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Emassfile - 700diagnostic Imaging Pediatrics 4Th Edition A Carlson Merrow JR Full Chapter PDF
Emassfile - 700diagnostic Imaging Pediatrics 4Th Edition A Carlson Merrow JR Full Chapter PDF
Emassfile - 700diagnostic Imaging Pediatrics 4Th Edition A Carlson Merrow JR Full Chapter PDF
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FOURTH EDITION
Merrow
Aquino | Linscott | Koch
RICHARDSON | TOWBIN | O’HARA | MEYERS | KRAUS
NAGARAJ | SMITH | BASKIN | ANTON | JONES | ORSCHELN
FOURTH EDITION
Luke L. Linscott, MD
Pediatric Neuroradiologist
Vice Chair, Department of Medical Imaging
Primary Children’s Hospital
Salt Lake City, Utah
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
Associate Chief of Radiology (Physician Services and Education)
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Cincinnati, Ohio
ii
Randy R. Richardson, MD Hank Baskin, MD
Regional Dean Pediatric Radiologist
Creighton University School of Medicine Primary Children’s Hospital
Phoenix Regional Campus Adjunct Associate Professor
Phoenix, Arizona Department of Radiology
University of Utah School of Medicine
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Salt Lake City, Utah
Associate Chief of Radiology (Clinical Operations and
Radiology Informatics) Christopher G. Anton, MD
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center Faculty Radiologist
Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Associate Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics
Cincinnati, Ohio University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Cincinnati, Ohio
Sara M. O’Hara, MD, FAAP
Division Director, Ultrasound Blaise V. Jones, MD
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center Director, MR Safety
Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics Division Director, Neuroradiology
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Cincinnati, Ohio Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Arthur B. Meyers, MD Cincinnati, Ohio
Division Director, Musculoskeletal Imaging
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center Emily S. Orscheln, MD
Associate Professor of Radiology Pediatric Radiologist
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Children’s Mercy Hospital
Cincinnati, Ohio Assistant Professor of Radiology
University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine
Steven J. Kraus, MD Kansas City, Missouri
Staff Radiologist
Section Chief of Fluoroscopy & Radiography
Department of Radiology
Texas Children’s Hospital
Houston, Texas
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Faculty Radiologist
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Associate Professor of Radiology
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Cincinnati, Ohio
Ethan A. Smith, MD
Chair of Quality Improvement
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Associate Professor of Radiology
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Cincinnati, Ohio
iii
Elsevier
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
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Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of
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iv
Dedication
To my wife and children: Through and through, thank you for your love
and support—in this project, yes—but much more so in the everyday
moments of life. You are all amazing.
ACM
v
vi
Contributing Authors
Swathi Selvam, BSc, MBBS, FRCR
Pediatric Radiology Fellow
Hospital for Sick Children
Toronto, Ontario
vii
viii
Preface
Welcome to the fourth edition of Diagnostic Imaging: Pediatrics. While
we have made the expected updates over the third edition of the text
(including new images and videos, terminology, disease classifications,
and even new chapters), the events of the last 2 years have led to what
I hope to be a once-in-a-lifetime occurrence: the opportunity to include
a disease that did not exist 5 years ago and of which virtually the entire
global population is now aware. I highly doubt that anyone reading
this text has been unaffected by the COVID-19 pandemic, directly or
indirectly.
I hope that each of you is truly well. That you’ve found a consistent
way to refresh your soul in this trying time—that you have light, joy,
purpose, and engagement—and somehow that wellness spills over into
the lives of others—your patients and their families, your colleagues,
your family and friends. We all need a little hope and encouragement
from each other.
Finally, I must thank all who have worked on this book, especially those
who helped carry my burdens when the light was dim. I am greatly
indebted to you.
ix
x
Acknowledgments
LEAD EDITOR
Nina Themann, BA
LEAD ILLUSTRATOR
Laura C. Wissler, MA
TEXT EDITORS
Arthur G. Gelsinger, MA
Rebecca L. Bluth, BA
Terry W. Ferrell, MS
Megg Morin, BA
Kathryn Watkins, BA
ILLUSTRATIONS
Richard Coombs, MS
Lane R. Bennion, MS
IMAGE EDITORS
Jeffrey J. Marmorstone, BS
Lisa A. M. Steadman, BS
PRODUCTION EDITORS
Emily C. Fassett, BA
John Pecorelli, BS
xi
xii
Sections
SECTION 1:
Airway
SECTION 2:
Chest
SECTION 3:
Cardiac
SECTION 4:
Gastrointestinal
SECTION 5:
Genitourinary
SECTION 6:
Musculoskeletal
SECTION 7:
Brain
SECTION 8:
Spine
SECTION 9:
Head and Neck
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
104 Chylothorax 176 Pulmonary Interstitial Glycogenosis
Randy R. Richardson, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, Randy R. Richardson, MD and Mantosh S. Rattan, MD
FAAP 178 Alveolar Growth Abnormality
106 Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia Mantosh S. Rattan, MD and Randy R. Richardson, MD
Emily S. Orscheln, MD 180 Surfactant Dysfunction Disorders
110 Umbilical Catheter Positions and Complications Mantosh S. Rattan, MD and Randy R. Richardson, MD
Emily S. Orscheln, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, 182 Swyer-James Syndrome
FAAP Hank Baskin, MD
112 Esophageal Intubation 184 Lymphangioleiomyomatosis
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
113 ECMO Catheters 186 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis, Pulmonary
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Randy R. Richardson, MD and Mantosh S. Rattan, MD
114 PICCs
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc CHEST WALL ISSUES
188 Pectus Excavatum
CHEST INFECTIONS Mantosh S. Rattan, MD and Randy R. Richardson, MD
116 Viral Chest Infection 190 Minimally Invasive Pectus Repair Appearance
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Randy R. Richardson, MD and Mantosh S. Rattan, MD
120 COVID-19/MIS-C 191 Askin Tumor/Ewing Sarcoma of Chest Wall
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Arthur B. Meyers, MD
124 Round Pneumonia 192 Chest Wall Hamartoma
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
128 Parapneumonic Effusion and Empyema
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc MISCELLANEOUS
130 Pneumonia With Cavitary Necrosis 194 Asthma
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Hank Baskin, MD
134 Fungal Pneumonia in Immunocompromised Children 198 Bronchial Obstruction
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Hank Baskin, MD
136 Papillomatosis 202 Cystic Fibrosis, Pulmonary
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Randy R. Richardson, MD
206 Chronic Esophageal Foreign Body
MEDIASTINAL MASSES Randy R. Richardson, MD
140 Lymphoma 208 Sickle Cell Disease, Acute Chest Syndrome
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
144 Germ Cell Tumors 212 Kaposiform Lymphangiomatosis
Alexander J. Towbin, MD A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
148 Neuroblastoma, Thoracic 214 EVALI
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc
xv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
250 D-Transposition of Great Arteries
Randy R. Richardson, MD
