Entomology and Pest Management 6th

Edition – Ebook PDF Version

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/entomology-and-pest-management-6th-edition-ebook
-pdf-version/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Population and Community Health Nursing (6th Edition –

Ebook PDF Version) 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/population-and-community-health-
nursing-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-version-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-
version/

Introduction to 80×86 Assembly Language and Computer

Architecture – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-8086-assembly-
language-and-computer-architecture-ebook-pdf-version/

Medical and Veterinary Entomology 3rd Edition, (Ebook

PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/medical-and-veterinary-
entomology-3rd-edition-ebook-pdf/

Working in Groups (6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version) 6th

Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/working-in-groups-6th-edition-
ebook-pdf-version-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-version/
Public Personnel Management: Current Concerns, Future
Challenges 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/public-personnel-management-
current-concerns-future-challenges-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-version/

Cyberethics 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/cyberethics-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-
version/

Pathophysiology 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/pathophysiology-6th-edition-ebook-
pdf-version/

Discovering Nutrition 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/discovering-nutrition-6th-edition-
ebook-pdf-version/

M: Marketing 6th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/m-marketing-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-
version/
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page vii

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1
INSECT ABUNDANCE 1
INSECT DIVERSITY 1
WHAT AN INSECT IS 2
OTHER ARTHROPODS 3
Class Crustacea 3
Class Diplopoda 6
Class Chilopoda 6
Class Arachnida 7
WHAT ENTOMOLOGY IS 9
Entomologists 10
Producers of entomological information and services 11
Users of entomological information and services 12
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INSECTS AND PEOPLE 13
Brief History of Relationships 13
Insects in antiquity 13
Success of insects 13
Prehistoric times 16
The rise of agriculture and civilization 17
Modern times 18
The Ledger 18
Black ink: The benefits 18
Red ink: The losses 23
The balance sheet 27
INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 29
The Concept of Pest 30
The Concept of Pest Status 33

2 INSECT STRUCTURES AND LIFE PROCESSES 35

THE INSECT BODY 35
General Organization 35
Tagmosis and the body wall 35
Detail of the body wall 36
The Head 38
Cranium 38
Mouthparts 39
Antennae 43
Eyes 45
The Thorax 45
Legs 47
Wings 47
The Abdomen 49

vii
A01_PEDI2951_06_SE_FM.QXD 10/31/11 8:54 AM Page viii

viii ■ CONTENTS

MAINTENANCE AND LOCOMOTION 50

Feeding and Digestion 52
Feeding 52
The digestive system 55
Digestion 56
Nutrition 57
Excretion 57
The excretory system 58
Excretion 58
Other excretory modes 58
Circulation of Blood 59
The circulatory system 59
Blood 60
Circulation 60
Respiration 60
The tracheal system 60
Respiratory process 62
Musculature and Locomotion 63
Muscle system 63
Muscle function 65
Locomotion 65
SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT AND INTEGRATING ACTIVITIES 68
Sense Organs 69
Photoreceptors 69
Chemoreceptors 70
Mechanoreceptors 70
Other receptors 72
Nervous System 73
Central nervous system 73
Visceral nervous system 75
Nerve-Impulse Transmission and Integration 75
Nerve-impulse transmission 75
Integration 77
INSECT REPRODUCTION 77
The Female System 78
The Male System 78

3 INSECT CLASSIFICATION 81
OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION 81
ELEMENTS OF CLASSIFICATION 83
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 84
Subclass Apterygota 85
Order Protura—proturans 89
Order Collembola—springtails 89
Order Diplura—diplurans 90
Order Thysanura—bristletails 91
Order Microcoryphia—jumping bristletails 92
Subclass Pterygota 92
Order Ephemeroptera—mayflies 93
Order Odonata—dragonflies and damselflies 94
Order Orthoptera—grasshoppers and crickets 95
Order Phasmatodea—walkingsticks 96
Order Mantodea—mantids 97
Order Blattodea—cockroaches 97
Order Mantophasmatodea—gladiators 98
Order Dermaptera—earwigs 98
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page ix

CONTENTS ■ ix

Order Isoptera—termites 99
Order Embioptera—webspinners 101
Order Plecoptera—stoneflies 102
Order Zoraptera—zorapterans 102
Order Psocoptera—psocids and booklice 103
Order Phthiraptera—chewing lice and sucking lice 104
Order Thysanoptera—thrips 106
Order Hemiptera—true bugs, aphids, hoppers, and scales 108
Order Neuroptera—nerve-winged insects 115
Order Coleoptera—beetles 115
Order Strepsiptera—twisted-winged parasites 122
Order Mecoptera—scorpionflies 123
Order Trichoptera—caddisflies 123
Order Lepidoptera—butterflies and moths 124
Order Diptera—flies 130
Order Siphonaptera—fleas 134
Order Hymenoptera—ants, bees and wasps 135
MITE AND TICK CLASSIFICATION 141
Order Acari—mites and ticks 141
Suborder Mesostigmata 142
Suborder Ixodida 142
Suborder Prostigmata 143
Suborder Astigmata 143

4 THE INSECT LIFE CYCLE 147

REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT 147
Types of Reproduction 147
Fertilization 150
Development of the Embryo 150
POSTEMBRYONIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 153
Egg Hatching 153
Growth of lmmatures 154
Metamorphosis 158
Terminology 160
MATURITY 160
Emergence of the Adult 160
Mating Behavior 161
Oviposition 161
GENERAL MODELS OF THE LIFE CYCLE 163
The No-Metamorphosis Model—Ametabolous Development 164
The Gradual-Metamorphosis Model—Paurometabolous Development 164
The Incomplete-Metamorphosis Model—Hemimetabolous Development 165
The Complete-Metamorphosis Model—Holometabolous Development 165
INSECT SEASONAL CYCLES 168
Univoltine Cycles 170
Multivoltine Cycles 170
Delayed Voltine Cycles 172
Seasonal Adaptations 173
Dormancy 173
Diapause 174

5 INSECT ECOLOGY 177

THE ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF INSECT PESTS 178
The Idea of Populations 178
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page x

x ■ CONTENTS

Ecosystems and Agroecosystems 180

The Ecological Role of Insect Outbreaks 183
DYNAMICS OF INSECT LIFE SYSTEMS 185
Determinants of Insect Abundance 185
Population Change 187
Birth Rate 187
Death Rate 188
Movements 195
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON INSECT DEVELOPMENT 203
Predicting Biological Events: The Degree-Day Method 204
Degree-Day Programs in Insect Pest Management 207
REGULATION OF INSECT POPULATIONS 208

