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MICHELLE SHIOTA I JAMES KALAT
OXFORD Th ird Edirion
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xx
PART 1 What Are Emotions, and Why Do We Have Them? 1
CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF EMOTION 2
What Is Emotion? 3
An Attempt to Define Emotion 5
A Different Type of Definition: The Prototype Approach 7
Classic Theories of Emotion 7
James-Lange Theory 8
Cannon-Bard Theory 9
Schachter-Singer Theory 1o
Modern Theories of Emotion 15
Basic/Discrete Emotions 15
Core Affect and Psychological Construction 17
The Component Process Model 21
Which Modern Theory Is Right? 23
Research Methods: How Do We Study Emotion? 23
Inducing Emotion 24
Measuring Emotion 26
Behavioral Observations 31
Do Different Aspects of Emotion Hang Together? 32
SUMMARY 35
KEYTERMS 35
THOUGHT/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 37
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 38
vii
CHAPTER 2 THE EVOLUTION OF EMOTION 39
What Is an Evolutionary Perspective? 40

Basic Principles of Evolutionary Theory 40
Emotions as Adaptations 43
Functions of Emotion 46
Intra personal Functions of Emotion 46
Social Functions of Emotion 47
Roles of Evolution in Modern Theories of Emotion 49
The Signal Value of Emotional Feelings 49
Approach and Avoidance Motivation 51
Emotions as Superordinate Neural Programs 53
A Phylogeny of Emotions? 56
Methodological Considerations 57
Example: Are Physiological Aspects of Emotion Universal? 59
SUMMARY 62
KEYTERMS 62
CHAPTER3 CULTURE AND EMOTION 65

What Is Culture? 66
A Definition and Its Implications 66
Cultural Differences in Concepts of Emotion 67
Do All Cultures Have the Same "Basic" Emotions? 69
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 72
Hyper- Versus Hypocognized Emotions 73
Aspects of Culture That Predict Differences in Emotion 75
Individualism Versus Collectivism 75
Power Distance: Vertical Versus Horizontal Societies 79
Linear Versus Dialectical Epistemology 82
Methodological Considerations 83
Example: Culture of Honor and Implications for Anger 86
Integrating Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches 87
Ekman (1972): Neurocultural Theory of Emotion 88
viii CONTENTS
Russell (1991 ): Emotion Episodes as Socially
Constructed Scripts 89
Keltner & Haidt (1999): Levels of Analysis 90
SUMMARY 91
KEYTERMS 92
CHAPTER4 WHAT ELICITS EMOTIONS? 95

What Is Appraisal? 96
The Speed of Emotional Appraisals 98
What Is the Content of Appraisal? 1oo
Core Relational Themes 100
Appraisal Dimensions 1oo
Which Approach Is Correct? 103
Evidence Linking Appraisal to Emotion 104
Does Appraisal Cause Emotion? 104
Universals and Cultural Differences in Emotional Appraisals 107
Is Appraisal Necessary for Emotion? 11 o
The Mere Exposure Effect 111
Example: What Elicits Anger? 113
Core Relationa I Theme Approach 113
Appraisal Dimension Approach 114
No-Cognition Approach: The Cognitive Neoassociationistic Model 115
SUMMARY 117
KEY TERMS 117
CHAPTER 5 EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION IN THE FACE, POSTURE,

AND VOICE 119
Historical Importance of Facial Expression Research 120
Are Facial Expressions of Emotion Universal? 125
Ekman's Cross-Cultural Studies 125
How Many Expressions Are There? 129
contents ix
Culture and Emotional Expression 130
Cultural Display Rules 131
Facial Expression Dialects 134
Emotion in Posture and the Voice 135
Posture and Emotion 136
Vocal Expression of Emotion 138
Can Expression Influence Emotional Feelings? 142
SUMMARY 147
KEY TERMS 148
PART 2 How Do Emotions Affect Our Lives? 151
CHAPTER6 EMOTION AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 152
Methods to Study Emotion and the Brain 153

Brain Damage 154
Electroencephalography 155
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 157
Neurochemistry Techniques 158
The Reverse Inference Problem 159
The Amygdala and Emotion 160
Effects of Amygdala Damage 160
Laboratory Studies of Fear Conditioning 162
Events That Activate the Human Amygdala 163
The Amygdala and Emotional Memory 165
Emotion Neuroanatomy: Important Structures 166
The Hypothalamus 166
The Nucleus Accumbens and Ventral Tegmental Area 167
The Insular Cortex 169
The Prefrontal Cortex 170
Emotion Neurochemistry: Important Neurotransmitters 173
Dopamine 173
~-Endorphin and the Opioid Peptides 175
Serotonin 175
Oxytocin 176
x CONTENTS
Theories of Emotion: Evidence from Neuroscience 177
SUMMARY 180
KEY TERMS 180
CHAPTER 7 THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

AND HORMONES 183
The Autonomic Nervous System 184
Fight or Flight: The Sympathetic Nervous System 184
Rest and Digest: The Parasympathetic Nervous System 187
How the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems
Work Together 189
Hormones and the Endocrine System 190
Measuring Physiological Aspects of Emotion 192
Commonly Used Measures 193
Measurement Challenges 197
The Autonomic Nervous System and Emotion 197
Are Bodily Sensations Necessary for Emotional Feelings? 198
Autonomic Nervous System Specificity of Emotions 200
Culture and Emotion Physiology 203
Physiological Aspects of Positive Emotions 204
Stress and Its Health Consequences 206
Hans Selye and the Concept of Stress 207
Defining and Measuring Stress 209
How Stress Can Affect Health 211
SUMMARY 214
KEY TERMS 215
CHAPTERS EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 218
Emotional Reactions in Infancy 219

Crying 220
Smiling and Laughing 221
Responses to Danger 222
contents xi
When Do Specific Emotions Emerge? 223
How Do Emotions Develop? 226
Physical Maturation 227
Cognitive Maturation 227
Sociallnteraction 228
Development of Emotional Communication: Perceiving, Sharing, and
Talking About Emotions 228
Interpreting Facial Expressions of Emotion 230
Emotional Language 231
Socialization of Emotional Expression 232
Emotion in Adolescence 234
Emotional Development in Adulthood 236
Individual Consistency Across the Lifespan 236
Age Trends in Emotion 237
SUMMARY 240
KEY TERMS 241
CHAPTER 9 EMOTION IN RELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIETY 243
Early Emotional Bonds: Infant Attachment 244

What Is the Function of Attachment? 246
Behavioral and Biological Mechanisms of Attachment 247
Types of Attachment: Secure, Anxious-Ambivalent, and Avoidant 249
Romantic Love and Marriage 251
Romantic Attraction and Falling in Love 253
Attachment in Adult Romantic Relationships 256
Marriage: Predicting Satisfaction and Stability 262
Emotions in Caring for Others 265
Sympathy, Compassion, and Nurturant Love 266
Empathy 269
Emotions in Society 270
Attachment Processes in Friendships and Groups 270
Gratitude: Find, Remind, and Bind 272
xii CONTENTS
The Appeasement Function of Embarrassment 273
Pride and Social Status 274
SUMMARY 275
KEY TERMS 276
CHAPTER 10 EMOTION AND COGNITION 279
Emotions and Attention 280

Emotions and Memory 283
Emotion and Memory Encoding 284
Emotion and Consolidation 288
Emotion and Retrieval 290
Emotions and Information Processing 290
Systematic Versus Heuristic Processing 292
Mood and Systematic Versus Heuristic Cognition 292
Are Depressed People More Realistic? 294
Positive Affect and Creativity 297
Emotions and Decision Making 298
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis 299
Choices Based on Preferences and Values 301
Emotions and Moral Reasoning 302
The Downside of Relying on Emotions 305
SUMMARY 306
KEY TERMS 307
PART 3 How Can We Improve Emotional Well-Being? 311
CHAPTER ll THE VALUE OF NEGATIVE EMOTIONS 312
Fear 313
The Value of Fear 316
The Biology of Fear and Anxiety 318
Individual Differences: Gender and Genetics 320
contents xiii
Anger 322
The Value of Anger 325
The Biology of Anger and Aggression 326
Individual Differences: Expression and Management 328
Disgust 329
The Biology of Disgust 331
Individual Differences: Development and Implications 332
Sadness 334
The Value of Sadness 334
The Biology of Sadness 336
Individual Differences: Aging and Loss 336
Embarrassment, Shame, and Guilt 337
The Value of Self-Conscious Negative Emotions 338
The Biology of Embarrassment 341
Individual Differences in Self-Conscious Emotions 341
SUMMARY 342
KEY TERMS 343
CHAPTER 12 HAPPINESS AND THE POSITIVE EMOTIONS 347

Is Happiness an Emotion? 348
Measuring Subjective Well-Being 349
What Predicts Happiness? 350
Personality: The Top-Down Theory of Happiness 352
Life Events That Impact Happiness 353
Wealth and Happiness 354
Other Correlates of Happiness 356
The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotion 359
Are There Multiple Positive Emotions? 361
Enthusiasm: The Anticipation of Reward 361
Contentment 363
Pride 365
Love 366
Amusement and Humor 369
xiv CONTENTS
Awe 372
Hope and Optimism 373
SUMMARY 375
KEY TERMS 375
CHAPTER 13 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTION 378
Gender and Emotion 379

Gender Differences in Emotional Experience and Expression 379
Gender and Emotion Regulation 383
Gender and Empathy 384
Personality and Emotion 386
Biological Mechanisms of Individual Differences in Emotion 393
Frontal Lobe Activation Asymmetry 393
Serotonin Transporter Gene Polymorphism 395
Emotional Intelligence 398
Measuring Emotional Intelligence 399
Reliability and Validity of Emotional Intelligence Tests 403
Can Emotional Intelligence Be Taught? 406
SUMMARY 407
KEY TERMS 407
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 41 0
CHAPTER 14 EMOTION IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 411
Diagnosis in Clinical Psychology 412

Major Depressive Disorder 414
Multiple Types of Depression? 415
Causes of Depression 417
Treating Depression 422
Mania and Bipolar Disorder 424
Anxiety Disorders 426
Causes of Anxiety Disorders 429
Treating Anxiety Disorders 432
contents xv
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 433
Antisocial Personality Disorder 434
Emotional Disturbances as Transdiagnostic Aspects of Disorder 435
SUMMARY 437
KEY TERMS 438
CHAPTER 15 EMOTION REGULATION 441