MISCELLANEOUS
252 L-Transposition of Great Arteries 314 Heterotaxy Syndromes
Randy R. Richardson, MD Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
254 Tricuspid Atresia 318 Rhabdomyoma
Randy R. Richardson, MD Randy R. Richardson, MD, Ryan A. Moore, MD, and Paula
256 Truncus Arteriosus J. Woodward, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD 322 Kawasaki Disease
260 Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD 326 Rheumatic Heart Disease
264 Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome Randy R. Richardson, MD
Ryan A. Moore, MD and Randy R. Richardson, MD 328 Marfan Syndrome
268 Left Coronary Artery Anomalous Origin Randy R. Richardson, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD 330 Loeys-Dietz Syndrome
272 Double-Outlet Right Ventricle Randy R. Richardson, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD
274 Aortic Coarctation SECTION 4: GASTROINTESTINAL
Randy R. Richardson, MD 334 Approach to Pediatric Gastrointestinal Tract
278 Aortic Stenosis Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD
282 Pulmonary Artery Stenosis NORMAL PEDIATRIC VARIANTS
Randy R. Richardson, MD
338 Normal Variations of Duodenojejunal Junction
286 Scimitar Syndrome
Position
Randy R. Richardson, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD
SURGICAL PROCEDURES FOR CONGENITAL 342 Normal Variations of Cecal Position
HEART DISEASE Steven J. Kraus, MD
344 Age-Related Appearance of Spleen
288 Glenn Shunt Ethan A. Smith, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Prakash M. Masand, MD
290 Fontan Operation NEONATAL UPPER INTESTINAL
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Prakash M. Masand, MD OBSTRUCTIONS
292 Arterial Switch Procedure
346 Malrotation
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Prakash M. Masand, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD
294 Norwood Procedure
350 Midgut Volvulus
Randy R. Richardson, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD
296 Blalock-Taussig Shunt
354 Duodenal Atresia or Stenosis
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Prakash M. Masand, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD
298 Amplatzer Occluder Device
358 Duodenal Web
Randy R. Richardson, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
300 Sano Shunt
359 Pyloric Atresia
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Prakash M. Masand, MD
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
CARDIOMYOPATHIES
NEONATAL LOWER INTESTINAL
302 Myocarditis OBSTRUCTIONS
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
360 Jejunoileal Atresia
304 Left Ventricular Noncompaction
Steven J. Kraus, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
364 Colonic Atresia
306 Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Steven J. Kraus, MD
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
365 Multiple Intestinal Atresias
308 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy-Related
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
Cardiomyopathy
366 Meconium Ileus
Randy R. Richardson, MD and Ryan A. Moore, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD
310 Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia
370 Neonatal Small Left Colon
Leila Rezai Gharai, MD, John D. Grizzard, MD, and Randy
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
R. Richardson, MD
372 Hirschsprung Disease
Steven J. Kraus, MD
376 Anorectal Malformations
Steven J. Kraus, MD
xvi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
438 Hepatic Hemangiomas, Infantile and Congenital
OTHER NEONATAL GASTROINTESTINAL A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
DISORDERS 442 Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
380 Meconium Peritonitis Ethan A. Smith, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD 444 Hepatic Adenoma
384 Necrotizing Enterocolitis Ethan A. Smith, MD
Hank Baskin, MD 446 Hepatocellular Carcinoma
388 Spontaneous Intestinal Perforation in Neonates Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Emily S. Orscheln, MD 447 Undifferentiated Embryonal Sarcoma
Alexander J. Towbin, MD
UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL ABNORMALITIES 448 Mesenchymal Hamartoma
TYPICALLY SEEN IN INFANTS AND YOUNG A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
CHILDREN 449 Biliary Rhabdomyosarcoma
390 Gastroesophageal Reflux Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD 450 Biliary Atresia
392 Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP 454 Choledochal Cyst
396 Gastric Volvulus Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 458 Caroli Disease
398 Ingested Coins Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 460 Fibrosis/Cirrhosis
400 Ingested Button Batteries Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 462 Steatosis/Steatohepatitis
402 Ingested Multiple Magnets Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 464 Hepatic Venoocclusive Disease
Ethan A. Smith, MD
ABNORMALITIES OF ABDOMINAL WALL 466 Abernethy Malformation
Alexander J. Towbin, MD
404 Hernias
468 Liver Transplant Complications
Alexander J. Towbin, MD
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP and Michael R. Aquino, MD,
408 Omphalocele
MHSc
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
412 Gastroschisis SPLENIC ABNORMALITIES
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
416 Cloacal Exstrophy/OEIS 472 Wandering Spleen
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
417 Limb-Body Wall Complex 474 Splenic Infarct
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP Ethan A. Smith, MD
476 Splenic Cysts
OTHER ABNORMALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
BOWEL OBSTRUCTION 478 Cat-Scratch Disease
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
418 Appendicitis
Emily S. Orscheln, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, PANCREATIC ABNORMALITIES
FAAP
422 Ileocolic Intussusception 480 Pancreatoblastoma
Steven J. Kraus, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
426 Meckel Diverticulum 482 Solid Pseudopapillary Neoplasm
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP Alexander J. Towbin, MD
430 Colonic Volvulus 484 Pancreas Divisum
Steven J. Kraus, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
432 Internal Hernia 486 Pancreaticobiliary Maljunction
Ethan A. Smith, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
433 Segmental Volvulus 488 Annular Pancreas
Ethan A. Smith, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
490 Pancreatitis
LIVER ABNORMALITIES Alexander J. Towbin, MD
434 Hepatoblastoma MESENTERIC ABNORMALITIES
Alexander J. Towbin, MD
494 Primary Mesenteric Adenitis
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc
xvii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
496 Mesenteric Lymphatic Malformation 574 Castleman Disease
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP Ethan A. Smith, MD
498 Omental Infarction 575 Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Ethan A. Smith, MD
576 Abdominal Aneurysms
TRAUMA Ethan A. Smith, MD
500 Hypoperfusion Complex
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc SECTION 5: GENITOURINARY
504 Bowel Injury 580 Approach to Pediatric Genitourinary Tract
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
508 Hepatic Trauma
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
512 Splenic Trauma 584 Normal Neonatal Kidney
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
516 Duodenal Trauma 586 Normal Neonatal Adrenal Gland
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
520 Pancreatic Trauma 588 Normal Prepubertal Uterus and Ovaries
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
ABNORMALITIES IN IMMUNOCOMPROMISED CONGENITAL URINARY TRACT
CHILDREN ABNORMALITIES
524 Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease 590 Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