6 SURVEILLANCE AND SAMPLING 213

SAMPLING UNITS AND SAMPLES 216
SAMPLING UNIVERSE 216
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLING PROGRAMS 217
COMMON SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 217
In Situ Counts 217
Knockdown 221
Netting 224
Trapping 226
Extraction from Soil 233
Indirect Techniques 238
Auxiliary Survey Equipment 238
THE SAMPLING PROGRAM 239
Kinds of Estimates 239
Absolute estimates 239
Relative estimates 240
Converting Relative Estimates to Absolute Estimates 240
Descriptive Statistics 241
Criteria of Estimates 244
Program Dimensions 245
Insect stage 245
Number of sampling units 245
Time to sample 246
Pattern of sampling 246
Pest Management Scouts and Scouting Records 246
Alfalfa Weevil Sampling: An Example 248
Sequential Sampling 250

7 ECONOMIC DECISION LEVELS FOR PEST

POPULATIONS 255
CONCEPTS OF ECONOMIC LEVELS 255
Economic Damage and the Damage Boundary 256
Economic-Injury Level 257
Economic Threshold 260
CALCULATION OF ECONOMIC DECISION LEVELS 261
DYNAMICS OF ECONOMIC-INJURY LEVELS 262
Market Value (V) 264
Management Costs (C) 265
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xi

CONTENTS ■ xi

Degree of Injury per Insect (I) 266

Stand reducers 266
Leaf-mass consumers 266
Assimilate sappers 267
Turgor reducers 267
Fruit feeders 267
Architecture modifiers 269
Injury measurements in EIL calculations 269
Crop Susceptibility to Injury (D) 270
Time of injury 270
Plant part injured 271
Injury types 271
Intensity of injury 271
Environmental effects 273
Amount of Damage Avoided (K) 274
Experimental Techniques to Determine Plant Damage Response 275
Observation 275
Modification of natural populations 275
Creating artificial populations 275
Injury simulation 277
ENVIRONMENTAL EILS 277
Assigning Realistic Management Costs (C) 278
Reducing Damage per Pest (D) 279
Developing an Environmentally Responsible K Value (K) 279
Manipulating Other EIL Variables 281
USING ECONOMIC LEVELS 281
Implementation Categories 281
No thresholds 281
Nominal thresholds 282
Simple thresholds 283
Comprehensive thresholds 283
Limitations of the EIL Concept 283
CONCLUSIONS 284

8 PEST MANAGEMENT THEORY 287

HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS OF PEST TECHNOLOGY 288
Pre-Insecticide Era 288
Insecticide Era 290
Emergence of Pest Management 292
THE CONCEPT OF PEST MANAGEMENT 294
Definition and Characteristics of Pest Management 294
Pest Management Strategies and Tactics 295
Do-Nothing Strategy 295
Reduce-Numbers Strategy 296
Reduce-Crop-Susceptibility Strategy 298
Combined Strategies 299
Kinds of Pests and Likely Strategies 299
Subeconomic pests 299
Occasional pests 300
Perennial and severe pests 302
DEVELOPMENT OF A PEST MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 304
Information and Techniques 304
Tactics 306
Putting It All Together: Systems 306
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xii

xii ■ CONTENTS

9 MANAGEMENT WITH NATURAL ENEMIES 311

BRIEF HISTORY OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 312
The Theory Behind Classical Biological Control 314
AGENTS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 315
Parasites and Parasitoids 315
Parasitoids 315
Insect parasitic nematodes 317
Nonbeneficial parasites 317
Predators 319
Pathogenic Microorganisms 322
THE PRACTICE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 322
Introduction 323
Augmentation 325
Inundative releases 326
Inoculative releases 327
Environmental manipulations 329
Conservation of Natural Enemies 329
CASE STUDY 331
Prickly Pear Cactus and Cactus Moths in Australia 331
CONCLUSIONS 332

10 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF THE CROP

ENVIRONMENT 335
ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT 336
REDUCING AVERAGE FAVORABILITY OF THE ECOSYSTEM 338
Sanitation 338
Crop residue destruction and utilization 338
Elimination of animal wastes 342
Efficient storage and processing 342
Destruction or Modification of Alternate Hosts and Habitats 343
Obscuring Host Presence 348
Tillage 348
Irrigation and Water Management 351
DISRUPTING CONTINUITY OF PEST REQUISITES 354
Reduce Continuity in Space 354
Crop spacing 354
Crop location 355
Upset Chronological Continuity 356
Crop rotation 356
Crop fallowing 358
Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 359

DIVERTING PEST POPULATIONS AWAY FROM THE CROP 361

Trap Cropping 361
Strip Harvesting 363
Intercropping 363
Push-Pull Polycropping 364
REDUCING THE IMPACT OF INSECT INJURY 365
Modify Host Tolerance 365
Modify Harvest Schedules 365
CONCLUSIONS 366
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xiii

CONTENTS ■ xiii

11 CONVENTIONAL INSECTICIDES
FOR MANAGEMENT 369
INSECTICIDE NAMES AND FORMULAS 370
Insecticide Nomenclature 371
Chemical Formulas 371
SURVEY OF COMMON INSECTICIDES 372
Pyrethroids 374
Third-generation pyrethroids 375
Fourth-generation pyrethroids 375
Carbamates 378
Organophosphates 379
Aliphatic derivatives 380
Phenyl derivatives 382
Heterocyclic derivatives 383
Neonicotinoids 385
Phenylpyrazoles 388
Pyrroles 388
Pyrazoles 389
Pyridazinones 389
Pyridine Azomethines 390
Oxadiazines 390
Insect Growth Regulators 391
Repellents 391
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 391
DDT and relatives 391
HCH and lindane 394
Cyclodienes 394
Polychloroterpenes 396
Botanicals 396
Pyrethrum 396
Azadiractins 397
Nicotine 397
D-limonene 398
Rotenone 399
Ryania 399
Sabadilla 399
Fumigants 400
p-Dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 400
Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 400
Methyl bromide 401
Chloropicrin 401
Oils 401
Other Insecticides 402
Formamidines 402
Dinitrophenols 403
Organosulfurs and organotins 403
Inorganics 404
Insecticidal soaps 404
Other insecticides 404
CHEMICALS USED WITH INSECTICIDES 404
Synergists 405
Solvents 405
Diluents 405
Surfactants 406
Stickers 406
Deodorants 406
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xiv

xiv ■ CONTENTS

INSECTICIDE FORMULATIONS 406

Liquid Formulations 407
Emulsifiable concentrates (EC or E) 407
Solutions (S) 407
Flowables (F or L) 407
Aerosols (A) 407
Liquefied gas (LG or F) 407
Dry Formulations 408
Dusts (D) 408
Granules (G) 408
Wettable powders (WP or W) 408
Soluble powders (SP) 408
Dry flowables (DF) 408
Water-soluble packets (WSP) 409
Poisonous baits (B) 409
Slow-release formulations (SR) 409
INSECTICIDE TOXICITY 409
Insecticide Modes of Action 409
Nerve poisons 410
Metabolic poisons 411
Alkylating poisons 411
Muscle poisons 411
Physical toxicants 412
Toxicity to Humans 412
Acute poisoning 412
Chronic poisoning 412
Estimation of toxicity to humans 413
INSECTICIDE LAWS AND REGULATIONS 416
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 417
FIFRA Amended 417
Pesticide Label Regulations 418
Applicator Certification 421
Regulating Pesticides 422
Regulation of new pesticides 422
Regulating existing pesticides 423
FOOD QUALITY PROTECTION ACT 424
USING INSECTICIDES FOR PEST MANAGEMENT 425
Effective Use 425
Choosing an insecticide 425
Choosing a dosage 426
Timing of applications 426
Coverage and confinement of applications 427
Using Insecticides Safely 430
CONCLUSIONS 432