Freud's Ego Defense Mechanisms: An Early Taxonomy of
Coping Strategies 442
The Process Model of Emotion Regulation 444
Situation-Focused Strategies 446
Choosing Situations Wisely 446
Active Coping: Changing the Situation 447
Cognition-Focused Strategies 450
Attentional Control 450
Cognitive Reappraisal 453
Different Types of Reappraisal 455
Response-Focused Strategies 457
Escaping Emotions: Drugs, Alcohol, and Food 458
Suppressing Emotional Expression 458
Catharsis: Expressing Your Feelings 459
Exercise 461
Relaxation 462
The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation 463
Which Emotion Regulation Strategies Are Best? 464
SUMMARY 466
KEY TERMS 467
References 470
Photo Credits 527
Name Index 529
Subject Index 543
xvi CONTENTS
PREFACE
Can you imagine life without emotion? Give it a try. What would happen to your
experience of the world if you had no capacity for emotion? How might your be-
liefs, judgments, and decisions change? What about your actions? What would
your relationships with other people look like ifemotion were not involved? Con-
sider the experience of music, literature, film, dance, art, and architecture without
emotion. What would it feel like to be completely emotionless, all the time? It's dif-
ficult to imagine, right? For better or for worse, emotion is fundamental to being
human, woven into every aspect ofour lives. Among students ofpsychology, many
of the most pressing questions about the mind involve emotion in some way. For
those most interested in clinical psychology, emotional problems are among the
most common and disabling symptoms of disorder. Emotions also play important
roles in cognition, social interaction, development, and personality.
Given the ubiquity of emotion in human experience, you may find it sur-
prising that the field of affective science-the scientific study of emotion-is still
young compared to other branches of psychology. During the mid-20th century,
when behaviorism dominated experimental psychology, research on emotions was
sparse. When laboratory research did occur, it was mostly limited to the conditioned
emotional response, which researchers used to study classical conditioning, not emo-
tion itself. Behaviorists considered emotion private, wholly subjective, unobserv-
able, and therefore unfit for serious empirical study. In 1971, when James Kalat
received his PhD, few research psychologists were interested in emotion at all.
Since then, however, research on emotion has increased dramatically in both
quantity and quality. Researchers in fields ranging from social psychology to de-
velopmental psychology to neuroscience have "discovered" emotion and now have
interesting stories to tell. Their results say a great deal about why we have emotions,
when we have emotions, and how emotions affect our lives. Although emotion
research connects with every subfield ofpsychology, few of these results find their
way into standard texts on social psychology, cognitive psychology, and so forth.
Researchers now recognize emotion as a central aspect of the human experience,
and we believe that a course dedicated to emotion can be an important part of the
psychology curriculum.
In the fall of 2001, Kalat contemplated how interesting and challenging it
might be to write a textbook on emotion ... but he knew his knowledge ofthat field
had major gaps. Ifonly he could find the right coauthor. At just that time, his editor
sent the latest batch of anonymous reviewers' comments on the sixth edition of his
introductory psychology textbook-including one that was unusually insightful and
well written, by someone who happened to be a specialist in emotion. A series of
phone calls and emails revealed that this reviewer was Michelle "Lani" Shiota, then a
xvii
graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley, and that she would indeed
be interested in coauthoring a text on emotion. A rich collaboration developed (at
first entirely through emails and phone calls, although Jim and Lani finally met in
person at a conference in 2013), and this textbook is the result-a product of two
distinct perspectives and areas of expertise, brought together to fulfill a shared goal.
Fifteen years later, affective science is a far more prominent branch ofpsychol-
ogy than it was in 2001. Several peer-reviewed journals are devoted to emotion
theory and research; a growing number of psychology departments have graduate
programs in affective science; and emotion is the focus of multiple research societ-
ies and conferences. Lani uses this textbook in her own undergraduate course on
emotion-now one ofmany throughout the world. We are delighted to present the
third edition of this text, which has evolved along with the field itsel£ and we hope
you enjoy reading it as much as we have enjoyed writing it.
THE GOALS OF THIS TEXT

Our goal in preparing this textbook is to provide a comprehensive survey of theory
and research on emotion, across the traditional areas of clinical, biological, social,
personality, developmental, and cognitive psychology. Although the emphasis is
largely on theory and research within psychology, we also address relevant con-
tent in philosophy, anthropology, and sociology, among other disciplines. Stu-
dents should come away from the textbook with a broad understanding of major
issues in the field of affective science. We aimed this text at undergraduate students
who have had an introductory psychology course and who remember the essen-
tials about research design, classical conditioning, what a neuron is, and so forth.
However, we assume no additional background, and we believe the text should be
suitable for a course that enrolls undergraduate sophomores, juniors, seniors, and
even students in terminal master's programs.
Although we discuss major theories of emotion extensively in the first few
chapters and return to these theories throughout the text, we also strongly em-
phasize the value of a scientific approach to the study of emotion. Without
downplaying the arts' and humanities' extremely important contributions to our
understanding of what emotions are, why we have them, and how they shape our
behavior, we have sought to highlight the distinct role of empirical research in ad-
dressing these questions. The behaviorists of the mid-20th century were not en-
tirely wrong-emotion is fundamentally internal and difficult to measure-and
you will find us making that point repeatedly throughout this text. We hope that
readers start with a healthy skepticism that a scientific study ofemotion is even pos-
sible. Despite these challenges, however, researchers have devised new and clever
ways to elicit and measure emotion in the laboratory and in the real world.
We also strongly encourage students to think critically about the theories and
research they encounter in this textbook. Because affective science is so young, many
xviii PREFACE
important questions remain partly answered, at be!.lt. No scientific study is perfect,
and we hope readers will consider the limitations as well as the strengths of each
study we discuss. You will find studies that stem to conandict each other, previously
accepted findings that are suddenly called into question, and basic principles that
are still hotly debated. Rather than presenting the science of emotion as a complete
and tidy field, we've chosen to address its gaps and complexities honestly, trusting
that you will carefully evaluate the evidence and develop your own conclusions.
Finally, we made a conscious decision when writing the first edition to kl:ep the
tone informal, accessible, and fun, and we've maintained that style in the current edi-
tion. We play with language and ideas, we use a lot ofhumor (fans ofDouglas Adams
maydetecta bit ofhis style here}, and we invite you into our lives with personal exam-
ples. We encourage you to apply the concepts and principles you learn here to your
own lives. The study of emotion has the potential to enrich students' lives in many
ways. In reading this textbook, we hope that you find not only academic knowledge,
but also techniques and wisdom for enhancing your own and others' well-being.
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
This textbook includes several pedagogical features designed to facilitate active
engagement with the material, critical thinking, and application to students' own
lives. These include the following:
• Prl!.'ientation of major theoretical questions in initial chapters, which are then

revisited regularly throughout the text as they are addressed by empirical re·
search findings.
• Frequent detailed discussion of study methods, as well as results and con-
clusions, inviting readers to critique the relationship between method and
interpretation.
• Extensive use of real-life examples, illustrating abstract concepts and pro-
cesses in an engaging way.
• Each chapter includes a series of thought/ discussion questions, intended to
facilitate critical thinking about and application of the material. These may
be used as individual study aids, as group discussion topics, or even as essay
questions for assessment.
• Each chapter also includes several suggestions for further reading. In most
case!.~, these are popular-press books by prominent emotion researchers, writ-
ten to engage a wide audience, with more extensive treatment of major issues.
NEW FEATURES OF THE THIRD EDITION

Readers familiar with the first and/or second editions of this text will note signif-
icant changes in the third edition. Cutting-edge research from the past few years
has been added for all the original topics, and we ha-e updated the pop culture
Preface xix
references (do people still remember Friends?). However, the structure of the text
has also changed considerably. Many of these changes reflect evolution in the way
Shiota structures her own undergraduate course on emotion, in turn reflecting evo-
lution of affective science itsel£
First, whereas the first and second editions were organized into major sections
of general issues, individual (specific) emotions, and emotion research in subdisci-
plines ofpsychology, the major sections of the third edition reflect the three ques-
tions that we find are most important to students: ( 1) What are emotions, and why
do we have them?; (2) How do emotions affect our lives?; and (3) How can we
improve emotional well-being?
Second, instead of five chapters on specific emotions (fearI anxiety, anger/dis-
gust, love, happiness, and self-conscious emotions), the third edition includes one
chapter on the functions and properties of specific negative emotions and another
on happiness and specific positive emotions. Most of the material in the original
five chapters is retained, but is integrated within these new chapters or moved to
other chapters on relevant topics (e.g., facial expression, emotion in the body, emo-
tions in relationships and society). New chapters have been added on the following
subjects: (1) What elicits emotions?; (2) expression of emotions in the face, body,
and voice; and (3) emotions in relationships and society.
At a finer-grained level, the third edition also features the following:
• Expanded discussion of psychological construction as a major theory of

emotion (Chapter 1);
• Expanded treatment of appraisal theories of emotion (Chapter 4);
• Careful discussion of meta-analyses of neuroscience evidence addressing
major modern theories of emotion (Chapter 6);
• Expanded discussion of hormones in emotion and the role of the
hypothalamic/pituitary/adrenal axis in stress responding (Chapter 7);
• An expanded section on specific positive emotions (Chapter 12);
• Expanded discussion of gender and emotion, as well as genetic mechanisms
of individual differences in emotion (Chapter 13); and
• Updating of the chapter on emotion in clinical disorders to reflect diagnostic
criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders, fifth
edition, and to include discussion of the transdiagnostic perspective and the
National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria initiative.
(Chapter 14).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to many people for their support of this project. Our heartiest
thanks go to Oxford University Press and particularly our editor, Jane Potter.
We're extremely grateful for Jane's expertise, encouragement, patience, and support
xx PREFACE
throughout the transition to a new publisher and the preparation of this new edi-
tion. We also appreciate the valuable efforts of Holly Haydash, Larissa Albright,
and Lindsay Profenno. In addition, we greatly appreciate the insightful comments
and suggestions offered by Sarah Cavanagh, Stephanie Davis, Andrea Heberlein,
and Marilyn Mendolia, all of whom reviewed drafts of chapters in this textbook.
We also extend many thanks to students, mentors, family, and friends who
have supported us throughout our efforts on this text. Lani Shiota sends affection
and gratitude to current and former graduate students who have worked with her in
the trenches of affective science for the past decade, including Samantha Neufeld,
Vladas Griskevicius, Elaine Perea, Stephanie Moser, W•n "Ellen" Yeung, Elizabeth
Osborne, Alex Danvers, Claire Yee, and Makenzie O'Neil. Each of you has helped
build her knowledge and shape her interests, and you'•e made our work fun. She
extends deep thanks to her graduate advisor, Dacher Keltner- a rock star in psy-
chology who first introduced her to the rich and complex world ofaffective science
and continues to support and encourage her development today. She honors her
father, Norman Shiota, from whom she knows she received much of her own emo-
tional nature. She bows to her mother, Mary Gorman, who has provided immense
emotional as well as practical support for more than four decades, and who is an in·
spiration for lifelong emotional growth. To Lani's husbmd, Bob Levenson- gosh,
where to start ?II! You nurtured her passion for this field; you've offered decades of
valuable guidance; you are a model of outstanding and wlCompromising quality
in science; and you still inspire her every day. Thank you. Finally, Lani sends great
warmth and gratitude to Jim, who first invited her to embark on this adventure.
It's been such a great experience; she couldn't ask for a better mentor and partner.
Thank you for the opportunity!
James Kalat belatedly thanks Paul Rozin, his graduate school adviser, for en-
couragement and inspiration over the years. Back when Kalat received his PhD
from the University of Pennsylvania, neither Kalat nor Ro-Lin had any particular
interest in emotion, but Rozin encouraged his students to develop broad interests.
By the time Kalat developed an interest in emotion, Rozin had become a key con-
tributor to the field, especially in the field of disgust.
Finally, we both extend our gratitude to the professors who have selected this
textbook for their own courses on emotion. We welcome comments from our read-
ers, both students and faculty. We'll update this text again in a couple ofyears, and
your suggestions are greatly valued. Our email addresses are lani.shiota@asu.edu
and james_kalat@ncsu.edu. We hope you enjoy the book!
M. N. Shiota and]. W. Kalat
Preface xxi
What Are Emotions, and Why
Do We Have Them?
• THE NATURE OF EMOTION
• THE EVOLUTION OF EMOTION
• CULTURE AND EMOTION
• WHAT ELICITS EMOTIONS?
• EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION IN THE