528 Pseudomembranous Colitis 594 Vesicoureteral Reflux
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
530 Neutropenic Colitis 598 Ureteropelvic Duplications
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
532 Graft-vs.-Host Disease 602 Ureterocele
Ethan A. Smith, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
534 Chronic Granulomatous Disease 606 Primary Megaureter
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Steven J. Kraus, MD
538 Pneumatosis in Older Children 608 Megaureter-Megacystis
Ethan A. Smith, MD Steven J. Kraus, MD
609 Megacystis-Microcolon-Intestinal Hypoperistalsis
INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE
Syndrome
540 Crohn Disease Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Alexander J. Towbin, MD 610 Prune-Belly Syndrome
544 Ulcerative Colitis Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Alexander J. Towbin, MD 612 Posterior Urethral Valves
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
MISCELLANEOUS 616 Urachal Abnormalities
546 Esophageal Strictures Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Alexander J. Towbin, MD 620 Cloacal Malformation
550 Bezoars Steven J. Kraus, MD
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 622 Bladder Exstrophy
554 Gastrointestinal Duplication Cysts Steven J. Kraus, MD
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP 624 Renal Ectopia and Fusion
558 Small Bowel Intussusception Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc 628 Renal Agenesis
560 Henoch-Schönlein Purpura Ethan A. Smith, MD
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc
564 Cystic Fibrosis, Gastrointestinal Tract MULTICYSTIC RENAL DISEASE
Alexander J. Towbin, MD 630 Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney
568 Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc and Swathi Selvam, BSc, 634 Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Recessive
MBBS, FRCR Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
572 Burkitt Lymphoma 638 Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant
Ethan A. Smith, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
xviii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RENAL MASSES UTERINE AND OVARIAN ABNORMALITIES
640 Wilms Tumor 712 Hydrometrocolpos
Ethan A. Smith, MD and Hank Baskin, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
644 Nephroblastomatosis 716 Müllerian Duct Anomalies
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
648 Multilocular Cystic Nephroma 720 Ovarian Cyst
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
650 Congenital Mesoblastic Nephroma 724 Ovarian Teratoma
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
654 Renal Rhabdoid Tumor 728 Ovarian Malignancies of Childhood
Ethan A. Smith, MD Alexander J. Towbin, MD
655 Clear Cell Sarcoma of Kidney 732 Ovarian Torsion
Ethan A. Smith, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
656 Renal Cell Carcinoma 736 Ectopic Ovary
Ethan A. Smith, MD Hank Baskin, MD
658 Renal Medullary Carcinoma
Alexander J. Towbin, MD SCROTAL/TESTICULAR ABNORMALITIES
660 Angiomyolipoma 738 Epididymoorchitis
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
742 Testicular Torsion
MISCELLANEOUS RENAL CONDITIONS Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
664 Pyelonephritis 746 Torsion of Testicular Appendage
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
668 Renal Injury 750 Paratesticular Rhabdomyosarcoma
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Hank Baskin, MD
672 Renal Stones 752 Testicular Tumors
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Hank Baskin, MD
676 Transient Neonatal Renal Medullary 756 Testicular Trauma
Hyperechogenicity Hank Baskin, MD
Arthur B. Meyers, MD 758 Ectopic Testicle
678 Renal Vein Thrombosis Hank Baskin, MD
Ethan A. Smith, MD 760 Variations of Hydroceles
680 Renal Artery Stenosis Ethan A. Smith, MD
Ethan A. Smith, MD
681 Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome SECTION 6: MUSCULOSKELETAL
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP 764 Approach to Pediatric Musculoskeletal System
Christopher G. Anton, MD
BLADDER ABNORMALITIES
682 Neurogenic Bladder NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
Steven J. Kraus, MD 768 Primary and Secondary Growth Centers
686 Bladder Diverticula Arthur B. Meyers, MD
Steven J. Kraus, MD 770 Red to Yellow Marrow Conversion
688 Post-Deflux Procedure Appearance Arthur B. Meyers, MD
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP 772 Normal Musculoskeletal Developmental Variants
690 Rhabdomyosarcoma, Genitourinary Confused With Disease
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
778 Distal Femoral Avulsive Irregularity
ADRENAL ABNORMALITIES A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
694 Neonatal Adrenal Hemorrhage
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
698 Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia 780 VACTERL Association
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Arthur B. Meyers, MD
702 Neuroblastoma 784 Polydactyly
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP Arthur B. Meyers, MD
708 Adrenocortical Carcinoma 785 Tibial/Fibular Hemimelia
Alexander J. Towbin, MD Arthur B. Meyers, MD
710 Pheochromocytoma
Alexander J. Towbin, MD
xix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
786 Tibial Bowing 854 Patellar Sleeve Avulsion
Arthur B. Meyers, MD A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
787 Arthrogryposis 855 Tibial Tubercle Avulsion
Arthur B. Meyers, MD A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
788 Clubfoot 856 Trampoline Fracture
Arthur B. Meyers, MD Emily S. Orscheln, MD
790 Discoid Meniscus 857 Toddler's Fracture
Christopher G. Anton, MD Emily S. Orscheln, MD
858 Triplane Fracture
TRAUMA: GENERAL Christopher G. Anton, MD
794 Physeal Fractures 860 Juvenile Tillaux Fracture
Arthur B. Meyers, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, Emily S. Orscheln, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD,
FAAP FAAP
798 Apophyseal Injuries
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP INFECTION AND INFLAMMATORY
802 Incomplete Fractures DISORDERS
Emily S. Orscheln, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, 862 Osteomyelitis
FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
804 Child Abuse, Metaphyseal Fracture 868 Syphilis
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc Arthur B. Meyers, MD
808 Other Fractures of Child Abuse 870 Septic Arthritis
Michael R. Aquino, MD, MHSc A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
812 Stress Injuries 872 Transient Synovitis
Arthur B. Meyers, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
FAAP 874 Soft Tissue Abscess
816 Osteochondritis Dissecans A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
Arthur B. Meyers, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, 876 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
FAAP Christopher G. Anton, MD
820 Fracture Complications 880 Dermatomyositis
Arthur B. Meyers, MD Christopher G. Anton, MD
824 Orthopedic Hardware and Complications 882 Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis
Arthur B. Meyers, MD Arthur B. Meyers, MD
828 Soft Tissue Foreign Bodies, Acute and Chronic
Arthur B. Meyers, MD SOFT TISSUE MASSES
830 Morel-Lavallée Lesion 886 Infantile Hemangioma
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
831 Muscle Hernia 890 Kaposiform Hemangioendothelioma
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
892 Venous Malformation
TRAUMA: UPPER EXTREMITY A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
832 Clavicle Injuries 896 Lymphatic Malformation
Arthur B. Meyers, MD A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
834 Supracondylar Fracture 900 Arteriovenous Malformation (Musculoskeletal)