12 BIOPESTICIDES FOR MANAGEMENT 435

MICROBIAL PESTICIDES 436
Bacteria 436
Viruses 439
Fungi 440
Protozoa 443
Biotechnology and the Future of Microbial Insecticides 443
BIOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES 444
Insect Growth Regulators 444
Attractants and Repellents 445
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xv

CONTENTS ■ xv

Suffocating Agents 446

Desiccants 446
Coatings 447
Pheromones 447
Systemic Acquired-Response Inducers 447
PLANT-INCORPORATED PROTECTANTS 449
USING BIOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES IN INSECT MANAGEMENT 450

13 MANAGING INSECTS WITH RESISTANT PLANTS 453

BRIEF HISTORY 454
INSECT AND HOST-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS 456
The Insect Aspect 456
Finding the general habitat 456
Finding the host plant 456
Accepting the plant as a proper host 456
Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 457
The Plant Aspect 457
Morphological characteristics 458
Physiological characteristics 458
Host-Plant Selection 458
MECHANISMS OF RESISTANCE 459
Nonpreference 460
Allelochemic nonpreference 460
Morphological nonpreference 460
Use of nonpreference 461
Antibiosis 462
Tolerance 462
Ecological Resistance 463
Host evasion 463
Induced resistance 464
Host escape 464
GENETIC NATURE OF RESISTANCE 465
Epidemiological Types of Resistance 465
The gene-for-gene relationship 465
Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 465
Resistance Classes Based on Mode of Inheritance 468
Oligogenic resistance 468
Polygenic resistance 468
Cytoplasmic resistance 468
FACTORS MEDIATING THE EXPRESSION OF RESISTANCE 468
Physical Factors 468
Temperature 468
Light intensity 469
Soil fertility 469
Biological Factors 470
Biotypes 470
Plant age 471
TRADITIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INSECT-RESISTANT
VARIETIES 471
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND RESISTANT-VARIETY DEVELOPMENT 472
Basics of Genetic Engineering 472
DNA: The blueprint of life 472
Cutting and splicing chromosomes 474
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xvi

xvi ■ CONTENTS

Resistant Plants from Recombinant DNA Technology 474

Deployment of Engineered Resistant Plant Varieties 480
Insect Resistance Management 481
Transgenic Plants as Trap Crops 482
Benefits and Risks of Transgenic Crops 482
SUCCESSFUL USES OF INSECT-RESISTANT CULTIVARS 484
Resistance to Hessian Fly 485
Resistance to European Corn Borer 486
Resistance to Spotted Alfalfa Aphid 487
Resistance to Wheat Stem Sawfly 487
Resistance to the Greenbug 487
USE OF PLANT RESISTANCE IN INSECT PEST
MANAGEMENT 488
Plant Resistance as the Sole or Primary Tactic 488
Plant Resistance Integrated with Other Tactics 488
CONCLUSIONS 489

14 MANAGEMENT BY MODIFYING INSECT DEVELOPMENT

AND BEHAVIOR 493
DISRUPTING NORMAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 494
The Basis for IGR Development 494
Functions of the principal growth hormones 494
Experimental modification of growth hormones 495
Hormone mimics 495
Synthetic hormones 496
Other potential IGRs 496
Practical IGRs 497
Methoprene 498
Hydroprene 499
Kinoprene 499
Pyriproxyfen 499
Diflubenzuron 500
Lufenuron 500
Buprofezin 502
Hexaflumuron 502
Novaluron 503
Tebufenozide 505
Methoxyfenozide 505
Halofenozide 505
Compatibility of IGRs with Other Tactics 505
MODIFYING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS 506
Tactics Involving Insect Attraction 506
Use of pheromones in attraction 507
Pheromones in sampling and detection 508
Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 511
Mating disruption by air permeation 512
Use of traditional baits 517
Insect Repellents 518
Traditional repellents 519
Plant allomones as repellents 520
Epideictic pheromones as repellents 520
Integration of Behavior Modification with Other
Tactics 521
CONCLUSIONS 522
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xvii

CONTENTS ■ xvii

15 STERILE-INSECT TECHNIQUE AND OTHER PEST

GENETIC TACTICS 525
THE STERILE-INSECT TECHNIQUE 526
SIT Theoretical Background 526
Circumstances for application 529
Sterilizing Insects in a Natural Population 529
Methods of Sterilization 531
Ionizing radiation 531
Chemosterilization 532
Sterile-Insect Release Programs 533
Screwworm eradication and suppression 533
Tropical fruit fly programs 539
Other insects 540
Requirements and Limitations of Sterile-Insect Programs 541
Other Genetic Tactics 542
Conditional Lethal Mutations 544
Inherited Sterility 544
Hybrid Sterility 545
Cytoplasmic Incompatibility 545
Chromosomal Rearrangements 546
Meiotic Drive Mechanisms 546
Replacement by Innocuous Forms 547
Use of Molecular Genetic Techniques 548
CONCLUSIONS 548
16 THE PRACTICE OF INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 551
CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATION 551
Basis for Integration 552
Preventive Practice 553
Lowering the pest’s general equilibrium position 553
Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 554
Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 557
Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 557
Therapeutic Practice 557
Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 558
DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 561
Selection of Tactics 561
The Management Plan and Crop Values 561
An Integrated Management Program for the Bean Leaf Beetle 562
AREAWIDE PEST TECHNOLOGY 565
The Boll Weevil Eradication Program 566
Pilot project 568
Current program 568
The Pink Bollworm Eradication Program 569
Other Areawide Programs 570
SITE-SPECIFIC FARMING AND PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE 571
CONCLUSIONS 573
17 MANAGING ECOLOGICAL BACKLASH 577
RESISTANCE OF POPULATIONS TO PEST MANAGEMENT TACTICS 577
Principles of Resistance 578
Resistance to Conventional Insecticides 580
Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 580
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xviii

xviii ■ CONTENTS

Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 582

Cross-resistance 584
Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 585
Resistance to Other Pest Management Tactics 587
Resistance to insect growth regulators 587
Resistance to microbial insecticides 587
Resistance to parasites 589
Virulence to resistant plants 589
Resistance to crop rotations 589
Resistance to sterile-male releases 590
Resistance to pheromones 591
Management of Resistance 591
Conditions that promote resistance 591
Slowing the development of resistance 592
Management by Moderation 593
Management by Saturation 593
Management by Multiple Attack 593
PEST POPULATION RESURGENCE AND REPLACEMENT 594
Dynamics of Resurgence and Replacement 595
Upsets from Reduction of Natural Enemies 595
Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 596
Paradigm for resurgence 596
Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 597
Paradigm for pest replacement 597
Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 597
Favorable Effects of Pesticides on Arthropod Physiology and Behavior 600
Upsets from Removal of Competitors 601
Managing Resurgence and Replacement 601
Avoiding hormoligosis 601
Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 601
Physiological selectivity 602
Ecological selectivity 602
Inoculative Releases of Natural Enemies 603
OTHER FORMS OF ECOLOGICAL BACKLASH 605
Enhanced Microbial Degradation 605
Upsets in Community Balance 606
CONCLUSIONS 606

