestion menace le système
respiratoire. A mesure que la blessure elle-même se guérit, le péril
de congestion s’accroît… Vous savez : cette congestion qui guette
les gens âgés et les débiles, lorsqu’ils sont trop longtemps dans un
lit ? On appelle cela : la congestion hypostatique, ou congestion
passive. En pareil cas, lorsqu’on a le cœur du prince, l’embolie est à
craindre. J’ai prévenu le comte Osterrek pour qu’il tienne la famille
royale au courant : mais, depuis le scandale de la Montarena, il
paraît qu’à la Cour on affecte de ne plus connaître l’héritier… Enfin,
dès que ce sera possible, nous lèverons notre malade. Pourvu que
ce ne soit pas trop tard !
Voilà ce qu’entendit l’infirmière, presque au lendemain du jour où
elle inaugura ses fonctions. Ce serait bien mal connaître cette âme
sublimée que de la supposer au désespoir, ou seulement
désemparée par un tel diagnostic. Pour Madeleine, la mort n’est pas
seulement l’achèvement de la vie : elle en est le but. La vie ne sert
qu’à la préparer. La mort n’est pas une plongée dans le sommeil :
tout au contraire, elle est l’aube, le grand réveil.
Tandis que Madeleine veille son malade assoupi, le malade
auquel elle s’est entièrement consacrée, tout son être est tendu vers
le désir de le sauver, mais non pas dans le sens où le docteur
Burcart entend ce mot. Elle lui donne la même acception qu’au jour
où, sans le connaître encore, elle a dit à Stéphanie : « Il faut le
sauver… » Que ce soit dans la guérison ou dans la mort, peu
importe. Il faut le sauver.
Cela n’empêche pas l’infirmière d’assister le malade, par tous les
soins qui peuvent le guérir ; de lui épargner tendrement la
souffrance ; d’être ingénieuse et dévouée comme une mère pour
l’enfant de ses entrailles. Le malade ne peut que s’y méprendre et
conclure qu’il lui a inspiré une sorte de passion chaste. Comment
comprendrait-il le secret muré derrière un front impassible ?