FACE, POSTURE, AND VOICE
CHAPTER ONE
THE NATURE OF EMOTION
Many textbooks begin with an explanation ofwhy you should care about the subject.
Do you need to be convinced that emotions are important and interesting? Probably
not. We routinely ask one another, "How are you feeling?" We care about other peo-
ple's emotions, and we want them to understand our own. We seek out opportunities
to experience emotions through stories told in film, literature, music, and art, as well
as in our own lives. We commonly explain our own and other people's behavior in
terms ofemotions, and emotions guide our decisions in a variety ofways. Emotions are
woven into our understanding of the world around us. & Antonio Damasio ( 1999,
p. 55) has written, "Inevitably, emotions are inseparable from the idea ofgood and evil."
From a scientific standpoint, emotion is central to the field of psychology.
Clinical psychologists often want to help people control their harmful or dysfunc-
tional emotions. Cognitive psychologists consider how emotions influence peo-
ple's thought processes and decisions. Social psychologists consider how emotions
impact our relationships with other people and vice versa, and personality psy-
chologists study systematic differences between people in terms of their emotions.
Although the importance of emotion is intuitively obvious, emotion is also
a difficult subject for scientific research. We hope you are starting this book with
healthy skepticism about whether the scientific study of emotion is even possible.
For decades, experimental psychologists virtually ignored emotion because it is so
subjective, and even today, some researchers have misgivings about scientific re-
search into private, internal experiences. Scientific progress depends on good mea-
surement, and as we shall emphasize repeatedly throughout this book, accurate
measurement is difficult to achieve for emotions. The challenge to emotion re-
searchers, therefore, is to make the best use of measures that are currently available
and to keep developing even better techniques.
2
In this chapter, we begin with attempts to define emotion. We then discuss three
classic theories of emotion, each offering an account ofhow major aspects ofemotion,
such as subjective emotional feelings, physiological responses, and behaviors, relate
to each other. In the next section we introduce three modern theoretical models of
the nature of emotion and the structure of emotion space: the basic/ discrete emo-
tion model, the core affect/psychological construction model, and the component
process model. Finally, we briefly review general approaches to measuring emotion-
more detailed discussion will emerge in later chapters-and discuss some research
on how tightly different aspects ofemotion "hang together" ... or don't.
WHAT IS EMOTION?
In 1884, William James, the founder ofAmerican psychology, wrote an influential
article titled "What Is an Emotion?" More than a century later, psychologists con-
tinue to ask that same question. As with several other important concepts, emotion
is difficult to define with precision. According to Joseph LeDoux (1996, p. 23),
"one of the most significant things ever said about emotion may be that every-
one knows what it is until they are asked to define it." Emotion is hardly the only
important concept that is difficult to define. St. Augustine (397/1955, Book 11,
Chapter 14) once wrote, "What, then, is time? If no one asks me, I know what
it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks me, I do not know." William James
(1892/1961, p.19) 1 said ofconsciousness, "Its meaning we knowsolongas no one
asks us to define it." However, to study some phenomenon scientifically, we need at
least a tentative definition to guide our theories and methods.
Imagine you have accepted a job in your nation's space program. They send
you as a psychologist/ astronaut to a newly discovered planet. Previous astronauts
have learned much about the animals on this planet. Their evolutionary history is
separate from ours and their body chemistry is entirely different, but their behavior
resembles ours. They see, hear, and smell. They eat, drink, and reproduce. They can
learn to approach one color and not another to get food, so evidently they have
color vision, motivation, and learning. Now it's your job to determine whether
they have emotions. What will you do?
Try to answer before you read further.
La de dah, dah de dah de dum dum dum. (We're pausing while you figure out
your answer.)
You have an answer? Okay, what is it?
We find that our students' most common answer is to put the animals in a sit-
uation that we consider emotional and then watch their behavior. For example, you
might swing a weapon threateningly at the animals and see whether they scamper
1 A date shown with a slash indicates a publication first printed in the first year (1892) and
reprinted in the second year (1961).
The Nature of Emotion 3

away. Or you might try to steal their food and see whether they attack you. Suppose
they do. Could you then conclude that they have emotions?
You don't have to leave Earth to face this problem. If you wave your arm at a
housefly, it flies away. Do you conclude that the housefly feels fear? We don't know
what a housefly feels, if anything. Ifyou damage a beehive, the bees come at you to
sting you, and they sure seem mad. But are they angry? Again, you could reason-
ably answer either "no" or "I don't know."
Do you have a pet? What kind? Does it love you? How do you know? Does
it greet you at the door when you come home? Does it seek out opportunities to
snuggle with you? Does it run to you when startled or stay close to you when you're
upset or ill? Do any of these behaviors necessarily mean the pet feels love? One
of us (MNS) often has this debate with people because her pet is a cat, and many
people insist that cats are incapable ofloving anyone.
Let's say these animals (alien or earthly) were able to learn our language, so
you could just ask them whether they have emotions. Sorry, that won't work either.
How are you going to teach them the meaning of the word emotion or the mean-
ings offear, anger, and other specific emotional states? You could explain, "Fear is
what you feel when you are in danger," but that's not fair. You can't tell them they
feel fear unless you already know that they feel fear, and we are trying to discover
whether they feel fear! The animals may feel something when they are in danger,
but neither ofyou knows whether the animal's feeling in that situation is the same
as your own would be.
How did you learn the meaning ofwords likefrightened, angry, happy, and sad?
At some point in your childhood you saw something scary, like a barking dog or a
creepy-looking clown, and you started crying. Your parents or someone else said,
"Did that scare you? Are you afraid? It won't hurt you, it's okay!" At another time,
you were crying because you'd lost a beloved stuffed animal, and someone told you
that you were sad. In each case, whoever gave your emotion a name inferred your
feelings from the situation and from your reaction to it. Other people learned the
meaning of emotion words the same way. As a result, you have the same problem
in understanding other people's emotions as you do with babies and nonhuman
animals, even ifpeople can speak-there's no way to know whether their feeling in
some situation is the same as yours would be, even if you use the same word.
Ifyou were paying close attention to the last several paragraphs, you may have
noted that we went back and forth between the terms "emotion" and "feeling."
When talking about emotions in casual speech, we tend to use these words inter-
changeably. By emotion we often refer to internal feelings as well as observable be-
haviors, and we even assume that feelings are valid explanations for behavior ("Don't
mind her, she's just cranky today"). We may also refer to physical sensations such as
the feeling of icy hands and a pounding heart or to thoughts about the person or
situation at which the emotion is directed ("That guy is such a jerk!"). In casual con-
versation, this complexity in what we mean by emotion is not a problem, because
at least among English-language speakers, we share a concept that is close enough.
4 EMOTION
In science, however, this ambiguity in the colloquial meaning of emotion be-
comes a big problem. Feeling is totally subjective and difficult to compare across
people-not ideal for scientific measurement. The observable aspects ofemotion-
eliciting situations, behaviors, physiological changes-are not perfectly correlated
with each other or with people's reports of their feelings. Which aspect ofemotion
is most important? Which should be the gold standard? To return to our question
about the alien animals (or your pet), does it matter whether they feel anything, or
do we just need to agree that the animal's observable response to some situation fits
a certain prototype well enough to call it an emotion? Different researchers have
different answers to this question.
Regardless of the specific answer, one thing must be true: We can never dir-
ectly observe emotions. We can only infer them.
AN ATTEMPT TO DEFINE EMOTION

People studying emotion often disagree about how to define it, and some doubt
it refers to any natural category at all. James Russell (2003) has suggested that the
concept of emotion is just a convenient label for experiences that seem to share
common ground but are really different, much as the categories art and music in-
dude many dissimilar items. According to Russell, the border between emotion
and not-emotion is as arbitrary as the border between art and not-art or music and
not-music. Some languages do not have a word for emotion at all (Hupka, Lenton,
& Hutchison, 1999), and in those that do, these words do not map to exactly the
same meaning (Niedenthal et al., 2004).
However, many researchers have tried to define emotion, proposing that all
the things we call emotions do have something meaningful in common. Let's con-
sider one proposed definition. It is a relatively early attempt to define emotion
from a psychological perspective, but it includes elements shared with several more
recent, widely recognized definitions (e.g., Ekman, 1992; Frijda, 1986; Izard, 1992;
Keltner & Shiota, 2003; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1999; Tooby & Cosmides,
2008). It is a little long-winded, but bear with us:
(Emotion is] an inferred complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus ( includ-

ing] cognitive evaluations, subjective changes, autonomic and neural arousal,
impulses to action, and behavior designed to have an effect upon the stimulus
that initiated the complex sequence. (Plutchik, 1982, p. 551)
We know, that's a mouthful. Let's highlight some key elements and implica-
tions of this definition.
( 1) The definition proposes that emotions are functional in the sense that they
are geared toward having an effect on the world around us. That is, emo-
tions are useful. Many philosophers, including Aristotle and Buddha, con-
sidered emotional behaviors disruptive or dangerous. Extremely emotional