18 INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT CASE HISTORIES 611

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN A LOW-VALUE PRODUCTION SYSTEM 611
Pest life cycle and biology 611
Injury and interactions with the tree 612
Beetle outbreaks 613
Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 613
INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN MODERATE-VALUE PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS 614
Insect Pest Management in Cotton 614
Historical background of cotton-insect control 615
Insect pest management in Texas cotton 617
Insect Pest Management in Corn 619
Life history and injury from key pests 619
Historical aspects of pest control 624
Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral United
States 625
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xix

CONTENTS ■ xix

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-VALUE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 626

Insect Pest Management in Potatoes 626
Pest biology 626
Early control efforts 627
Insect pest management in the northern United States 627
Insect Pest Management in Apples 629
Key pests and injury 629
Secondary pests and injury 629
Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 630
Insect Pest Management in Almonds 633
Key pests and injury 633
Insect pest management in commercial orchards 634
CONCLUSIONS 635
APPENDIX 1: Key to the Orders of Hexapoda 637
APPENDIX 2: List of Some Insects and Related Species
Alphabetized by Common Name 643
APPENDIX 3: World Wide Web Sites of Entomological
Resources 679
Glossary 745
INDEX 769
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xx
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxi

LIST OF DIAGNOSTIC BOXES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME BOX PAGE

alfalfa caterpillar Colias euytheme Boisduval 8.2 300
alfalfa weevil Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) 6.5 250
Angoumois grain moth Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) 10.4 343
Anopheles mosquitoes Anopheles species 15.8 526
armyworm Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) 10.1 337
Asian longhorned beetle Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) 16.1 559
bean leaf beetle Cerotoma trifurcata (Forster) 10.9 362
black blister beetle Epicauta pennsylvanica (DeGeer) 4.4 170
black cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) 7.1 267
boll weevil Anthonomus grandis grandis (Boheman) 10.2 339
cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) 15.7 546
cereal leaf beetle Oulema melanopus (Linnaeus) 10.5 352
codling moth Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) 12.2 448
Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) 5.4 194
corn earworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) 18.1 616
corn leaf aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) 8.3 301
corn rootworms Diabrotica species 10.7 357
cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi Maskell 9.1 313
desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskgål) 5.6 200
diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (L.) 10.6 353
eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) 1.1 31
emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire) 3.3 119
European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) 18.2 622
face fly Musca autumnalis DeGeer 6.3 220
fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) 5.8 203
fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen) 15.3 531
forest tent caterpillar Malacosoma disstria (Hübner) 5.3 192
German cockroach Blattella germanica (Linnaeus) 8.1 288
glassyawinged sharpshooter Homalodisca coagulata (Say) 16.2 560
green cloverworm Hypena scabra (Fabricius) 8.4 302
green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) 9.3 327
green stink bug Acrosternum hilare (Say) 4.3 155
gypsy moth Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus) 6.1 214
Hessian fly Mayetiola destructor (Say) 13.2 466
honey bee Apis mellifera Linnaeus 4.1 149
horn fly Haematobia irritans (Linnaeus) 15.5 542
horse flies and deer flies Tabanus and Chrysops species 6.4 229
house fly Musca domestica Linnaeus 15.2 530

xxi
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxii

xxii ■ LIST OF DIAGNOSTIC BOXES

imported fire ants Solenopsis richteri Forel 6.2 215

Solenopsis invicta Buren
Indianmeal moth Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) 17.1 588
Japanese beetle Popillia japonica Newman 12.1 438
lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 321
meadow spittlebug Philaenus spumarius (L.) 2.1 43
Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) 15.4 541
Mexican bean beetle Epilachna varivestis Mulsant 9.4 328
monarch butterfly Danaus plexippus (Linnaeus) 5.5 197
multicolored Asian lady Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) 3.4 121
beetle
native elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus opaculus (LeConte) 10.3 341
painted lady butterfly Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus) 5.9 205
pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) 15.6 543
potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae (Harris) 7.2 277
redlegged grasshopper Melanoplus femurrubrum (DeGeer) 5.1 178
Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) 16.3 571
San Jose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) 18.3 632
screwworm Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) 15.1 526
seedcorn maggot Delia platura (Meigen) 4.5 174
silkworm Bombyx mori (Linnaeus) 14.1 507
soybean aphid Aphis glycines Matsumura 3.2 114
soybean looper Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) 12.3 450
spotted alfalfa aphid Therioaphis maculata (Buckton) 13.3 486
spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens) 5.2 189
sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius 3.1 113
tsetse flies Glossina species 4.2 154
twospotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch 17.2 600
velvetbean caterpillar Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hübner) 5.7 202
wireworms numerous species 10.8 358
woolly apple aphid Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) 13.1 454
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxiii

PREFACE

Writing the original version of Entomology and Pest Management was an en-
joyable but daunting task. Deciding on how to combine basic entomology with
applied aspects of the science was particularly difficult. That difficulty re-
mains, even after six editions.
Based on recommendations gathered from comprehensive reviews, we decided
to continue approximately the same mix of basic and applied topics in this
sixth edition. Yet, we wanted to place increased emphasis on advances in the
technology of management. In an attempt to accomplish this goal, we devel-
oped a new chapter entitled Biopesticides for Management. This chapter
(Chapter 12) embodies new writing plus a reorganization of previously treated
subjects.
Chapter 12, Biopesticides for Management, covers a rapidly growing list of
pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency. These materials
include microbial pesticides, biochemical pesticides, and plant-incorporated
protectants. They have the great benefit of being environmentally friendly and
safe to handle. This chapter will be of particular interest to students and oth-
ers involved in organic-food production and horticultural crops.
However, the addition of the biopesticides chapter does not diminish the im-
portance of conventional insecticides, and this edition has ample information
for students interested in use of these materials. The chapter on traditional in-
secticides (Chapter 11) has been completely updated to reflect newly registered
compounds and provides improved explanations of established ones.
To bring Entomology and Pest Management in line with current thinking in
insect systematics, the sixth edition also addresses a new classification
scheme. This change in Chapter 3 focuses on the orthopteroid and hemipteroid
groups. A new key to the insect orders also reflects this change in classifica-
tion.
Other changes in the sixth edition include a new emphasis on horticultural
crops in the case-histories chapter (Chapter 18), with a detailed discussion of
insect management in California almonds. Moreover, new insect diagnostic
boxes, color photographs, and enhanced black-and-white photographs improve
student comprehension in this and other areas.
Lastly, in addition to updating information in almost every chapter, Favorite
Web Sites at the end of each chapter have been verified and updated, making
the Internet a valuable companion in student learning. Also, the popular sec-
tion World Wide Web Sites of Entomological Resources (Appendix 3) has been
reviewed and completely updated, offering even greater direction in locating
specific entomological Internet sites and the wealth of information they provide
for students.

xxiii
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxiv

xxiv ■ PREFACE

TARGET AUDIENCE
Entomology and Pest Management can be used as an introduction to applied
entomology for undergraduates or beginning graduate students. For under-
graduates with only an elementary biology background, early chapters provide
a basis for understanding the remaining content on insect ecology, surveillance,
and management. Students with at least one course in entomology may wish
to omit early chapters and focus on the strategy and tactics of management
found in later chapters. Omitting Chapters 1 through 4 for graduate courses
will not result in a loss of continuity.