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
838 Lateral Condylar Fracture 902 Fibromatosis
Christopher G. Anton, MD Christopher G. Anton, MD
842 Medial Epicondyle Avulsion 906 Infantile Myofibroma/Myofibromatosis
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
844 Forearm Fractures 908 Plexiform Neurofibroma
Emily S. Orscheln, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, Arthur B. Meyers, MD
FAAP 910 Lipoblastoma
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
TRAUMA: LOWER EXTREMITY 911 Pilomatrixoma
846 ACL Injuries A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
Arthur B. Meyers, MD 912 Rhabdomyosarcoma, Musculoskeletal
850 Patellar Dislocation Christopher G. Anton, MD
Arthur B. Meyers, MD
xx
TABLE OF CONTENTS
916 Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcomas 992 Scoliosis
(NRSTS) Christopher G. Anton, MD
Arthur B. Meyers, MD and A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, 996 Tarsal Coalition
FAAP Christopher G. Anton, MD
920 Granuloma Annulare 1000 Brachial Plexopathy
Arthur B. Meyers, MD Arthur B. Meyers, MD
922 Myositis Ossificans 1002 Hemophilia
Arthur B. Meyers, MD A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP
xxi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1054 Sturge-Weber Syndrome 1104 Childhood Stroke
Luke L. Linscott, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1056 PHACE Syndrome 1106 Moyamoya
Bernadette L. Koch, MD and Caroline D. Robson, MBChB Luke L. Linscott, MD
1057 Neurocutaneous Melanosis 1108 Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis
Luke L. Linscott, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1110 Childhood Aneurysms
CYSTS AND NEOPLASMS Luke L. Linscott, MD
1058 Colloid Cyst 1112 Vein of Galen Aneurysmal Malformation
Luke L. Linscott, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1060 Arachnoid Cyst 1114 Arteriovenous Malformation
Luke L. Linscott, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1062 Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts 1116 Cavernous Malformation
Luke L. Linscott, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1064 Pineal Cyst
Luke L. Linscott, MD METABOLIC, INFECTIOUS, AND
1065 Enlarged Perivascular Spaces INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1118 Metabolic Brain Disease
1066 Pilocytic Astrocytoma Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1122 Mitochondrial Encephalopathies
1068 Medulloblastoma Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1124 Leukodystrophies
1070 Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1126 TORCH Infections
1072 Posterior Fossa Ependymoma Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1128 Brain Abscess
1074 Supratentorial Ependymoma Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1130 Acute Encephalitis
1075 Glioblastoma Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1132 Demyelinating Diseases
1076 Brainstem Tumors Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1080 DNET MISCELLANEOUS
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1134 Craniosynostoses
1081 Ganglioglioma Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1138 CSF Shunts and Complications
1082 Desmoplastic Infantile Tumors Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1083 Embryonal Tumor With Multilayered Rosettes SECTION 8: SPINE
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1144 Approach to Pediatric Spine
1084 Craniopharyngioma
Blaise V. Jones, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1086 Germinoma, Brain CONGENITAL SPINAL MALFORMATIONS
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1088 Choroid Plexus Tumors 1146 Myelomeningocele
Luke L. Linscott, MD Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
1148 Lipomyelomeningocele
TRAUMATIC AND VASCULAR LESIONS Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
1149 Dorsal Dermal Sinus
1090 Birth Injury
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
1150 Caudal Regression
1092 Abusive Head Trauma
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1151 Split Cord Malformation
1096 Germinal Matrix Hemorrhage
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1152 Terminal Myelocystocele
1100 White Matter Injury of Prematurity
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
1153 Neurenteric Cyst
1102 Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy
Usha D. Nagaraj, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD
xxii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1154 Syringomyelia 1212 Acute Otomastoiditis With Abscess
Blaise V. Jones, MD Luke L. Linscott, MD
1156 Tethered Spinal Cord
Blaise V. Jones, MD SYNDROMES WITH CRANIOFACIAL
INVOLVEMENT
NEOPLASMS 1216 CHARGE Syndrome
1157 Diffuse Leptomeningeal Glioneuronal Tumor William T. O'Brien, Sr., DO, FAOCR and Bernadette L.
Luke L. Linscott, MD Koch, MD
1158 Spinal Cord Ependymoma 1217 Branchiootorenal Syndrome
Blaise V. Jones, MD William T. O'Brien, Sr., DO, FAOCR and Caroline D.
1160 Spinal Cord Astrocytoma Robson, MBChB
Blaise V. Jones, MD 1218 Treacher Collins Syndrome
1162 Sacrococcygeal Teratoma Bernadette L. Koch, MD and Caroline D. Robson, MBChB
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP 1219 Pierre Robin Sequence
Bernadette L. Koch, MD and Caroline D. Robson, MBChB
INFLAMMATORY LESIONS
1166 Discitis/Osteomyelitis NECK MASSES BEYOND NEWBORN PERIOD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1220 Thyroglossal Duct Cyst
1168 Inflammatory Myelopathies Bernadette L. Koch, MD
Blaise V. Jones, MD 1224 Branchial Cleft Anomalies
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
TRAUMA 1228 Acute Parotitis
1170 Craniocervical Junction Injuries Bernadette L. Koch, MD
Luke L. Linscott, MD 1230 Infantile Hemangioma, Cervicofacial
1174 Chance Fracture Bernadette L. Koch, MD
A. Carlson Merrow, Jr., MD, FAAP and Blaise V. Jones, MD 1234 Rhabdomyosarcoma, Head and Neck
1176 Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis Bernadette L. Koch, MD
Christopher G. Anton, MD 1238 Fibromatosis Colli
Sara M. O'Hara, MD, FAAP
SECTION 9: HEAD AND NECK 1242 Suppurative Adenitis
Bernadette L. Koch, MD and Nicholas A. Koontz, MD
1180 Approach to Congenital Cystic Neck Masses
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
ORBIT
1196 Orbital Cellulitis
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
1200 Retinoblastoma
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
TEMPORAL BONE
1204 Congenital Auricle Malformations
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
1206 Large Vestibular Aqueduct
William T. O'Brien, Sr., DO, FAOCR and Bernadette L.
Koch, MD
1208 Congenital Cholesteatoma
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
1210 Acquired Cholesteatoma
Bernadette L. Koch, MD
xxiii
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FOURTH EDITION
Merrow
Aquino | Linscott | Koch
RICHARDSON | TOWBIN | O’HARA | MEYERS | KRAUS
NAGARAJ | SMITH | BASKIN | ANTON | JONES | ORSCHELN
SECTION 1
Airway
4
Approach to Pediatric Airway
Airway
(Left) Lateral radiograph of
the normal pharynx in a young
child shows a "thin" & well-
defined epiglottis . Note
the normal retropharyngeal
soft tissue width ſt & thin
aryepiglottic folds st. (Right)
AP radiograph of a normal
airway shows normal angular
"shoulders" or lateral
convexities ſt in the
subglottic region. The
remainder of the trachea has a
uniform caliber & is slightly
shifted to the right by a
normal left-sided aortic arch
.
5
Expiratory Buckling of Trachea
KEY FACTS
Airway
AP radiograph of the airway in an 8-month-old patient AP radiograph in an 8-month-old patient during inspiration
shows the typical configuration of expiratory tracheal shows a trachea that is relatively straight vertically .
buckling: The trachea at & just above the thoracic inlet
demonstrates a focal bend toward the right but does
not demonstrate narrowing.