behaviors-panic, for example-are undeniably disruptive. However, under
many circumstances, emotions guide us to quick, effective action. For exam-
ple, when we feel fear, we try to escape. When someone commits an injustice
against us, we strike back. When people take care of us, we stay dose to them.
We shall address this point in more detail in Chapter 2.
(2) According to this definition, every emotion is a reaction to a stimulus-a
specific event that takes place. Ordinarily, our experiences support this idea:
we are happy about something, we are angry at something, or we are afraid of
something out there in the world. This aspect of the definition distinguishes
emotions from purely internal drives such as hunger and thirst. However,
this aspect of the definition is controversial. Some psychologists argue that
you can feel emotions that are not elicited by a specific situation (Berkowitz
& Harmon-Jones, 2004; Parkinson, 2007). Perhaps you're just uncomfort-
able; the term hangry describes a hunger-driven experience of anger to which
many people can relate. Or perhaps for some strictly physiological reason
your heart starts beating faster and you breathe more heavily. You might
feel frightened-even panicked-without knowing why. People with major
depression feel sad or emotionally flat nearly always, regardless of current
events.
(3) This definition, like many others, proposes that emotion includes four as-
pects: cognitive evaluation, or appraisal of what the stimulus means for our
goals, concerns, and well-being; feelings ("subjective changes"); physiological
changes ("autonomic and neural arousal"); and behavior. As we saw earlier,
however, this aspect of the definition opens a big can ofworms. The implica-
tion is that emotion is like a square: A "real" emotion has all four aspects, just
as a real square has all four sides. If someone has three aspects of emotion but
the other one is missing, it's not an emotion.
Is that true? Not necessarily (Russell, 2003). Imagine your professor hands
back a test and you get a higher grade than you expected. You have the cogni-
tive evaluation (this is good news), a feeling (happiness), and some physiological
changes (heart rate speeds up), but suppose you don't do anything about it. You
don't jump up and down and brag to the other students. You don't even smile.
If there is no behavioral change, do we conclude that you don't really have an
emotion?
Suppose your heart suddenly starts pounding for no apparent reason, as it
does in a panic attack. You can't explain this physiological change-that is, it's not
based on your cognitive appraisal of your situation-but you feel frightened, you
are sweating and trembling, and you want to run away. Do we say this is not an
emotion because no cognition led to it? Or do we count "I'm panicking" as the
cognition? If so, it's not much of a cognition.
We shall return to this complicated issue repeatedly throughout the text.
There are important theoretical reasons for assuming that cognitive appraisals,
6 EMOTION
feelings, physiological changes, and behaviors hang together in emotions, as pro-
posed by the definition. We will discuss these reasons in more detail in Chapter 2,
and we'll discuss evidence regarding the assumption later in this chapter, as well as
in subsequent chapters. However, we'll also challenge this assumption in several
places.
A DIFFERENT TYPE OF DEFIN ITION:

THEPROTOTYPEAPPROACH
Some items can be defined precisely and others cannot. For example, we can pre-
cisely define equilateraltriangle: It is a figure with three sides ofequal length. Given
any object, we can say for certain whether it is or isn't an equilateral triangle. In
contrast, try to define disco music. You would do best to provide a few good ex-
amples and say, "music like that." Not every song is or isn't disco. Something can be
a borderline case, not exactly a member or a nonmember of the category.
Perhaps the same is true for emotion. Psychologists agree that fear and
anger are good examples of emotions. So we might define emotion as "fear,
anger, and things like that." Some researchers have proposed that we think of
emotions in terms of prototypes. The definitions above describe a prototypical
emotion, and other psychological states can be more or less like that prototype
(Fehr & Russell, 1984; Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson, & O'Connor, 1987). Psy-
chologists have debated whether disgust is or isn't a real emotion (Royzman &
Sabini, 2001) and whether confusion, surprise, and interest count as emotions
(Rozin & Cohen, 2003). Perhaps we don't need a yes or no answer-an answer
of"sort of" or "in some ways" can still be helpful in advancing research. We can
decide that these states are imperfect examples of emotion, just as some songs
lie at the interface of disco, funk, and rock music rather than being a clear-cut
example of any one style.
We do not need to settle on a final definition of emotion. However, in any
given discussion, we do need to state clearly what definition we are using. When
people use different definitions and don't acknowledge or recognize the differences
up front, confusion is likely. Throughout this text, we will continue to discuss dif-
ferent ways of defining emotion, as well as implications of the definitions used by
various researchers.
CLASSIC THEORIES OF EMOTION

We have proposed that emotional states include cognitive appraisals, feelings,
physiological changes, and behaviors. Some of the most fundamental questions
about emotion concern the relationships among these four aspects and how they
relate to events in the environment. Do they arise separately, or does one aspect
lead to the other three? Ifso, which one is primary? Let's consider the most famous
classic theories.

JAMES-LANGE THEORY
The scientific approach to psychology began in Germany in 1879 when Wilhelm
Wundt established the first laboratory to investigate issues ofthe mind. A few years
later, the founder of North American psychology, William James (Figure 1.1 ),
offered the first major theory of emotions, indeed one of the first general theories
in all ofpsychology. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange (1885/1922) proposed
a similar idea at about the same time. Although the theories differ in several ways
and William James's version has been far more influential, they share enough sim-
ilarities that this general approach is often referred to as the James-Lange theory.
According to this theory, emotional feelings are based directly on the way the
body reacts to certain situations (James, 1884, 1894). In James's words, "The bodily
changes follow directly the perception ofthe exciting fact, and ... our feeling ofthe
same changes as they occur IS the emotion" (James, 1884, p. 190). That idea contra-
dicts the common-sense view that you feel angry and therefore you attack, or you
feel frightened and therefore you try to escape. The James-Lange theory reverses
the direction of cause and effect: You notice yourself attacking and therefore you
feel angry. You notice yourself trying to escape and therefore you feel frightened.
Common-sense view:
Event ~ Feeling ~ Behavior
James-Lange theory:
Event ~ Physiological Change & Behavior~ Feeling
More specifically, according to James-Lange theory, sensation from the mus-

cles and/or the internal organs is necessary for the full experience of emotion.
Any decrease in this sensation decreases the emotion. One example Carl Lange
(1885/1922) offered in support of this theory was the common observation that
drinking wine decreases anxiety. The wine decreases your body's response to a
stressor, and as you feel your body become calmer, you feel less emotion.
In addition, James (1884) proposed that every "shade of emotion" might be
associated with a unique profile of changes throughout the body (p. 1 5), although
he was not always consistent on this point. Thus, the difference between one emo-
tion and another (e.g., fear versus sadness) reflects real differences in your body's
instinctive responses to the eliciting situations (e.g., danger versus loss).
This theory is easily misunderstood, partly because James did not at first state
it clearly enough (Ellsworth, 1994). James used the example of fear of a bear: He
said that you don't run away because you are afraid of the bear; rather, the sight of
the bear itselfcauses you to run away, and you feel fear because you run away. Critics
8 EMOTION
pointed out that this statement is obviously wrong:
You do not automatically run away from a bear. You
would not run away from a caged bear, a trained bear
in a circus, or a sleeping bear. True, James ( 1894) con-
ceded: The cause ofyour running away is not really the
bear itself, but your perception and interpretation of
the situation (e.g., a dangerous animal coming toward
you). Still, he argued, when you assess that situation as
one calling for escape, your body prepares for escape
and starts to run, and your perception of these physio-
logical changes and behavior is your fear.
James did not clearly distinguish among all the
aspects of emotion discussed earlier. In particular, he
did not use the term appraisal, because this term and
the associated ideas were first introduced to emotion
theory in the 1960s, so we don't know whether his
ideas about stimulus perceptions and interpretations
map closely to the definition of appraisal offered
above. Using the terminology of today, however, we
would say that James's theory seeks to explain the
feeling aspect of emotions. So, the proper statement
of the James-Lange theory is that the feeling aspect of
an emotion is the perception of the body's actions and
physiological arousal:
Figure 1.1.
Wil liam james, founder of psychology in the United States.
James-Lange theory, clarified: He theorized that emotional feelings are based on sensations
from the muscles and internal organs, reflecting the body's
automatic reaction to certain kinds of situations.
Event ~ Cognition/Appraisal ~ Physiological
Changes & Behavior~ Feeling
CANNON-BARD THEORY
Walter Cannon, a physiologist of the early 1900s, was famous for discovering the
sympathetic nervous system responsible for fight-or-flight physiological responses.
He and another leading physiologist, Philip Bard, also proposed an alternative to
the James-Lange theory (Bard, 1934; W. B. Cannon, 1927). Cannon argued that
the responses of the muscles and organs are too slow to cause the feeling aspect
of emotion. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional cognitions and
feelings are causally independent of physiological arousal and behavior, although
these aspects all occur at the same time. Restated in modern terms, the cognitive
appraisal, feeling, and physiological/behavioral aspects of an emotion arise inde-
pendently in response to some eliciting event:

Cannon-Bard theory:
Cognition/Appraisal
./"
Event ---+ Feelings
~
Physiological Changes & Behavior
For example, the sight of a mad killer chasing you with a chainsaw would cause
you to decide that you were in danger (cognition/appraisal) and independently
cause feelings of fear and the action of running away. (Cannon's own research on
the sympathetic nervous system made it clear that certain physiological changes,
such as increased heart rate and faster breathing, were necessary for running.) Note
that the assumed causal independence of cognitions, feelings, and physiological
changes/behavior has several implications: Your fear does not cause you to run
away, and the fact that you are running away does not increase your fear.
In many ways, this theory is even further from common sense than the James-
Lange theory, and several observations argue against it. For example, a sudden loud
noise evokes muscle tension, increased heart rate, and increased sweating within a
second or so, fast enough to contribute to the feeling of an emotion. Furthermore,
as we shall soon see, emotional behaviors can alter feelings even when you are not
in an emotional situation. The Cannon-Bard theory was the forerunner to many
modern theories that emphasize the cognitive aspects of emotion.
Much of the dispute between the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard
theory relates to semantics-that is, what we mean by emotional feelings. When
James wrote that body responses produce the feeling aspect of emotion, he was
referring to actual sensations. Understood that way, the theory is almost self-
evident. Where else could sensations come from, other than your body? Cannon
and Bard were referring to the overall experience, including cognitions. Cognitions
can indeed be independent ofbody responses.
SCHACHTER-SINGER THEORY
Recall that according to the James-Lange theory, different emotional feelings
may be caused by different patterns of physiological changes and behaviors. In
short, we can tell what kind of emotion we are feeling by the specific way our
body is responding to the situation. According to the Schachter-Singer theory
(proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer), the physiological arousal
that often accompanies emotion is essential for determining how strong the emo-
tional feeling will be, but it does not distinguish among different emotions. The
Schachter-Singer theory assumes all emotions involve such similar physiological
responses that you cannot recognize which emotion you are feeling just by ob-
serving your body's reactions. Instead, you identify which emotion you feel on the
basis of all the information you have about your situation (Schachter & Singer,
1962). In other words, the main difference between one emotion and another
10 EMOTION
is in the cognitive appraisal aspect, not the physio-
logical aspect. Figure 1.2 contrasts the James-Lange,
Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories.
Could you, in fact, recognize one emotion from
another based only on feedback from your heart rate,
breathing rate, sweating, and so forth? We will address
the research on physiological changes in Chapter 7,
but for now consider a thought experiment: Suppose
a researcher puts you in one room and your friend in
another. The researcher attaches wires to record your
friend's heart rate, breathing rate, and other physiolog-
ical responses and connects those wires to a machine
attached to you. Whenever your friend's heart rate
increases or decreases, the machine will cause your
heart rate to increase or decrease equally at the same
time. Similarly, your other physiological responses are
linked to those of your friend. Your friend watches an
emotionally gripping movie. You experience the same
physiological changes at the same times as your friend,
although you are not watching the movie. Will you say -=
you experience the same emotion?
The James-Lange theory indicates that you Figure 1.2.
According to the james-Lange theory, cognitive appraisals
should-to be more specific, you should experience cause specific, instinctive physiological responses and
the same emotional feeling, although not necessar- behaviors, which determine emotional feelings. According
ily the same appraisal. Based on the Cannon-Bard to the Cannon-Bard theory, the cognitive, physiological/
behavioral, and feeling aspects of emotion are independent.
theory, your physiological changes are irrelevant to According to the Schachter-Singer theory, we seek explanation
your emotional feelings. According to the Schachter- for physiological arousal from the environment, and these
Singer view, physiological changes determine the cognitive appraisals determine specific feelings and behaviors.
strength ofyour feelings, but not which feelings you experience. This view includes
a presumption that all emotions produce sufficiently similar physiological changes
that the differences are uninformative. Ifyou are just sitting alone in a room, you
have no event to which you can attribute your arousal, so although you will prob-
ably say you feel some emotion, you may or may not report the same emotion as
your friend. According to the Schachter-Singer theory, here is how the major as-
pects of emotion are related to each other:
Schachter-Singer theory:
/ ' Feelings
Physiological Change ~ ID Likely Event ~ Cognition/Appraisal
--...,. Behavior
The experiment just described is not feasible, but Schachter and Singer ( 1962)
did something else that they thought might answer the question: They induced