Content and Organization

The book consists of eighteen chapters, three appendices, and a glossary. Con-
cepts and principles are emphasized and supported by factual detail and spe-
cific examples. Beginning chapters (1 through 3) concentrate on general
entomology for the novice. Chapters 4 and 5 synthesize the elements of insect
biology and ecology required for understanding insect pest management. Chap-
ter 6 covers techniques and principles of sampling for problem assessment.
Chapter 7 builds on this knowledge by outlining types of reactions of crops to
insect densities. It also features the concept of adding environmental costs in
the decision-making process for management. The ideas and history of insect
pest technology are reviewed, and the concept and philosophy of modern pest
management is introduced in Chapter 8.
With this basic information presented in the first eight chapters, the student
is introduced, chapter by chapter, to the individual tactics used as elements in
pest management programs. The order of tactics presented is based on their
relative importance in existing pest management programs. Consequently,
natural enemies and ecological management of the environment, primarily
preventive tactics, are mentioned first, followed by conventional insecticides
and biopesticides; the premier elements in curative tactics. The remaining tac-
tics discussed in Chapters 13 through 15 are more specialized but, neverthe-
less, convey some of the newest and most innovative ideas.
Chapter 16 discusses the ways pest management and pest technology are
practiced. This chapter draws the analogy between human medicine and pest
management, and it emphasizes the idea of prevention and therapy in combin-
ing several management tactics. Area-wide pest technology and recent suc-
cesses with the cotton boll weevil in the United States are discussed.
Chapter 17 is unique among entomology texts because it integrates the prob-
lems of resistance, resurgence, replacement, and recent phenomena, such as
enhanced microbial degradation of insecticides, into a single concept—ecological
backlash. The chapter suggests to students that applying the tactics discussed
does not always result in sustainable pest management, and it recommends
ways of reducing or avoiding such problems.
The book ends (Chapter 18) by presenting examples of successful insect pest
management programs in the context of diverse commodities.

Special Features
Basic and applied entomology. The primary purpose of the book is to
promote an understanding of major elements of general entomology and relate
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxv

PREFACE ■ xxv

them to modern principles of insect pest management. Both theory and practice
are emphasized in a conceptual approach to the topics, and numerous examples
are presented to facilitate learning.
Ecological approach. Pest management topics are discussed as aspects of
applied ecology, and solutions to pest problems are presented with regard to
environmental quality, profitability, and durability.
Insect diagnostic boxes. Sixty-eight insect diagnostic boxes are presented
throughout the text. Each box contains detailed information on distribution,
importance, appearance, and life cycle of a species or species group. Insects
chosen are from examples mentioned in the text. Grouping specific data in
boxes provides background information about a species through examples and
case histories without detracting from the main discussion. Students not
familiar with the species can consult the boxes to better understand and
appreciate the examples in the text. Information in the boxes is referenced in
the index. Additional information about major pests are given in Chapter 3 as
insect families of major economic importance are included in presenting
information on insect classification.
Boldface type. This feature allows the student to recognize new terms and
important concepts quickly and serves as a basis for topic review.
Appendices. Three appendices facilitate learning and serve as reference
material. Appendix 1 presents a key to the orders of insects, allowing identification
of both adult and immature insects. Appendix 2 contains a list of insect common
names, scientific names, and classifications. Appendix 3 is a comprehensive list
of World Wide Web sites of entomological resources that can be used for
customized computer searches.
Glossary. An expanded glossary for quick reference appears at the end of the
book.
Favorite Web Sites. The Web Sites accessible through the Internet are
presented as URL addresses along with a short description of the site’s content.
Readers can receive updates on a topic by consulting these sites and navigating
links to other related sites for additional information.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We owe many thanks to several of our colleagues here at Iowa State University
for their valuable input in preparing the sixth edition of Entomology and Pest
Management. Of particular note is the valuable review and advice of Joel Coats
and his graduate student, Gretchen Palauch, in developing the new chapter on
biopesticides and refining the chapter on traditional insecticides. We thank Les
Lewis, Research Leader, USDA/ARS, Corn Insect and Crop Genetics Research
Unit, for his excellent, review and suggestions on the discussion of microbial pes-
ticides. Special thanks also go to Carol Pilcher, Iowa State University Coordina-
tor, Pest Management and the Environment, for her help with the section on
insect pest management in almonds as a model management system. Addition-
ally, we thank John VanDyk, Adjunct Assistant Professor and Systems Analyst,
Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, for preparing and allowing
xxvi PREFACE

us to publish his list of World Wide Web addresses in this edition. We also thank
Scott Hutchins, Dow AgroSciences, and Bob Peterson, Montana State Univer-
sity, for their involvement in the preparation of insect diagnostic boxes; and
Laura Karr, Dow AgroSciences, for her work on the glossary.
Thanks to the following reviewers for their valuable feedback: John J. Brown,
Washington State University; Lynn A. DuPuis, Alfred State College; Henry
Fadamiro, Auburn University; and Allan S. Felsot, Washington State Univer-
sity. Lastly, we thank our editor William Lawrensen for providing us the opportu-
nity to update this work.

Larry P. Pedigo
Marlin E. Rice
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 1

CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION

“YOU STUDY WHAT?” “Insects? You mean bugs?” “Yuck. What for?” These are
common utterances of people in casual conversations at parties and other
gatherings. Although we are usually taken aback and a little disgusted by
some of the remarks and guffaws, the question is certainly legitimate. The
standard answer, of course, is that insects represent one of the most important
forms of life on this planet. They have influenced human existence since its
very beginning and continue to control many of our daily activities. Therefore,
we need to know about them so we can deal with them, usually in the context
of a threat. When we begin to study insects, we find that they are fascinating
creatures and that learning about insect life is engrossing.

INSECT ABUNDANCE
The fact is, today’s human population is adrift in a sea of insects. If we look at
numbers alone, the estimated ratio of insects to humans is 200 million to 1,
and insects average about 40 million per acre of land. Being much larger than
insects, we might be tempted to argue that humans are ecologically more suc-
cessful, making up in mass for our lower numbers. However, analysts estimate
that the United States is home to some 400 pounds of insect biomass per acre,
compared with our 14 pounds of flesh and bone. Another amazing statistic is
that in the Brazilian Amazon, ants alone outweigh the total biomass of all ver-
tebrates by four to one. Based solely on numbers and biomass, insects are the
most successful animals on earth!