6
Pseudothickening of Retropharyngeal Tissues
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY ○ Use "last image capture/image hold" for documentation
• Transient thickening of normal retropharyngeal soft tissues – Thickening from expiration will recur during time
of infant on lateral airway radiograph required for true exposure
○ "Swelling" with expiration or poor extension TOP DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES
○ Resolution with inspiration & adequate extension • Retropharyngeal cellulitis/abscess
• Contributing factors to this appearance include ○ Convex generalized bulging of prevertebral soft tissues
○ Relatively short necks of infants & young children, which persists despite inspiration & neck extension
lead to poor positioning for airway radiographs ○ Often lose normal step-off at hypopharyngeal-
○ Relatively long expiratory component of crying also esophageal junction
challenges acquisition during maximal inspiration • Cervical spine pathology
IMAGING ○ Trauma, inflammation/infection, or neoplasm →
• Generalized thickening/bulging of prevertebral soft tissues prevertebral soft tissue swelling
○ ± retention of normal step-off at junction of ○ ± radiographically visible bony abnormality
hypopharynx & cervical esophagus CLINICAL ISSUES
• Resolves on repeat lateral radiograph with improved • Uncommon in children > 2 years of age
inspiratory timing of exposure & ↑ neck extension
• Unlike true pathology, pseudothickening does not cause
• Observation of dynamic airway changes under fluoroscopy characteristic signs/symptoms
can confirm intermittent thickening & resolution
7
Congenital Nasal Pyriform Aperture Stenosis
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
• Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis (CNPAS): • CNPAS without SMMCI is almost always isolated anomaly
Congenital narrowing of anterior bony nasal passageway • Solitary maxillary central incisor in 75% of cases
IMAGING ○ Associated with holoprosencephaly
• Best tool: Bone CT in axial & coronal planes CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Medial deviation of anterior maxillae ± thickening of • Respiratory distress in newborn/infant
nasal processes ○ Breathing problems may be triggered by upper
○ Abnormal maxillary dentition: Solitary median maxillary respiratory infection
central incisor (SMMCI) in up to 75% ○ Symptoms may be more pronounced with feeding
○ Triangle-shaped palate • Narrow nasal inlet on clinical exam
TOP DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES • CNPAS is 1/5 to 1/3 as common as choanal atresia
• Nasolacrimal duct mucoceles DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
○ Intranasal component narrows anterior nasal cavity • Bone CT is recommended for diagnosis of bony narrowing
• Nasal choanal stenosis/atresia & dental abnormalities
○ Narrow posterior nasal passage by membrane or bone • Brain MR is recommended in cases of SMMCI to exclude
midline brain anomalies
8
Congenital Nasal Pyriform Aperture Stenosis
Airway
□ Mesoderm is thought to have inductive effect on
TERMINOLOGY forebrain, hence association of SMMCI syndrome
Abbreviations with holoprosencephaly
• Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis (CNPAS) – Overgrowth or dysplasia of nasal processes of maxilla
○ CNPAS without SMMCI is almost always isolated anomaly
Definitions • Associated abnormalities
• Congenital narrowing of anterior bony nasal ○ Upper teeth anomalies
passageway/nasal aperture – SMMCI syndrome (75% of CNPAS cases)
○ Semilobar or alobar holoprosencephaly
IMAGING ○ Endocrine dysfunction: Pituitary-adrenal axis
General Features
• Best diagnostic clue CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Medialization & thickening of anterior maxillae with Presentation
narrowing of nasal airway • Most common signs/symptoms
• Location ○ Respiratory distress, especially with feeding, as infants
○ Most often bilateral are obligate nasal breathers
• Size – Can mimic choanal atresia/stenosis
○ Pyriform aperture (PA) size in CNPAS – Breathing problems may be triggered by upper
– PA width < 11 mm in term infant is diagnostic (normal respiratory infection further compromising airway
= 13.4-15.6 mm) ○ Cyanosis
– PA area = 0.2-0.4 cm² (0.7-1.1 cm² is normal) • Other signs/symptoms
Imaging Recommendations ○ Nasogastric tube is difficult to pass
• Best imaging tool Demographics
○ Bone CT in axial & coronal planes • Age
CT Findings ○ Newborns or infants in 1st few months of life
• Narrowed bony nasal inlet • Epidemiology
○ Medial deviation of lateral wall of PA (anterior maxillae) ± ○ Congenital airway obstruction affects 1 in 5,000 infants
thickening of nasal processes – Majority are choanal atresia
• Triangle-shaped hard palate – CNPAS is 1/5 to 1/3 as common as choanal atresia
○ Bony ridge along oral surface of hard palate on coronal □ 1 in 25,000 live births
images Treatment
• Abnormal maxillary dentition may occur
• May be treated conservatively with special feeding
○ Fused or malaligned central & lateral incisors techniques
○ Solitary median maxillary central incisor (SMMCI) ○ Nasal cavity eventually grows & mild obstruction is
syndrome (in up to 75%) relieved
• Thinning of anterior nasal septum • Surgical intervention in patients with persistent respiratory
• Posterior choanae are normal in caliber difficulty & poor weight gain
○ Resection of anteromedial maxilla ± anterior aspect of
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS inferior turbinates & reconstruction of anterior nasal
Nasolacrimal Duct Mucoceles orifice
• Obstruction of distal nasolacrimal ducts → cysts at bilateral ○ PA width < 5.7 mm in neonate may correlate with need
inferior meatus → narrow anterior nasal cavity for surgical intervention
• Bony aperture is normal
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Nasal Choanal Stenosis/Atresia
Image Interpretation Pearls
• Narrow or occluded posterior nasal passage: Membranous,
osseous, or mixed • Brain MR is recommended with SMMCI to exclude midline
brain anomalies
• Anterior nasal passage is normal in caliber
9
Nasolacrimal Duct Mucocele
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
• Synonym: Congenital dacryocystocele • Tears & mucus accumulate in NLD with imperforate Hasner
membrane (i.e., distal duct obstruction)
IMAGING
• Most common abnormality of infant lacrimal apparatus
• Well-defined, cystic, medial canthal mass in continuity with
enlarged nasolacrimal duct (NLD) in newborn CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Unilateral or bilateral • Proximal cyst: Small, round, bluish, medial canthal mass
• Absent or minimal wall enhancement (unless infected) identified at birth or shortly thereafter; ± cellulitis
• Coronal/sagittal reformatted images show continuity of • Distal cyst: Nasal airway obstruction with respiratory
proximal cyst at lacrimal sac with distal inferior meatus cyst distress if bilateral (especially during feeding)
through dilated NLD
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
TOP DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES • CT or MR evaluates lacrimal apparatus lesion extent
• Orbital dermoid & epidermoid ○ Excludes other sinonasal causes of respiratory distress in
• Frontoethmoidal (nasoorbital) cephalocele newborn
• Infantile hemangioma • Comment on full extent of lesion from medial canthus to
• Acquired dacryocystocele inferior meatus
• Exclude contralateral lesion
(Left) Coronal T2 MR in an
infant shows hyperintense
nasolacrimal duct mucoceles
extending from the dilated
lacrimal sacs proximally to
protrude inferomedially from
the inferior nasolacrimal ducts
ſt. (Right) Coronal T2 SSFSE
MR in a 2nd-trimester fetus
demonstrates bilateral
lacrimal sac enlargement ſt
with distal extension into each
inferior meatus , a typical
appearance of nasolacrimal
duct mucoceles.