physiological arousal in participants and then put them into different situations. If
physiological changes are different for each emotion and lead to emotional feelings
(as in the James-Lange theory), the participants should all report feeling the same
emotion. However, if people interpret the arousal differently depending on the sit-
uation, then people in different situations should report feeling different emotions
although they have the same arousal.
Because this experiment has been so influential, let's examine it in some detail.
It is an interesting study, but it also has serious flaws. Schachter and Singer ( 1962)
gave one group of participants an injection of epinephrine (also known as adren-
aline), a hormone that increases physiological arousal. Another group received a
placebo injection-that is, one with no pharmacological effects. Of those receiving
the epinephrine injection, half were told that the injection would increase their
heart rate, make them sweat, and so forth. The other participants receiving epi-
nephrine were not warned about these effects.
At that point, some participants were put into a "euphoria'' situation and the
others into an "anger" situation. In the euphoria situation, the experimenters had each
participant wait with a young man who was supposedly also a participant, but who
was in fact a confederate paid to play the role of a happy, playful person. He flipped
wads ofpaper into a trash can, sailed paper airplanes, built a tower with manila fold-
ers, played with a hula hoop, and tried to get the other participant to join in his play.
The anger situation was diabolically clever. The experimenters simply asked
participants to fill out a lengthy questionnaire, which was full of personal, insult-
ing, and downright rude questions. Examples include the following:
1. What is your father's average annual income?

2. Which member ofyour immediate family does not bathe or wash regularly?
3. Which member ofyour immediate family needs psychiatric care?
4. With how many men (other than your father) has your mother had extra-
marital relationships? 4 or fewer 5-9 10 or more
Again, each participant in this condition had a partner posing as another par-
ticipant, who was in fact paid by the experimenters. In this case, he muttered in an-
noyance at the questions and ultimately ripped up the questionnaire and stormed
out of the room.
Having been exposed to the situation and the confederate's actions for a while,
all participants were asked to rate how happy and how angry they felt. Schachter
and Singer ( 1962) did not report ratings ofhappiness and anger separately, but in-
stead reported the ratio of the two. This makes the results difficult to interpret, but
let's try. All participants reported being more happy than angry, although the ratio
varied from condition to condition. Participants given the placebo were not af-
fected much by the situation-they reported about the same ratio of happiness to
anger whether they were in the euphoria or the anger condition. Those who were
given epinephrine without knowing what to expect differed in the hypothesized
12 EMOTION
Another random document with
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nous mourrons libres. La ville sautera si nos murs abattus
permettent à l’ennemi de souiller notre enceinte.”
Quant aux besoins de cette armée du Nord, peut-être
croira-t-on difficilement que, malgré toutes nos dépenses, la
demande qui vient d’être faite au comité, qui a été arrêtée par
le commissaire général de l’armée du Nord, et visée par les
commissaires de la Convention, monte à la somme de 49
millions.
L’armée qui doit anéantir les révoltés s’organise; il arrive un
grand nombre de bataillons à Tours; les postes de la rive
droite de la Loire se renforcent, et l’on fait défiler des troupes
en poste. Si les rebelles menacent cette rive, ils sont hors
d’état d’exécuter ce project; leurs forces ce divisent, mais ils
rentrent dans les pays couverts. Les principaux chefs des
révoltés sont subordonnés aux prêtres; c’est une véritable
croisade; mais les habitans des campagnes commencent à
se lasser de cette horrible guerre, et murmurent.
D’un autre côté, on nous écrit qu’il est parti, depuis notre
dernier succès, un courier de Bruxelles à Londres, pour
engager le cabinet de Saint-James à accélérer un armament
tendant à porter sur les côtes de Bretagne des troupes, des
armes, des munitions, et à vomir sur nos rivages un corps
considérable d’émigrés de Jersey et Guernsey.
Le transfuge Condé a envoyé à Jersey tous les émigrés
bretons pour être déposés sur nos côtes et y seconder un des
rejetons de la famille de nos tyrans.
On se plaignait presque partout des commissaires des
guerres ce corps essentiel des armées va être changé,
amélioré sur de nouvelles bases et épuré par des choix
patriotiques.
Quant à la suppression de la paie en numéraire, toutes les
armées de la République l’ont reçue sans peine; ils sacrifient
à chaque instant leur vie à la liberté, comment s’occuperaient-
il d’intérêts pécuniaires? mais aussi ils ont droit à plus de
surveillance pour les approvisionemens et pour les
subsistances. Quelques compagnies de l’armée d’Italie
seulement ont montré de la résistance; mais les agitateurs
seront déjoués par la surveillance qui y a été établie, et par
les soins de vos commissaires.
Dans le choix des officiers généraux, nous avons dû
quelquefois obéir aux défiances populaires et aux
dénonciations individuelles; mais c’est là un des maux
attachés à la révolution, qui use beaucoup d’hommes, qui en
éloigne un plus grand nombre, et qui présente plus
d’accusations que de ressources. Sans doute après les
odieuses trahisons qui ont affligé et qui affligent encore la
république et désorganisé deux fois les armées, on peut, on
doit même devenir défiant et soupçonneux; mais la ligne qui
sépare la défiance et la calomnie, est trop facile à dépasser;
et si la dénonciation juste est une action civique, l’accusation
intéressée est la honte de nos mœurs et la ressource de la
haine....
Le comité, pour ne rien négliger dans cette terrible partie de
la guerre, a interrogé des militaires instruits; il s’est environné
de leur expérience pour faire un plan de guerre auquel se
rattacheraient des plans de campagne pour chacune des
armées. Jusqu’à présent la guerre de la liberté a été faite
sans plans, sans suite, sans prévoyance même; il est plus
que temps de tracer les limites dans lesquelles la guerre sera
soutenue, dans quelle partie elle sera défensive, dans quelle
autre elle sera offensive, assigner à chaque armée la portion
de frontières qu’elle a à défendre, les points des ennemis
qu’elle doit attaquer ou couvrir.
In what follows regarding the Navy, we see the attempt of the

Committee, which we know was foredoomed to failure, but which
was a fine one, to meet the English Power. The “error,” as English
critics have called it, of rapidly putting in new officers was an
unfortunate necessity.
DE LA MARINE.
Ici nous devons accuser ce système perfide de Bertrand et
de ses semblables, qui, depuis plusieurs années, semblait
préparer, de concert avec l’Angleterre, l’abaissement de la
France, et assurer à nos plus constans ennemis l’empire des
mers.... C’est par la réunion des forces navales, que nos
ennemis out espéré d’attaquer plus sûrement notre
indépendance, et de nous dicter de lois. Quoique par cette
coalition l’on ait tenté aveuglement de faire passer la balance
du pouvoir à une nation maritime, déjà trop puissante pour
l’intérêt du continent; ... quoique, par la désorganisation
passagère de notre marine, par le dénuement de nos ports,
par le ralentissement des travaux, on ait espéré de changer la
destinée de la république française, ne craignons pas que l’on
parvienne à faire rétrograder la plus belle des révolutions.
La surveillance constante du comité, le zèle du ministre, et
le dévouement de l’armée navale qui se forme, feront oublier
tant de trahisons ou de négligences, mais les moyens ne
peuvent être que lents.
Des expéditions hardies, et confiées à des hommes
courageux sont préparées; les plaintes du commerce ont été
enfin entendues d’après le dernier rapport du ministre, le
cabotage va être protégé dans l’Océan par 34 canonnières,
12 corvettes, 18 lougres, cutters ou avisos, et dans la
Méditerranée, par 18 corvettes, ou cannonières et 5 avisos,
indépendamment des frégates dont il est inutile de faire
connaître le nombre et les stations, sans trahir les intérêts de
la défense de la république....
Il existe beaucoup d’officiers capables; l’abaissement des
vains préjugés qui séparaient l’armée commerciale de l’armée
navale, nous assure des ressources, mais il faut les surveiller
et punir sévèrement la désobéissance ou la malversation;
avant de choisir les officiers, examen et impartialité; après le
choix, confiance entière, mais responsabilité impérieuse. Le
secret accompagnera nos opérations, si les inquiétudes du
commerçant ou les soupçons du zèle patriotique ne viennent
pas les altérer ou les contrarier; les corps civils ne doivent
pas s’immiscer dans le secret des opérations navales, ou
bien nos ennemis le sauront bientôt, et nous vaincrons sans
nous laisser sortir de nos ports.
Le comité s’occupe des lois répressives que la discipline
navale réclame avec plus d’intérêt que jamais. Une grande
force s’organise dans les ports de la Méditerranée, qui par
notre position, doit être le canal de navigation du commerce
français....
On s’occupe des moyens les plus propres à retirer les
colonies de l’état malheureux où elles se trouvent, depuis
qu’une cour perfide voulait faire la contre-révolution en
France, par les malheurs de l’Amérique; et si, à côté de nous,
des Français veulent se rappeler qu’ils descendant de
Guillaume, tous les calculs de la politique insulaire pourront
être dérangés.
Le comité ne peut vous offrir aucun résultat précis et
détaillé dans ce moment; il serait même impolitique de la
publier. Mais tout se prépare, et quoique les forces de la
république soient très inférieures à celles des ennemis
coalisés, le patriotisme les dirigera de manière à rappeler le
courage des filibustiers, et les exploits des Bart et des Dugay-
Trouin....
In foreign affairs we have the Dantonesque idea of pitting the

Powers against one another, which, unfortunately for France,
fanatics who were in power later abandoned. The remark on the
impolitic nature of the decree of the 19th of December should be
specially noted: it comes direct from Danton.
DES AFFAIRES ÉTRANGÈRES.