INSECT DIVERSITY
Along with humans, insects live in almost every habitable place on the earth,
except the ocean depths. According to the distinguished entomologists Eisner
and Wilson (1977), insects all but own the land. They are the chief consumers
of plants; they are the major predators of plant eaters; they play a major role
in decay of organic matter; and they serve as food for other kinds of animals.
Knowing these ecological facts, we might expect these organisms to be di-
verse and adaptable—and they are. Today, more than 900,000 kinds (species)
have been described, and many believe that five to seven times as many are
yet to be discovered.
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 2

2 ■ CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.1 Chart showing size of various arthropod groups and other life forms.
Pie slices are proportional to the number of species in the group. (Redrawn from
Daly et al., 1978, Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity. McGraw-Hill Book
Company)

These statistics make other animal groups seem small by comparison (Fig.
1.1). For instance, species in the class Mammalia, of which humans are mem-
bers, count less than 1 percent of those in the class Hexapoda. Furthermore,
insects boast more species than any other kind of organism, making up about
three-fourths of the total number known. Indeed, it has been estimated that
every fifth animal is a beetle, only one group in the class Hexapoda. Without a
doubt, this extraordinary diversity is yet another mark of insects’ ecological
success.

WHAT AN INSECT IS
Insects are grouped with other animals sharing similar characteristics in the
phylum Arthropoda. Arthropods, as they are known, are characterized as hav-
ing a body divided by grooves to form segments and a well-developed cover-
ing, the integument, which makes up the outer shell, or exoskeleton. Some
of the arthropod body segments possess one or more pairs of jointed ap-
pendages from which the phylum name was derived (from arthro, joint; poda,
foot). In addition, arthropods have a heart at the top and a nerve cord at the
bottom of their body cavity. Examples of arthropods other than insects include
spiders, shrimp, and centipedes.
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 3

INTRODUCTION ■ 3

Figure 1.2 Side (left) and top aspects of a grasshopper, showing important external
body features of insects. (Redrawn from T. Nolan, 1970, Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization, The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press)

More specifically, insects belong to the class Hexapoda (formerly Insecta),

forming the most important category of the Arthropoda. The class Hexapoda
has specific characteristics that set its members apart from other arthropod
classes. These characteristics include (Fig. 1.2):
1. A body divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax, and abdomen;
2. A middle region, the thorax, bearing three pairs of legs and, most often, two pairs
of wings; and
3. A system for breathing composed of air tubes.

OTHER ARTHROPODS
Other arthropod classes have fewer total numbers and species than insects.
Although a detailed survey of all classes is beyond the scope of this book, a
brief overview of the four most important classes may help clarify the unique-
ness of insects. These other important arthropods include those in the classes
Crustacea, Arachnida, Diplopoda, and Chilopoda. A complete classification of
living arthropods is outlined in Table 1.1.
Class Crustacea. This class includes many common animals such as cray-
fish, lobsters (Fig. 1.3), pillbugs, crabs, and shrimp (Fig. 1.4). Crustaceans as a
group are mostly aquatic, and they play major ecological roles in marine habi-
tats that are devoid of insects. A few species of terrestrial crustaceans, such as
pillbugs and sowbugs, are commonly found in basements and other humid
places of the home. When disturbed, they curl up into a compact ball (Fig. 1.5).
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 4

4 ■ CHAPTER 1

Table 1.1 Classification Scheme of Living Arthropods.

Phylum Arthropoda arthropods
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata
Order Xiphosura horseshoe crabs
Class Arachnida
Order Scorpiones scorpions
Order Uropygi whipscorpions
Order Amblypygi tailless whipscorpions
Order Palpigradi microwhipscorpions
Order Araneae spiders
Order Ricinulei ricinuleids
Order Pseudoscorpiones pseudoscorpions
Order Solifugae windscorpions
Order Opiliones harvestmen
Order Acari mites and ticks
Class Pycnogonida sea spiders
Subphylum Mandibulata
Class Crustacea crustaceans
Class Chilopoda centipedes
Class Diplopoda millipedes
Class Pauropoda pauropods
Class Symphyla greenhouse centipedes
Class Hexapoda insects
(orders listed in Chapter 3)
SOURCE: Following Kaestnfer, 1968.

Figure 1.3 Side aspect of the American lobster, Homaris americana, showing the various
modifications in appendages and other body structures. (Reprinted with permission of
Macmillan Publishing Company from Insects in Perspective by Michael D. Atkins. © 1978
by Michael D. Atkins)
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 5

INTRODUCTION ■ 5

Figure 1.4 Representatives of important groups in the class Crustacea. A. Freshwater

mysid shrimp. B. Sand flea (amphipod). C. Shore crab (decapod). D. Freshwater isopod.
E. Sowbug or pillbug (terrestrial isopod). (Reprinted with permission of Macmillan Publishing
Company from Insects in Perspective by Michael D. Atkins. © 1978 by Michael D. Atkins)
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 6

6 ■ CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.5 Class Crustacea, a sowbug. Sowbugs can assume a defensive po-
sition by rolling into a ball. (Photos by Marlin E. Rice)

Most crustaceans breathe by using gills, and they are covered by a hard
shell from which their name is derived (from crusta, shell). In a number of in-
stances, they have two pairs of antennae, a number of pairs of legs modified for
swimming, and a number of body segments fused with the head to form a
cephalothorax (head-body).
As a group, crustaceans are mostly beneficial to humans, serving as food di-
rectly or as food for fish and other aquatic animals. Harmful species include
barnacles, sessile marine forms that attach to vessels and destroy shore in-
stallations, and sowbugs and pillbugs, which may injure greenhouse and gar-
den crops.
Class Diplopoda. (Fig. 1.6). The common name for members of this class is
millipede (thousand legs). They are cylindrical with 25 to 100 segments, and
most segments bear two pairs of legs (see Color Plate 1). These arthropods are
found in dark, humid environments: under leaves and bark, in woodlands, and
in basements of homes. When disturbed, they curl up into a characteristic spiral.
Millipedes feed mostly on decaying organic matter and, therefore, are bene-
ficial to humans. However, most people consider them pests because of their
mere presence in homes.
Class Chilopoda. (Fig. 1.7). These arthropods are the sometimes-feared cen-
tipedes. People may fear them because some centipedes are venomous and can
inflict a painful bite. However, most times they are secretive and run away
when approached.
Most centipedes have a flattened body with many segments and one pair of
legs on each segment (see Color Plate 1). A pair of claws behind the head is