10
Nasolacrimal Duct Mucocele
Airway
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
Synonyms General Features
• Congenital dacryocystocele • Etiology
○ Tears & mucus accumulate in NLD due to imperforate
Definitions
Hasner membrane at distal duct
• Nasolacrimal duct (NLD) mucocele: Cystic dilation of ○ If bacteria enter distended sac → dacryocystitis ± cellulitis
nasolacrimal apparatus secondary to proximal & distal
obstruction of NLD CLINICAL ISSUES
• Canthus: Corner of eye where eyelids meet
Presentation
IMAGING • Most common signs/symptoms
General Features ○ Small, round, bluish, medial canthal mass identified at or
shortly after birth = distended lacrimal sac
• Best diagnostic clue
○ Nasal airway obstruction & respiratory distress (especially
○ Well-defined, cystic, medial canthal mass in continuity during feeding) with bilateral nasal components
with enlarged NLD in newborn
– Obligate nose breathers during infancy
• Location
• Other signs/symptoms
○ From lacrimal sac at medial canthus to distal aspect of
○ Tearing & crusting at medial canthus, preseptal cellulitis,
NLD at inferior meatus in nasal cavity
dacryocystitis
○ Unilateral or bilateral
○ Small NLD mucoceles may be identified incidentally on
CT Findings brain MR imaging in fetus/infant
• Hypodense, thin-walled cyst at medial canthus ± bulging Demographics
cystic component at inferior meatus
• Epidemiology
○ Cysts communicate through enlarged NLD
○ Infancy: Typically 4 days to 10 weeks of age
• Minimal wall enhancement; if infected, thick rim
enhancement ± fluid/debris level & surrounding fat Natural History & Prognosis
stranding • 90% of simple distal NLD obstructions (or congenital
MR Findings dacryostenosis) resolve spontaneously by age 1 year
• Only 50% of those recognized on prenatal MR ultimately
• T1-hypointense/T2-hyperintense, well-circumscribed
have postnatal symptoms
mass(es)
• Intervention before infection to prevent nasal airway
• Signal intensity varies with protein content &/or infection
obstruction, dacryocystitis, & permanent sequelae
• Minimal wall enhancement normally
• If inflamed/infected → thick rim of enhancement with Treatment
surrounding poorly defined soft tissue stranding • Daily manual massage ± prophylactic antibiotics
Ultrasonographic Findings ○ Manual massage is inappropriate if NLD mucocele is
infected or causing airway obstruction
• Anechoic/hypoechoic round lesion with thin wall & ↑
• 10% require probing with irrigation ± silastic stent
through transmission at medial canthus
• With endonasal component & no response to above →
endoscopic resection with marsupialization
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
• Excellent prognosis with adequate early treatment
Orbital Dermoid & Epidermoid • High success rate for nasal endoscopic surgery: Cure
• Lateral > medial canthus (81.5%), improvement (18.5%), unhealed (0%)
• Near suture: Frontozygomatic > frontonasal/nasolacrimal • Theoretical risk of nasolacrimal apparatus scarring,
• 50% show fat density/intensity with thin rim enhancement amblyopia, & permanent canthal asymmetry if untreated
11
Choanal Atresia
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
• Congenital obstruction of posterior nasal aperture(s) • Choanal atresia is most common congenital abnormality of
nasal cavity
IMAGING
• Choanal atresia types
• Unilateral or bilateral osseous narrowing of posterior nasal ○ Mixed bony & membranous atresia in up to 70%
cavity with complete obstruction by associated membrane
○ Purely bony atresia in up to 30%
&/or bony plate
○ Thickening of vomer CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Medial bowing of posterior maxilla(e) • Typical presentations include
○ ± air-fluid level in obstructed nasal cavity ○ Bilateral choanal atresia: Significant respiratory distress
• Unilateral in up to 75% (R > L) in newborn
• Bilateral in up to 25% – Due to their physiologic obligate nasal breather status
○ 75% of bilateral cases have other anomalies ○ Unilateral choanal atresia: Chronic, purulent unilateral
rhinorrhea with mild airway obstruction in older child
TOP DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES
• Choanal stenosis DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
• Pyriform aperture stenosis • Respiratory distress & suspected nasal obstruction in
• Nasolacrimal duct mucocele newborn should be evaluated with thin-section bone CT
12
Choanal Atresia
Airway
• Thickened anteromedial maxilla(e)
TERMINOLOGY
• ± single central megaincisor
Definitions • Must evaluate brain for holoprosencephaly
• Congenital obstruction of posterior nasal aperture
Nasolacrimal Duct Mucocele
○ Choana: Junction of posterior nasal cavity & nasopharynx
• Bilobed cystic mass extending from medial orbital
○ Choanal atresia: Lack of communication between nasal
nasolacrimal fossa to inferior meatus
cavity & nasopharynx
IMAGING PATHOLOGY
General Features General Features
• Associated abnormalities
• Best diagnostic clue
○ Syndromes are common in bilateral atresia (up to 75%)
○ Bony narrowing of posterior nasal cavity with
membranous &/or osseous obstruction of choana – CHARGE syndrome: Coloboma, heart defect, choanal
atresia, restricted growth, genitourinary & ear defects
• Location
○ Unilateral choanal atresia is more likely to be isolated
○ Unilateral in ~ 75% (R > L), bilateral in ~ 25%
• Size
CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Newborn choanal opening is abnormal if < 0.34 cm wide
○ Newborn vomer is abnormal if > 0.23 cm thick Presentation
• Morphology • Most common signs/symptoms
○ Medial bowing of posterior maxilla (lateral nasal wall) & ○ Bilateral choanal atresia: Respiratory distress in newborn
pterygoid plate – Infants normally breathe through nose (obligate nasal
○ Large/thickened vomer breathers) until 6 months of age
○ Bony narrowing ± soft tissue membrane/plug or bony – Aggravated by feeding, relieved by crying
plate obstructing choana ○ Unilateral choanal atresia or stenosis: Chronic, purulent,
– Mixed bony & membranous atresia in up to 70% unilateral rhinorrhea in older child
– Purely bony atresia in up to 30% ○ Inability to pass nasogastric tube through nasal cavity
beyond 3-4 cm despite aerated lungs on radiograph
CT Findings
• Bone CT Treatment
○ Choanal narrowing by medially bowed posterior • Establish oral airway immediately for proper breathing
maxilla/pterygoid & thickened vomer • Membranous atresia may be perforated upon passage of
○ Narrow gap between maxilla & vomer is bridged by nasogastric tube
continuous bony plate or membrane • Surgery will alleviate respiratory symptoms
– Membranous atresia may be thin/strand-like or
thick/plug-like DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
○ Air-fluid level is frequently present in obstructed nasal Consider
passage
– Nasal cavity may also be filled with soft tissue, • Once airway is established, respiratory distress with
hypertrophied inferior turbinates suspected nasal obstruction in newborn should be
evaluated with thin-section bone CT
Imaging Recommendations
Image Interpretation Pearls
• Best imaging tool
• Determine if choanal atresia is unilateral or bilateral
○ High-resolution unenhanced bone CT
• Look for associated anomalies in head & neck
• Protocol advice
○ Suction secretions from nasal cavity prior to scanning Reporting Tips
○ Axial images are angled 5° cephalad to palate • Describe choanal atresia as
– If angle is too great, region of choanae at level of skull ○ Unilateral or bilateral
base creates false appearance of choanal atresia ○ Mixed membranous/bony or purely bony
○ Edge enhancement bone kernel helps delineate bone – Comment on thickness of atretic bone plate
margins in partially ossified skull base
○ Multiplanar reformations as needed SELECTED REFERENCES
○ 3D reconstructions may be helpful for clinical decision
1. Galluzzi F et al: Congenital bony nasal cavity stenosis: a review of current
making & surgical planning trends in diagnosis and treatment. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol.