... Le ministère anglais est forcé, malgré son influence et
son orgueil avare, de voir Dantzick passer au pouvoir de la
Prusse, sans réclamation; de voir la Pologne, se partager
sans sa participation; et de se compromettre vis-à-vis la
morale et l’esprit public de la nation anglaise. Aussi l’intrigant
Pitt, qui ne peut se dissimuler que le ministre qui fait la
guerre, traite rarement de la paix, surtout chez une nation
éclairée et trompée sur cette guerre par l’astuce profonde de
son gouvernement, ne cesse d’invoquer sans cesse auprès
de la ligne, la cause générale des cours....
Le comité a cherché à resserrer le lien qui attache déjà, par
les relations commerciales, le peuple suisse et le peuple
français; et l’ambassadeur que la Suisse a reçu suit
constamment le vœu témoigné par la Convention nationale,
de s’allier avec les gouvernemens justes et les peuples libres.
Nous apprenons que les peuples neutres et amis reçoivent
avec reconnaissance le décret du 15 avril, qui eut servi plus
utilement la liberté, s’il eut été d’une date plus reculée, et si le
décret impolitique du 19 décembre n’eût pas donné un
nouveau prétexte à la perfidie des cours étrangères.
Ce décret par lequel vous aviez déclaré que la France ne
souffrirait jamais qu’aucune puissance semélât de sa
constitution et de son gouvernement, et qu’à son tour, elle ne
s’immiscerait en rien sur les autres gouvernemens; ce décret
a augmenté subitement le nombre de nos partisans dans la
Suisse; et le témoignage d’un peuple simple et libre a son prix
auprès des républicains.
Des négociations d’alliance ne sont plus des chimères pour
la France libre. Il est des puissances qui ont senti que
l’élévation ou la ruine d’une nation intéressent toutes les
autres et que celles même qui sont le plus éloignées du
théâtre de la guerre, sont souvent les victimes de leur
modération ou de leur indifférence. Il est des alliés pour leur
propre sûreté, peuvent soutenir nos intérêts, avec autant de
chaleur que de bonne foi. Il est d’autres alliances que la
politique doit vous assurer, et d’autres qui seront dues en
grande partie à votre état républicain; votre commerce ne
peut que s’en féliciter.
L’Italie voit avec intérêt le signe de la République arboré
dans ses villes, si j’excepte les villes gouvernées encore par
un prêtre et par la maison d’Autriche....
Nous apprenons que la Russie a fait faire à la Porte la
demande officielle du passage d’une flotte, menaçant de
regarder le refus qu’on pourrait lui en faire comme une
déclaration de guerre. La réponse a été dilatoire et sera
négative; les usurpations de la Russie trouveront enfin des
bornes. C’est à la politique européenne à aider le maître des
Dardanelles à les poser....
Une suite de coalisation faite contre la France, avait jeté
des obstacles à l’arrivée des chebecs à Alger. On voulait
encore vous aliéner cette puissance, amie de la République;
mais nous recevons la nouvelle que le dey a reçu, avec le
plus vif intérêt, les deux chebecs que la République lui a
renvoyés, et qu’il a témoigné les dispositions les plus
favorables à la France....
There follows the French criticism of the Alien Bill.
Un bill infâme, qui insulte à l’humanité et aux droits des

nations, a été promulgué par le gouvernement anglais, et
traduit en espagnol à Madrid et dans les villes hanséatiques,
par les intrigues de l’ambassadeur anglais. Ce bill, dont la
haine pour la convention a dicté les clauses horribles contre
les Français, vous portera sans doute à user du droit de
représailles. Le comité vous fera un rapport sur cet objet,
ainsi que sur les diverses mesures à prendre contre la
gouvernement anglais. Des agens nombreux sont disséminés
dans l’Europe, pour connaître les complots de nos ennemis
au dedans et au dehors, et pour s’assurer des véritables amis
de la république.
Il résulte enfin, de toutes nos relations, que Dumouriez et
ses aides-de-camp, chassés du Stoutgard, n’ont pas reçu un
meilleur accueil à Vursbourg, par ordre de l’électeur, quoique
évêque. Ainsi, les traîtres ne trouvent pas d’asyle même chez
les despotes à qui ils se sacrifient.
Matters concerning the Interior are comparatively vague, for here

the Committee wished to compromise with the Gironde; but they are
strong against civil war.
DE L’INTÉRIEUR.
... Quant aux approvisionnemens des armées et de la
marine, les commissaires éprouvent des obstacles, en ne
pouvant, d’après le dernier décret, acheter que dans les
marchés.
Le comité s’est occupé ensuite de sonder la plaie et de
connaître la source de toutes les agitations qui tourmentent la
république.
Ici des vérités doivent nous être déclarées; car, vous êtes
sur le bord d’un abyme profond, et la Convention Nationale,
au milieu de ses divisions, a oublié qu’elle marchait entre
deux écueils, et qu’elle était conduite par l’aveugle anarchie.
D’un côté, l’exécrable plan de la guerre civile, secondé par
l’Anglais, et sans doute dirigée de Londres, de Rome et par
des agens correspondans à Paris, étendait ses ramifications
sur toute la France, et principalement dans les pays qui
étaient, depuis la révolution, infestés de fanatisme, ou qui
avaient été le théâtre des troubles fanatiques et des complots
contre-révolutionnaires.
D’un autre côté, une alarme générale s’est répandue parmi
les propriétaires d’un territoire de vingt-sept mil de lieues
quarrées, et ces craintes ont eu pour base des motions
exagérées, des journaux feuillantisés et des propos
sauguinaires; le mécontentement né de nos discussions
personnelles a altéré la confiance, mais vous êtes
nécessaires: les aristocrates, redoutant les passions des
patriotes, ont excité les hommes énergiques contre les
modérés auxquels ils se rattachent sourdement; ils ont
préparé des mouvemens contraires....
Marseille, Bordeaux, Lyon, Rouen, prenez garde, la liberté
vous observe sur votre marche dans la révolution; elle ne
vous croira jamais contraire à ses vues; mais craignez d’être
stationnaires dans le mouvement de l’opinion publique;
écrasez avec nous les révoltés, les anarchistes et les
brigands; mais aussi craignez le modérantisme et les
intrigues de l’aristocratie qui veut vous effrayer sur les
propriétés et sur le commerce, pour vous redonner des
nobles, des prêtres et un roi....
Au moment où le comité a été formé, presque partout les
administrations trop faibles ou trop au dessous des
circonstances se ressentaient de l’influence meurtrière des
passions particulières qui y correspondaient...
A Lyon, l’aristocratie a un foyer plus profond qu’on ne peut
le penser; elle est secondée par l’égoïsme et l’indifférence....
Mais les campagnes et les villes de department de Rhône
et Loire, surtout Villefranche, présente un autre esprit, et là
surtout paraissent ces signes heureux, là sont entendues ces
acclamations énergiques qui caractérisent le patriotisme.
A Marseille où tout annonce l’ardeur républicaine, à
Marseille où l’on voit presque à chaque pas un arbre de la
liberté ou une inscription civique, à Marseille où le pain, égal
pour tout et de mauvaise qualité, se vend sept sols la livre,
cette calamité est supportée sans murmurer, où l’on entend
des plaintes contre les traîtres, les égoïstes, les intrigans; où
les seuls malheurs dont on soit afflige sont ceux qui frappent
la République entière, Marseille a éprouvé des convulsions
violentes; mais si la répression de quelques excès de la
démagogie a fait craindre à de bons citoyens que le
modérantisme ne prévalût, le républicanisme n’en triomphera
pas moins des passions individuelles. Croyons que cette
grande cité ne dégénérera pas de sa renommée.
Nous avons à gémir sur des excès commis à Avignon et à
Aix; ce qui s’est passé d’irrégulier à Toulon, relativement aux
officiers de la marine, vous sera rapporté quand le comité
aura fait le travail de cette partie.
Le meilleur esprit règne dans ce moment à Perpignan; la
vieille antipathie nationale contre l’Espagnol, y réchauffé
l’esprit républicain que le département des Pyrénées
orientales avait déjà montré avec tant d’énergie le 21 Juin
1791.
Bayonne se rattache aux bons principes. Les trahisons lui
ont donné de l’énergie; mais si cette place est dans ce
moment menacée de près par l’ennemi, le zèle des
républicains méridionaux la défendra contre les ennemis du
dedans et du dehors.
Bordeaux ne cesse de fournir à la liberté et a ses armées
des trésors et des soldats; elle va défendre en même temps
les Pyrénées et les Deux-Sèvres.
Les intentions manifestées à Nantes ne se ressentent pas
assez de l’enthousiasme civique qui doit animer dans ce
moment tous les citoyens. Ses moyens auraient pu être plus
efficaces; il y a du mécontentement et des craintes sur les
effets des divisions intestines.
A Orléans, l’esprit public s’améliore, depuis que
l’aristocratie a été frappée par la loi révolutionnaire; mais
cette ville a le droit d’obtenir que les procédures faites par les
commissaires soient bientôt jugées, les coupables punis et
les bons citoyens rassurés.
Dans le département de l’Allier, une correspondance
interceptée a fait découvrir des traînes contre la liberté, elles
étaient ourdies par des prêtres déportés, de concert avec
leurs agens à Moulins. Les corps administratifs, qui vivent
dans la plus heureuse harmonie, ont mis en lieu de sûreté les
ci-devant que leur conduite avait rendus suspects et les y font
garder avec soin et humanité, jusqu’à ce que la République
n’ait plus rien à craindre de ses ennemis intérieurs et de ces
enfans dénaturés. Le peuple a partout applaudi à cette
énergie de ses magistrats, et il les a secourus, parce que le
peuple veut franchement la liberté.
A Roanne, le modérantisme est réduit en système, et dans
la crise où nous sommes, cette apathie politique est le plus
grand fléau de la République, qui ne peut s’établir que par le
développement de toute l’énergie nationale.
A Tain, dans le département de la Drôme, des patriotes,
que n’étaient qu’aisés dans leur fortune (le patriotisme se
trouve rarement avec la fortune), se sont cotisés, et, de
concert avec le Maire, ont fait, sans y être contraints par la loi,
mais par amour pour la patrie, une cotisation, dont le produit
a été employé à fournir du pain à un prix modéré, pour les
citoyens peu fortunés. C’est ainsi que dans les provinces
méridionales, les mœurs et l’humanité font plus que les lois et
le cœur des riches dans les grandes cités....
A Tours, l’administration d’Indre et Loire, apprenant que les
ennemis étaient à Loudun, et marchaient à Chinon, a pris la
résolution, par un mouvement civique et spontané, de se
transporter toute entière au milieu des dangers qui les
menaçaient, et décidée à s’ensevelir sous les ruines de la
ville, plutôt que de se rendre. Une commission y est restée.
Loudun a demeuré sans défense. Quelques aristocrates en
ont été heureusement chassés.
Poitiers, trop influencé par des fanatiques et par des
hommes de l’ancien régime, peut donner des espérances aux
révoltés, et déjà l’administration nous a fait craindre le résultat
du mauvais esprit d’une partie de ses habitans, malgré
l’énergie connue des patriotes qu’elle renferme.
Paris qu’on accuse sans cesse, qu’on agite presque
toujours, tantôt par des crimes, tantôt par des intrigues, tantôt
par des passions personnelles, tantôt par des intérêts secrets
et étrangers, et plus souvent encore par l’action prolongée ou
l’exaltation des passions révolutionnaires; Paris, réceptacle
de tant d’étrangers, de tant de conspirateurs, doit attirer vos
regards.
The following passage on the Commune of Paris is noteworthy for

its non-committal character, in keeping with the attempt to get rid of
the Gironde, if possible, without an insurrection.
Vous devez contenir le conseil général de la commune de