Figure 1.6 Class Diplopoda, a millipede. (Photo by

Marlin E. Rice)
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 7

INTRODUCTION ■ 7

Figure 1.7 Class Chilopoda, a centipede. (Photo by

Marlin E. Rice)

used to inject venom and paralyze insects and other invertebrates that serve
as food for the centipede.
Class Arachnida. (Fig. 1.8). Next to the Hexapoda, this is the most diverse
class of terrestrial arthropods. Members of this class possess a cephalothorax,
as do crustaceans, but they lack antennae. Spiders breathe through structures
that act like bellows, called book lungs, but other arachnids breathe through
the skin or with air tubes. Most arachnids live on land.
Based on their relationship to humans, the most significant of the Arach-
nida are the spiders, mites, ticks, and scorpions. Other orders that contribute
to the diversity of the class Arachnida include the Opiliones (harvestmen),
Pseudoscorpiones (pseudoscorpions), and Uropygi (whipscorpions).
Spiders belong to the order Araneae and are represented by thousands of
species. They are distinguished by their unsegmented abdomen, which is
attached to the cephalothorax by a slender stalk, or pedicel (see Color Plate
1). Spiders feed mainly on insects by using mouthparts that crush their prey
and allow these predators to suck out the body fluids. Silk-spinning organs
are located on the underside of the abdomen, permitting spiders to build
webs. Spider webs may be orb-shaped, funnel-shaped, triangle-shaped, or ir-
regular. Insects and other prey become snared in the web and are killed outright
or are paralyzed by venom from the spider’s bite. As a group, spiders benefit
humans by serving as natural enemies of insect pests. Some, however, are
medically hazardous pests because of their dangerous bite. In North America,
these include the black widow (Latrodectus mactans) and the brown recluse
(Loxosceles reclusa).
From the standpoint of harm to humans, the most important order of the
Arachnida is the Acari, comprising the mites and ticks. Here can be found
pests of humans, other animals, and plants. Their saclike body and unseg-
mented abdomen broadly joined to the cephalothorax make the Acari distinc-
tive. Mouthparts of mites and ticks pierce tissues and suck out the contents.
Mites are usually very small arthropods (1 to 3 mm long) that feed on
plants, animals, and organic debris. Some mites are important predators of
small insects and, particularly, other plant-feeding mites. One plant-feeding
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 8

8 ■ CHAPTER 1

A B

C D

E F
Figure 1.8 Representatives of important groups in the class Arachnida. A. Scorpion. B. Spider.
C. Harvestman (daddy longlegs). D. Tick. E. Pseudoscorpion. F. Mite. (Photos by Marlin E. Rice)

mite is the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), which injures many
crops in dry climates or during droughts in wetter regions (see Color Plate 1).
Chiggers (larvae of Trombicula alfreddugesi and others) infest humans, caus-
ing intense itching when they inject enzymes to dissolve skin tissue on which
they feed. Mange mites (Sarcoptes scabiei) are examples of mites that feed on
many animals, including hogs, horses, dogs, and humans. These mites feed in
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Father John A. Ryan contributes an additional motive,
77
There is a particular manifestation of public opinion which
deserves emphasis as a cause of the recent intolerance. This is the
conviction which seized large and numerous groups of individuals that
they were justified in becoming extra legal agents for law
enforcement.... Either the spirit or the letter of the law is violated in the
name of the law itself.
Frank Tannenbaum covers similar points in the first chapter of
“Darker Phases of the South,” where he deals with the Klan. He
holds, first, that
78
The Klan is an attempt to maintain static what has become
79
dynamic. The war left a common mood upon the world ... the hate is
generated as a means of justifying the thrill to be derived from abusing
the people hated. The Klan is a reaction to boredom; it is a means of
fulfilling the millennial hopes frustrated by the outcome of the war; it
80
gives vent to a type of war hysteria. The idealization of the white
women in the South is partly the unconscious self-protection on the
part of the white men from their own bad habits, notions, beliefs,
attitudes and practises, a matter of over-compensation.
To his keen psychoanalytic study I must add a few words from an
81
article by Frank Bohn in the American Journal of Sociology. Mr.
Bohn points out that the Klan, once organized, had to find something
to do, that its violence was a natural outcome of disguise,
organization and aimlessness. He attributes its origin chiefly to the
disillusionment of the American people over the break-down of their
simple, democratic ideals when applied to a huge nation of complex
population; and to the changing character of the racial and social
composition of the people, with the revolt of the older stocks. He
concludes:
The civilization of the United States is suffering rapid changes, not
only as regards its basic institutions, but also in the nature and quality
of its human composition. The hooded figures of the Ku Klux Klan are
an expression of pain, of sorrow and of solemn warning. Its methods
arise from anger and fear, not from knowledge and forethought.
 3.
A word may be needed especially on our narrower topic, the
relation of the Ku Klux Klan to the Jew. Its preliminary questions to
the candidate for “naturalization” include two that exclude the
Catholic, two the Jew, one the alien and one the negro. The most
inclusive is number 2: “Are you a native born, white, Gentile
American citizen?” Number 4 is: “Do you believe in the tenets of the
Christian religion?” Imperial Wizard H. W. Evans gave out an
interview in Indianapolis early in 1924 when he made the following
statement, repeated several time later in other connections:
By deliberate election he (the Jew) is unassimilable. He rejects
intermarriage. His religious and social rites and customs are inflexibly
segregative. Law-abiding, healthy, moral, mentally alert, energetic,
loyal and reverent in his home life, the Jew is yet by primal instinct a
Jew, indelibly marked by persecution, with no deep national
attachment, a stranger to the emotion of patriotism as the Anglo-
Saxon feels it. Klansmen have no quarrel with him, no hatred of him,
no thought of persecuting him. As Protestants are unavailable for
membership in all-Jewish societies, so Jews are unavailable for
membership in an all-Protestant society like the Klan. Moreover, their
jealously guarded separatism unfits them for co-operation in a
movement dedicated to the thorough unification of the dominant
strains in American life.

Here are the same themes of racial superiority, like-mindedness

of America, identification of Americanism and Protestantism. But
elsewhere we meet with direct attacks on the Jew, as on the
Catholic, negro and foreigner—not merely the assertion of their
inferiority. Speaking at Dallas, Texas, December 7, 1922, Mr. Evans
said:
The Jew produces nothing anywhere on the face of the earth. He
does not till the soil. He does not create or manufacture anything for
common use. He adds nothing to the sum of human welfare.
Everywhere he stands between the producer and the consumer and
sweats the toil of the one and the necessity of the other for his gains.

This sounds like an economic motive, but it may be merely repetition

of stock charges of traditional anti-Semitism. Mr. Bohn hints at such
an economic purpose when he remarks:
 One factor has been the recent invasion of the smaller western and
southern towns by Jewish retail merchants. These are disliked and
opposed by their native American competitors for purely commercial
reasons.
These facts seem to me erroneous; there have always been Jewish
merchants and peddlers throughout the country, and they have
always had Christian competitors; probably they have merely been a
point of vantage for the aroused prejudices of the group. Dr. Mecklin
says:
82
The Klan insists, in the published statements of its ideals, upon
complete religious toleration while in actual practise it encourages
83
boycotts of Catholic and Jew in business and social relations. The
eternal quarrel of the Klan with the Jew and the Negro is that mental
and physical differences seem to have conspired to place them in
groups entirely to themselves.... The Negro is granted a place in
American society only upon his willingness to accept a subordinate
position. The Jew is tolerated largely because native Americanism
cannot help itself. The Jew is disliked because of the amazing tenacity
with which he resists absolute Americanization, a dislike that is not
unmingled with fear; the Negro is disliked, because he is considered
essentially an alien and unassimilable element in society.