144:110670, 2021
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 2. Messineo D et al: Radiological parameters review for choanal atresia. Pediatr
Rep. 13(2):302-11, 2021
Choanal Stenosis 3. Moreddu E et al: International Pediatric Otolaryngology Group (IPOG)
consensus recommendations: diagnosis, pre-operative, operative and post-
• Posterior nasal airway narrowed (not completely occluded) operative pediatric choanal atresia care. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol.
123:151-5, 2019
Pyriform Aperture Stenosis 4. Moreddu E et al: Prognostic factors and management of patients with
• Narrowed anterior inferior nasal passage(s) choanal atresia. J Pediatr. 204:234-9.e1, 2019
13
Lymphatic Malformation, Cervical
KEY FACTS
Airway
(Left) Axial T2 FS MR in a 1-
week-old infant demonstrates
a multiloculated, mixed micro-
& macrocystic, transspatial
lymphatic malformation (LM)
ſt involving the left anterior
neck more than the right. A
single fluid-fluid level is
present in a left-sided
submandibular macrocyst ,
typical of layering blood
products. (Right) Axial T1 C+
FS MR in the same patient
shows a typical appearance of
an extensive LM. The
macrocysts show only mild
peripheral enhancement ſt, &
the fluid-fluid level is much
more difficult to discern .
14
Lymphatic Malformation, Cervical
Airway
• Adjacent cellulitis > myositis, fasciitis
TERMINOLOGY
Definitions Teratoma
• Solid & cystic components are typical ± internal vascularity
• Lymphatic malformation (LM): Subtype of slow-/low-flow
congenital vascular malformation composed of embryonic • Frequently contain Ca²⁺; tend to be more firm, unilateral,
lymphatic sacs; not neoplastic focal, & exophytic compared to LM
○ No communication with normal lymphatics Thyroglossal Duct Cyst
○ Composed of macrocysts > 1 cm &/or microcysts < 1 cm • Anterior midline/paramidline unilocular cystic mass
• Venolymphatic malformation (VLM): Combined elements • Anywhere from tongue base to lower anterior neck
of venous malformation & LM
Soft Tissue Sarcoma
IMAGING • Well-defined, typically solid; rarely predominantly cystic
General Features
PATHOLOGY
• Best diagnostic clue
○ Macrocystic LM: Multiloculated, cystic neck mass with General Features
imperceptible wall, thin septations, & fluid-fluid levels • Genetics
○ Microcystic LM: More ill-defined, infiltrative, &/or solid- ○ ± association of anterior neck LM with Turner syndrome
appearing & trisomies; aneuploidy & high mortality in posterior
○ Crosses tissue planes, insinuating between vessels & midline cystic neck masses (cystic hygroma) of early
other normal structures gestation
Ultrasonographic Findings Microscopic Features
• Unilocular vs. septated & multilocular transspatial mass • Immunohistochemical panel of PROX1, D2-40, VEGFR3,
• Contents are predominantly hypo- or anechoic CD31, & CD34 antibodies to differentiate LM from other
○ Separate compartments in multicystic mass can show vascular malformations
varying degrees of ↑ echogenicity ○ PROX1 & VEGFR3 are most sensitive, specific
– ± swirling debris &/or layering fluid-debris levels
• No true vascular flow in cysts by Doppler CLINICAL ISSUES
○ ± flow (from encased normal vessels) in septations Presentation
MR Findings • Most common signs/symptoms
• T1WI ○ Nontender, soft, compressible mass
○ Primarily hypointense fluid; hyperintense if prior ○ Present since birth & grows commensurate with patient
hemorrhage or high protein content (± fluid-fluid levels) – May not be clinically apparent until hemorrhage,
• T2 FS or STIR infection, or hormonal stimulation → rapid ↑ in size
○ High-signal contents with thin, low-signal septa ○ Larger lesions are detected prenatally
– Fluid-fluid levels in multiple cysts are very common • Other signs/symptoms: LMs may infiltrate upper airway or
○ When transspatial, often poorly marginated cause extrinsic compression
• T1WI C+ FS Treatment
○ No significant enhancement (± subtle rim enhancement) • Surgical resection &/or percutaneous sclerotherapy
○ Patchy enhancement suggests venolymphatic ○ Sclerotherapy is primarily for macrocystic disease
malformation (VLM) or microcystic LM ○ Extensive disease often requires combined &/or
Imaging Recommendations numerous staged procedures
• Best imaging tool • Intralesional bleomycin injection for microcystic LM
○ Ultrasound is often diagnostic of superficial components • Medical therapy with sirolimus
○ MR is better for defining deep extent & recognizing • Tracheostomy for significant airway involvement
characteristic fluid-fluid levels
• Protocol advice
SELECTED REFERENCES
○ Fluid-sensitive sequences (T2 FS or STIR) are essential 1. Abu Ata N et al: Neonatal vascular anomalies manifesting as soft-tissue
masses. Pediatr Radiol. ePub, 2021
○ T1 C+ FS is helpful to detect venous malformation 2. Reis J 3rd et al: Ultrasound evaluation of pediatric slow-flow vascular
component of mixed lesions: Subtraction of precontrast malformations: practical diagnostic reporting to guide interventional
T1 FS improves assessment of true enhancement management. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 216(2):494-506, 2021
3. Adams DM et al: Efficacy and safety of sirolimus in the treatment of
complicated vascular anomalies. Pediatrics. 137(2):1-10, 2016
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 4. Wassef M et al: Vascular anomalies classification: recommendations from
the International Society for the Study of Vascular Anomalies. Pediatrics.