Paris dans les limites que l’unité et l’indivisibilité de la
République exigent et que la loi lui prescrit. C’est à vous qu’il
appartient seul de dominer toutes les ambitions politiques, de
détruire toutes les usurpations législatives; c’est à vous de
répondre à la France du dépôt de pouvoir qui vous a été
religieusement confié.
Vous devez aviser aux movemens inégaux et anarchiques
que des intrigans font passer dans plusieurs sections
peuplées de bons citoyens, et aux mouvemens
aristocratiques qu’on pourrait cependant leur communiquer.
Vous devez surveiller également le moderantisme qui
paralyse tout et prépare la perte de la liberté, et les excès le
la démagogie dont les émigrés et les ambitieux, déguisés
parmi nous, tiennent le secret et le prix journalier.
L’esprit des habitans de Paris est bon, malgré les vices de
l’égoïsme, de l’avarice et de l’apathie d’un certain nombre de
ses habitans. L’amour de la liberté, qu’on a voulu tant de fois
y neutraliser, sort victorieux de toutes les épreuves; et nous
pensons que Paris n’appartiendra jamais qu’à la liberté; Paris
qui à détruit le trône, ne souffrira pas qu’aucune autorité
usurpe le pouvoir national, qui est la propriété de tous, et qui
est le véritable lieu de tous les départemens.
Malgré toutes les intrigues par lesquelles on a cherché à
empêcher Paris de prononcer son patriotisme en marchant
contre les révoltés, chaque section a fourni ou s’occupe de
fournir son contingent pour former douze ou quatorze
bataillons de mille hommes....
I quote certain portions which show the fear of the Committee, so
often justified, with regard to foreign intrigue.
FINANCES.
Il a agioté le numéraire pour avilir l’assignat; il a fait
hausser les changes, par ses opérations à la bourse.
DISSENTIONS CIVILES.
Il a alimenté le fanatisme de la Vendée; il a fourni des
hommes, des armes et des munitions.[166]
ROYALISME.
C’est l’anglais, qui a combiné les regrets et ravivé les
espérances, par l’excès du républicanisme qu’il a fomenté,
par les motions des lois agraires, dont il cherchait ensuite à
faire imputer les projets à des patriotes connus....
GÉNÉRAUX.
Celui qui avait acheté Arnold en Amérique, a acheté
Dumouriez en Europe, et il a dû traiter de même les militaires
qui n’aiment pas la république....
DE L’ORGANISATION SOCIALE.
L’anglais a semé l’effroi dans l’âme des propriétaires par
des motions sur les partages des terres, et dans le cœur des
commerçans par le pillage des magasins....
L’anglais a imaginé de la bloquer, de l’affamer, de
l’incendier dans ses ports, dans ses édifices publics; de
détruire son industrie; il armé tour à tour l’aristocrate contre le
patriote, et le patriote contre l’aristocrate; enfin, le peuple
contre le peuple, espérant que le spectacle de nos troubles
ôtera au peuple anglais le courage de détruire chez lui le
despotisme royal.
PERTE DE PARIS.
C’est au cœur que les assassins frappent; c’est sur les
capitales que les conquérans dirigent leurs coups. On ne
pouvait perdre Paris par les armés; on a voulu perdre Paris
par les départemens; on y a semé dès terreurs pour le ruiner
par la fuite des propriétaires et des riches; on a semé des
idées de suprématie, pour séparer, pour isoler les
départemens de Paris.
The danger of civil war and vigorous methods for meeting it are
the subject of the passages that follow.
DIVISION DU TERRITOIRE.
L’anglais enfin a espéré diviser la France pour la morceler
ou la ruiner. Dans son délire, il a espéré de voir une
monarchie impuissante s’établir dans le nord, et des
républiques misérables et divisées se former dans le midi.
J’ai dévoilé le gouvernement britannique; il n’est plus à
craindre.
Dans un très grand nombre de départemens on a procédé
à la réclusion des personnes notoirement suspectes
d’incivisme et soupçonnées d’entretenir des intelligences
avec les émigrés et les contre-révolutionnaires. On en accuse
généralement les prêtres et les moines, les émigrés rentrés
impunément sur notre territoire, et les correspondants qui les
soutenaient de leurs fortunes et de leurs espérances.
On a dû prendre des mesures sévères, alors que tous les
aristocrates correspondaient à la Vendée, et que des lettres
interceptées annonçaient un rassemblement à Nantes.
Des arrestations nombreuses ont dû être la suite de ces
méfiances, de ces trahisons disséminées dans toute la
France; l’autorité, dans les temps de révolution, a plus d’yeux
et de bras que d’entrailles; mais le législateur doit à tous les
citoyens cette justice exacte qui vient régulariser les premiers
mouvemens et faire statuer sur la liberté individuelle avec les
précautions que les circonstances peuvent admettre. Vous
devez abattre également toutes les aristocraties et toutes les
tyrannies; vous devez approuver vos commissaires s’ils ont
bien fait, les blâmer et les punir s’ils ont violé les droits des
citoyens. Le comité pense que le comité de législation et de
sûreté générale doivent proposer incessamment une loi qui
règle le mode de jugement de la légitimité de ces
arrestations, et qui renvoie aux tribunaux les coupables ou
laissât en réclusion ceux qui ne sont que notoirement
suspects.
Le département de l’Ain voit l’esprit public se rétablir
parmises habitans.
La conspiration qui a éclaté dans l’Ouest semblait se
montrer dans les départemens de l’Ardèche, du Gard, de la
Haute Loire et du Cantal; mais les administrateurs et vos
commissaires sont parvenus à les réprimer. Ces troubles de
la Lozère ont un caractère plus fort; mais le patriotisme de ce
département et de ses voisins y mettra bientôt un terme.
Les tribunaux ont sévi contre les coupables; nous avions
craint que vos commissaires n’eussent dépassé leurs
pouvoirs dans le département de l’Ardèche, et nous les
aurions déféré à votre sévère justice pour donner l’exemple
de la punition de ceux qu’on affecte d’appeler des proconsuls,
pour empêcher le bien qu’ils peuvent faire ou en empoisonner
les résultats; mais un décret avait déjà mis hors de la loi les
coupables complices de Defaillant.
La trahison de Dumouriez que tout annonce avoir eu des
branches très étendus, a été un trait de lumière; elle a frappé
es administrations et les citoyens d’un coup électrique. Tous
nos moyens ont centuplé par cet évènement destiné à les
paralyser; mais de tous les maux préparés insensiblement
dans les départemens frontières comme dans le centre,
comme au milieu de nous le plus grand, le plus effrayant par
ses progrès, est la marche imprévue des contre-
révolutionnaires nobiliares, sacerdotaux et émigrés qui, du
fond de la Vendée et du Morbihan remontent la Loire,
menacent nos cités de l’intérieur, et emploient à la fois, des
moyens de terreur et de persuasion....
Les révoltés ont plusieurs corps de rassemblement. Le
principe qui s’était porté a Thouars, était, suivant les uns, de
quinze mille suivant la dernière relation envoyée par un de
nos commissaires, il était de vingt à vingt-cinq mille hommes
armés, partie de piques, partie de fusils; ils traînent avec eux,
treize pièces de canon, selon les uns, et d’après le dernier
succès de Thouars, trente pièces d’artillerie.
Ils sont commandés par des ci-devant nobles et
accompagnés par des prêtres; toutes leurs femmes leur
servent d’espions; ils se battent pour des fiefs et des prières.
Les agriculteurs fanatiques combattent avec fureur et ne
pillent pas; ils composent la moitié de la troupe.
Un quart est composé de gardes-chasses, d’échappés des
galères et de faux sauniers. Ils pillent, dévastent, égorgent, et
sont bien dignes de leurs chefs.
L’autre quart est formé d’hommes pusillanimes ou
indifférens, que la violence force de marcher, mais qui, à la
première défaite des brigands, se retireraient, et forment,
pour ainsi dire, la propriété du premier occupant. C’est à la
liberté de s’en emparer par des succès.
Il n’y a que les émigrés, les ci-devant, et les prêtres qui
voudraient mettre de l’ordre dans les rassemblemens, et de la
tactique dans cette guerre. Ils paient, les rebelles deux tiers
en numéraire.
Les chefs connus sont les ci-devant de Leseur, Laroche-
Jacquelin, Beauchamp, Langrenière, Delbecq, Baudré-de-
Brochin, Debouillé-Loret, un abbé appelé Larivière. Domengé
est colonel-général de la cavalerie; Demenens et Delbecq
commandent l’armée catholique-royale.
Le comité a pourvu journellement par des arrêtés pressans,
à ce que cette guerre intestine fût efficacement comprimée....
Déjà l’armée s’organise à Tours; une commission centrale
est établie à Saumur; déjà des troupes de ligne ont dépassé
Paris pour s’y rendre, et le renfort considérable que le comité
avait requis, est en route pour s’y rendre. Les voitures des
riches, les équipages du luxe, auront du moins servi une fois
à la défense de la patrie et de la liberté. Une armée est
dirigée en poste sur les rives de la Loire. C’est ainsi qu’un des
plus fameux guerrieurs du nord alla écraser en 1757 les
autrichiens à la bataille de Liffa ou Leuten, avec une armée
arrivée en poste sur le champ de bataille....
Le comité prépare un rapport sur les agens périodiques de
l’opinion publique, et sur les arrêtés violateurs de la liberté de
la presse.
Tel est le tableau de l’intérieur de la république, d’après les
rapports et la correspondance des commissaires et des corps
administratifs. Nous devons le terminer par une réflexion sur
les commissaires, dont on cherche trop à effrayer les
citoyens, et même plusieurs membres de la convention....
The influence of Cambon is apparent in what follows.
DES CONTRIBUTIONS PUBLIQUES.