2nd Branchial Cleft Anomaly 136(1):e203-14, 2015
• Ovoid, unilocular cyst at angle of mandible with 5. Elluru RG et al: Lymphatic malformations: diagnosis and management.
characteristic displacement pattern Semin Pediatr Surg. 23(4):178-85, 2014
6. ISSVA Classification for Vascular Anomalies. Published April 2014. Updated
Abscess May 2018. Accessed May 11, 2021.
https://www.issva.org/UserFiles/file/ISSVA-Classification-2018.pdf
• Fluid collection with thick, enhancing, irregular wall
15
Congenital High Airway Obstruction Syndrome
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY PATHOLOGY
• Rare congenital anomaly of airway with complete intrinsic • Most commonly due to laryngeal membrane or atresia
laryngeal &/or tracheal obstruction ○ Obstruction prevents clearance of fluid from lungs
• Results in dysfunctional & hyperexpanded lungs, everted ○ ↑ tracheal & lung pressures cause hyperexpansion &
hemidiaphragms, & cardiac/venous compression with maldevelopment
ascites/hydrops • 50% have additional anomalies
IMAGING CLINICAL ISSUES
• Diffusely enlarged lungs, flattened/everted diaphragm • Presentations
○ Prenatal imaging: Echogenic (US) or T2-hyperintense ○ In utero: Large, bilateral, echogenic lungs + ascites
(MR) lungs with dilated, fluid-filled trachea inferior to ○ At birth: Respiratory distress, aphonia, & failed intubation
obstructing lesion, ± polyhydramnios – Lethal at delivery without prenatal detection
○ Site of obstruction appears as persistent short or long • Ex utero intrapartum therapy (EXIT) procedure: Controlled
segment of absent airway fluid at or below glottis delivery with airway secured via tracheostomy while
• Centralized, compressed heart placental circulation is maintained
• Limited motion of abnormal diaphragm ○ Improves survival at delivery
• Abdominal distention with large volume of ascites ○ Respiratory function remains poor
• Findings are lessened with stenosis, membrane perforation, ○ Survival > 1 year ~ 20% with high morbidity
or fistula (as each enables airway decompression)
16
Tracheal Agenesis
KEY FACTS
Airway
TERMINOLOGY ○ Nasogastric tube (NGT) may curve into main bronchi
• Rare, highly lethal anomaly with absence of majority of PATHOLOGY
trachea from subglottis to main bronchi
• Classification by Floyd (most widely used): Types I-III
IMAGING ○ I: Absent proximal trachea; short distal trachea + TEF
• Uncommon detection prenatally, as majority of cases have ○ II: Absent trachea; residual carina with main bronchi ±
fistula from residual lower airway to intact esophagus bronchoesophageal fistula
○ Allows decompression of otherwise obstructed lungs ○ III: Absent trachea & carina; main bronchi arise from
○ May only demonstrate polyhydramnios in utero esophagus
– If airway anomaly is suspected, MR is performed due • Associated anomalies in up to 94%
to superior in utero airway evaluation vs. ultrasound CLINICAL ISSUES
○ Minority of cases have no fistula, presenting as CHAOS
• Inability to conduct air at delivery → aphonia & insufficient
– Lacks dilated, fluid-filled trachea of CHAOS ventilation; intubation is difficult
• Postnatally, temporary ventilation occurs via fistula • Highly lethal due to lack of sustainable conduit for air
○ Low lung volumes with patchy opacities of atelectasis or transit from glottis to lungs
aspiration • Long-term tracheal replacement options are sparse
○ Low origin of horizontally oriented main bronchi ○ Rarely successful reconstruction with esophagus
○ Endotracheal tube (ETT) lies in midline esophagus, ○ Bioengineered graft material may be future therapy
possibly below expected location of carina
17
Epiglottitis
KEY FACTS
Airway
18
Epiglottitis
Airway
○ Some overlap in measurement at midpoint between
TERMINOLOGY control & epiglottitis groups: 3.4 mm is upper limit of
Synonyms normal
• Supraglottitis ○ No overlap in measurement at lateral margins between
control (upper limit of normal is 3.2 mm) & epiglottitis
Definitions groups (≥ 3.6 mm)
• Airway obstruction secondary to inflammation of epiglottis
& surrounding tissues
CT Findings
• CECT
IMAGING ○ CT has no role in diagnosing epiglottitis
○ If obtained (occasionally for other reasons), will show
General Features edematous, enlarged epiglottis with involvement of
• Best diagnostic clue aryepiglottic folds
○ Classic imaging appearance: Lateral radiograph shows – Epiglottis is slightly lower in attenuation when
enlargement/thickening of epiglottis & aryepiglottic compared with other soft tissue
folds ○ In rare cases, may see phlegmonous collection within
– Epiglottis often appears like thumbprint (or frontal adjacent soft tissues
perspective of thumb with nail en face to x-ray beam) ○ May be helpful in evaluating for complications, such as
○ Not to be confused with normal epiglottis deep neck space infection/abscess
– May appear similar to hitchhiker thumb (or lateral – Very rare in pediatric population as opposed to adult
perspective of thumb with nail tangential to x-ray population where it can be seen in 2-29% of cases
beam)
– Epiglottis maintains sharp interfaces with well- Imaging Recommendations
defined, central posterior border; no thickening of • Best imaging tool
aryepiglottic folds ○ Due to potentially life-threatening airway emergency,
• Location unstable patients with classic clinical presentation
○ Potentially life-threatening inflammation & swelling of undergo direct laryngoscopy & bronchoscopy with
epiglottis & surrounding tissues (i.e., aryepiglottic folds) intubation in operating room by otolaryngology as
• Morphology indicated
○ Swelling of epiglottitis → thumbprint appearance on ○ Only lateral radiograph should be obtained in cases
lateral radiograph suspecting epiglottis
• Protocol advice
Radiographic Findings ○ Child should be upright & comfortable
• Lateral radiograph ○ Patient may drool due to difficulty handling oral
○ Marked thickening of epiglottis with loss of sharp, secretions; patient should not be agitated or placed
central posterior margin supine
○ Aryepiglottic folds ○ Patient with suspected epiglottitis should be
– Extend from epiglottis anterosuperiorly to arytenoid accompanied by physician with readily available
cartilages posteroinferiorly supportive equipment to secure airway if necessary
– Normally thin & straight or concave (apex inferior), ○ Obtaining lateral radiograph should never interfere with
outlined by air securing airway given potential for rapidly fatal outcome
– May become thickened & convex
– Swelling of these folds causes actual airway DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
obstruction Enlarged Lingual Tonsils
○ ± nonspecific "ballooning" (air distention) of
hypopharynx • Rounded &/or lobulated mass bulging from posterior
tongue base, potentially filling vallecula & displacing
• Frontal radiograph
epiglottis
○ Only lateral radiograph is obtained if epiglottitis is highly
suspected Vallecular Mass
– Supine positioning of ill patient could lead to airway • Most commonly cyst but rarely sarcoma
occlusion • Fills vallecula, potentially displacing or effacing epiglottis
○ ± symmetric, subglottic narrowing, similar to that seen in depending on exact site of origin
croup
○ Swelling of epiglottis & aryepiglottic folds may not be Croup
seen on frontal view • Most common acute airway condition of children
– May see swollen epiglottis through skull base • Benign, self-limited condition with "barky" cough in patients
usually < 3 years of age
Ultrasonographic Findings • Symmetric subglottic tracheal narrowing (steeple sign)
• Limited studies describe findings on point-of-care-
ultrasound (POCUS) Bacterial Tracheitis
• ↑ AP dimension of epiglottis • Children are typically older than those with croup
19
Epiglottitis
Airway
20
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