Quant aux contributions, rien ne prouve mieux le désir de
voir fonder la République, et de voir renaître l’ordre social le
paiement des impositions, au milieu des ruines et de débris
de l’ancien gouvernement; s’il y a de l’arriéré, ce n’est que par
les fautes des administrations qui n’ont pas encore terminé la
confection des rôles; quelques-unes ont arrêté tout envoi de
fonds. Mais un moyen de salut public, appartient à cette
partie de l’administration, c’est de vous occuper sans relâche,
des lois concernant les contributions publiques, de
l’accélération de la vente des biens d’émigrés, et des maisons
ci-devant royales, objets qui semblent encore attendre leurs
anciens et coupables possesseurs; et des moyens de retirer
de la circulation, une certaine masse d’assignats. Vous devez
cette loi au peuple, qui a vu s’augmenter par une progression
effrayante et ruineuse, le prix des subsistances; vous le
devez à tous les créanciers de la République et à tous ceux
qu’elle salarie, afin de rétablir la balance rompu trop
rapidement, par la masse énorme de cette monnaie. La
portion du peuple qui mérite avant toutes les autres l’attention
de ses représentants, est celle qui souffre tous les jours au
surhaussement du prix des denrées.
Les contributions indirectes, perçues au milieu des
mouvemens de la révolution, et des défiances semées sur
son succès, par des mécontens et des ennemis publics,
alimentent abondamment le trésor national. Déjà dans les
trois derniers mois de Janvier, Février et Mars, la perception
des impôts indirects excède de plusieurs millions l’estimation
qui en a été faite. Le total des trois mois, se porte a
52,182,468 livres en y comprenant 5,400,000 livres, de
l’adjudication des bois. Que serace dans un temps de paix et
de prospérité? Quelle confiance la République doit avoir de
ses forces et de ses moyens?
Nous avons vu avec regret, parmi les produits de
l’imposition indirecte, des droits qui devraient être inconnus à
des peuples libres, des droits de bâtardise et de déshérence,
et que les sauvages de l’Amérique repousseraient.
From henceforward Danton’s hand is apparent throughout the

report. Some matters on the Constitution and on Public Construction,
which have little to do with the insurrection of June 2nd, have been
omitted, but the Dantonian policy of framing a constitution which
should reconcile enemies is printed in full.
DES COLONIES.
Nous ne disons encore rien des colonies, quoique nous
ayons reçu des mémoires et des vues sur cet objet important
et malheureux, d’où dépend la prospérité publique, et
l’agrandissement de la marine française. Peut-être eût-il
mieux valu de ne pas plus parler dans les assemblées
nationales, des colonies que de la religion, jusqu’à ce que la
révolution du continent eût été à son terme. Perfectionner
dans ces contrées lointaines le commissariat civil, adoucir les
effets du régime militaire, détruire insensiblement le préjugé
des couleurs, améliorer par des vues sages et des moyens
progressifs le sort de l’espèce humaine dans ces climats
avares, etait peut-être la mesure la plus convenable; mais la
révolution a fait des progrès terribles sous ce soleil brûlant.
Saint-Domingue est aussi malheureux que les îles des vents
sont redevenues fidèles, et ses malheurs ne paraissent pas
rès de leur terme.
On examinera un jour s’il est des moyens de rattacher les
colonies à la France, par leur propre intérêt, c’est-à-dire, par
la franchise absolue de leur commerce avec nous, et une
disposition générale des droits perçus sur le commerce
étranger, dans ces mêmes colonies. De pareilles lois qui nous
défendraient mieux que des escadres, demandent d’être
méditées.
Cette partie de l’intérêt national, doit être traitée
séparément et avec une forte sagesse; le comité est chargé
de préparer en attendant ce rapport, des mesures propres à
diminuer les maux que cette belle colonie souffre encore.
DE LA FORCE PUBLIQUE DE L’INTÉRIEUR.
Elle se ressent partout de l’anarchie que règne. Là, elle
délibère; ici, elle agit au gré des passions. Disséminée dans
toutes les sections de l’empire, elle semble avoir une
versatilité de principes et d’actions, qui peut effrayer la liberté.
Dans une ville, les citoyens riches et les égoïstes, se font
remplacer; défendre ses foyers, semble être encore une
corvée plutôt qu’un honneur, une charge plutôt qu’un droit.
Dans une autre cité, le service public frappe des artisans peu
aisés ou des ouvriers, qui ont besoin du repos de la nuit, pour
le travail qui alimente leur famille, il est plus que temps
d’effacer ces lignes de démarcation intolérable dans un
régime libre. La nature seule a décrit des différences; elle est
dans les âges; les jeunes citoyens depuis seize ans jusqu’à
25, sont les premiers que la patrie appelle; moins occupés et
plus disponibles, c’est à eux de voler aux premiers dangers.
Cette première force est-elle insuffisante (car il ne faut pas
penser à la défection) l’autre âge plus fort et plus sage,
présente à la société ses moyens, c’est l’âge de 25 à 35; la
troisième classe sera de 35 à 45; la dernière réquisition doit
frapper tout ce qui peut porter les armes. Alors, la société
appelle à son secours, tous ceux qui partagent la
souveraineté; une exception favorable se présente pour les
pères nourrissant leur famille du produit de leur travail. Une
exception contraire doit frapper les célibataires et les hommes
veufs sans enfans.
C’est à la législation et à la morale à flétrir ceux qui ne
paient cette dette ni à la nature ni à la République.
C’est ainsi qu’il convient aux Français, d’organiser le droit
de réquisition. Cet exemple est sorti des besoins de la liberté,
dans les terres américaines. La réquisition est l’appel de la
patrie aux citoyens; cet appel peut être fait par les généraux,
quand la loi le leur a confié momentanément, et dans les cas
de guerre; cet appel peut être fait par le pouvoir civil dans
toutes les autorités constituées, et encore plus par les
assemblées nationales, qui sont à la fois pouvoir civil,
législatif et national.
Le comité a pensé qu’il devait présenter un mode uniforme,
de requérir la force publique dans toutes les parties de la
République, et de la part de toutes les autorités, afin que
chaque fonctionnaire et chaque citoyen, connaisse l’étendue
de son pouvoir ou de son obligation....
D’ailleurs, on trouverait plusieurs avantages à borner ainsi
la constitution aux articles nécessaires.
(1ᵒ) Une plus grande espérance qu’elle sera acceptée par
le peuple.
(2ᵒ) Une plus grande espérance encore que les citoyens ne
demanderont point si promptement, une réforme de la
constitution.
(3ᵒ) On détruirait par cette seule résolution, même avant
que la constitution fût faite, une partie des espérances de nos
ennemis, parce qu’alors, ils commenceraient à croire que la
Convention donnera une constitution à la France, ce que
jusqu’à présent ils ne croient pas.
En effet, il est difficile de ce tromper dans des articles
généraux importants, sur ce qui convient véritablement à la
nation française, et l’on n’a pas à craindre ces difficultés,
cette presqu’ impossibilité d’exécution qui, si on se livre aux
détails, pourraient faire désirer la réforme d’une constitution,
d’ailleurs bien combinée.
On pourrait donc proposer de borner la constitution à ces
articles essentiels, dans le nombre desquels on sent que doit
être compris le mode de réformer la constitution, lorsqu’elle
cessera de paraître, à la majorité des citoyens, suffisante
pour le maintien de leurs droits; et si l’assemblée adoptait cet
avis, elle chargerait quatre ou cinq de ses membres, adjoints
au comité de salut public de lui présenter un plan de
constitution, borné à ces seuls articles, et combiné de
manière que ces articles puissent être soumis immédiatement
à la discussion.
Le travail de ce comité ne prendrait qu’une semaine, et
l’assemblée pourrait suivre ses discussions sur la
constitution, car rien ne serait plus facile que de placer dans
ce plan, les points déjà arrêtés par la Convention.
Ce travail même serait utile, quand même l’assemblée
voudrait se livrer ensuite à plus de details:
(1ᵒ) Parce qu’il en résulterait un meilleur ordre de
discussions;
(2ᵒ) Parce qu’on aurait toujours alors, un moyen d’accélérer
le travail, selon que des circonstances impérieuses

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PART 1 What Are Emotions, and Why Do We Have Them? 1

CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF EMOTION 2

What Is an Evolutionary Perspective? 40

CHAPTER3 CULTURE AND EMOTION 65

CHAPTER4 WHAT ELICITS EMOTIONS? 95

CHAPTER 5 EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION IN THE FACE, POSTURE,

PART 2 How Do Emotions Affect Our Lives? 151

CHAPTER6 EMOTION AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 152

Methods to Study Emotion and the Brain 153

CHAPTER 7 THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

CHAPTERS EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 218

Emotional Reactions in Infancy 219

CHAPTER 9 EMOTION IN RELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIETY 243

Early Emotional Bonds: Infant Attachment 244

CHAPTER 10 EMOTION AND COGNITION 279

Emotions and Attention 280

PART 3 How Can We Improve Emotional Well-Being? 311

CHAPTER ll THE VALUE OF NEGATIVE EMOTIONS 312

CHAPTER 12 HAPPINESS AND THE POSITIVE EMOTIONS 347

CHAPTER 13 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTION 378

Gender and Emotion 379

CHAPTER 14 EMOTION IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 411

Diagnosis in Clinical Psychology 412

CHAPTER 15 EMOTION REGULATION 441

THE GOALS OF THIS TEXT

• Prl!.'ientation of major theoretical questions in initial chapters, which are then

NEW FEATURES OF THE THIRD EDITION

• Expanded discussion of psychological construction as a major theory of

M. N. Shiota and]. W. Kalat

• THE NATURE OF EMOTION

• THE EVOLUTION OF EMOTION

• CULTURE AND EMOTION

• WHAT ELICITS EMOTIONS?

• EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION IN THE

THE NATURE OF EMOTION

The Nature of Emotion 3

AN ATTEMPT TO DEFINE EMOTION

(Emotion is] an inferred complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus ( includ-

The Nature of Emotion 5

A DIFFERENT TYPE OF DEFIN ITION:

CLASSIC THEORIES OF EMOTION

The Nature of Emotion 7

Event ~ Feeling ~ Behavior

Event ~ Physiological Change & Behavior~ Feeling

More specifically, according to James-Lange theory, sensation from the mus-

The Nature of Emotion 9

The Nature of Emotion 11

1. What is your father's average annual income?

In what follows regarding the Navy, we see the attempt of the