4.
The Klan has now passed the zenith of its aggressiveness and its
influence. The campaign of exposure, while it made thousands of
members, also made thousands of enemies and robbed the Klan of
the secrecy which was so essential an element of its strength. Many
of its members lost interest, others were positively estranged by
certain methods and ideals of the organization. The trials for murder
at Mer Rouge, La., brought the Klan into bad odor generally. Most
important of all, the Klan went into politics, and in this followed
exactly the cycle of the Know-Nothings and A. P. A.’s—secrecy,
growth, propaganda, politics, enemies, decline. In 1924 the Klan was
an element in the national conventions of the two major parties. The
Republicans considered planks opposing and favoring the
organization and finally took no action. The Democrats had to take
up the issue because of the movement to nominate as their
presidential candidate Alfred E. Smith, governor of New York, and a
professing Catholic. While Mr. Smith had political supporters in his
own state of every religious denomination, still the entire strength of
the Klan was thrown against him. At the same time, the many Irish
Catholics belonging to the Democratic party resented the attempt of
the Klan to dictate the nomination and introduced a resolution
attacking the Klan by name. The conflict of that convention is now
historic, and resulted in thoroughly disorganizing the Democratic
party for the ensuing campaign.
Finally, the passage of the immigration bills of 1921 and 1924
robbed the Klan of its chief reason for existence, its most potent
argument. Immigration was abruptly cut down. Not only that, but its
national origin was totally altered so as to favor the peoples of
northern and western Europe, and to keep out the Italian Catholics
and Russian Jews. It is no longer possible to stimulate fear or hatred
on such a large scale again, now that immigration is no longer a
large factor in American life, and the group integration is once more
proceeding at its accustomed rate.

5.
The anti-immigration movement must not be regarded as a result
of the Klan but as a parallel phenomenon, with the same motives
and philosophy. The original political theory and economic situation,
by which all immigrants were welcomed into the United States to
help build up the country and to become full Americans has been
slowly altering. The first law of limitation, passed in 1882, and
followed up by later amendments, merely excluded convicts, persons
affected with contagious diseases, persons likely to become public
charges, and similar individuals for individual reasons. Other
legislation of economic trend excluded Chinese and later Japanese
laborers, and contract labor. In 1917 the demand to limit the
numbers of common labor, voiced by the American Federation of
Labor, met the desire to limit numbers and to select racial groups,
and the literacy test was embodied in the law, excluding all who
could not read or write in any language. But this was satisfactory to
neither the friends nor foes of immigration; it was merely a temporary
device.
In May 1921 a temporary law was passed limiting the number of
each nation to enter the United States annually to 3% of natives of
that nation residing here in 1910. This limited the total immigration at
once from the 1,285,349 of 1907, the peak year, to a total of
357,803. This total is in addition to immigrants from Canada, Mexico,
Newfoundland, Cuba and Central and South America; it does not
deduct the emigrants who often amount to as many or more than
those entering the country. It is simply a means of cutting down
numbers and altering proportions. It is directly a result of Klan
preachments, of Nordic theories, of the reaction of the native,
gentile, Protestant American to the growing complexity and
heterogeneity of the nation, and to the need of revising his mental
stereotypes of the United States. He must grow to think of his nation
as a nation of many elements, many beliefs, many backgrounds,
most of them different from his own—to him America is a Protestant
country, a white man’s country, a gentile country, and he intends that
it shall remain so.
Therefore the permanent immigration bill enacted in May, 1924,
changed the percentage from three to two, and the date on which
the quota is to be estimated from 1910 to 1890. The result of this
double change is to alter radically the racial and national composition
of the immigration stream and hence the total character of the United
States. As Chairman Albert Johnson of the House Committee on
Immigration, after whom the bill was named, phrased its double
purpose:
84
The committee took a very important step in recommending a
permanent percentage law and thus recognizing the principle that the
United States should never keep its doors wide open. Second, the
percentage is based on the census of 1890 instead of the census of
1910, as in the present law. The new measure thus aims to change
the character of our future immigration by cutting down the number of
aliens who can come from southern and eastern Europe. In other
words, it is recognized that, on the whole, northern and western
Europe furnish the best material for citizenship.
 The total immigration, therefore, was reduced from 357,000 to
164,667 and the emigrants have to be deducted from this to
ascertain the actual annual increase. The Italian quota was reduced
from 42,000 to 3,845; the Russian from 24,000 to 2,200; the Polish
from 30,000 to 6,000. On the other hand, the German quota was
reduced only from 67,000 to 51,000; the Norwegian from 12,000 to
6,400; the British and Irish from 77,000 to 62,500. The bill carried out
radically the intentions of its sponsors, to cut down the flood of
immigration and to discriminate against the racial and religious
groups which they consider inferior because they appear externally
to be different. It is a group reaction of the same order and
motivation as the Ku Klux Klan.

6.
A concurrent phenomenon, arising from the same group mind but
essentially different in manifestation, is the suppression of civil
liberties which began during the war and continued afterward, an
expression of the same impulse toward compulsory like-mindedness,
but taking its criterion from the economic rather than the cultural,
religious or racial aspects of the differing groups. As Father Ryan put
it:
85
These deplorable phenomena are three-fourths due to war
legislation and surviving war hysteria and one-fourth due to industrial
factors.... By means of clever, unscrupulous and wholesale
propaganda, nine-tenths of the American people were led to believe
that the steel strike of 1919 was revolutionary, bolshevistic, and aimed
immediately at the overthrow of the government. As a matter of fact,
there was no more bolshevism in that contest than in any one of a
dozen important disputes that have occurred in the last ten years.
Attorney General Palmer asserted that there was an organized
attempt to overthrow the government of the United States sufficiently
widespread to merit the attention of Congress. As a matter of fact,
there was no such danger.
86
Dr. Harry F. Ward of Union Theological Seminary, in the same
Proceedings of the American Sociological Society, has a fine
summary of the “Repression of Civil Liberties in the United States
(1918–23).” He enumerates the new Supreme Court interpretation of
the free-speech clause of the first amendment to the Constitution, by
which a “clear and present danger” justifies its violation; the state
laws on syndicalism or sedition or anarchy; the attacks on the right of
labor to strike; the use of the Department of Justice of the United
States to repress radical economic movements; the mob violence
increasingly widespread and regular; and the national organizations
engaged in repression, such as the National Civic Federation, the
National Security League, and the Better American Federation.
The material is too wide in range and too full of important
instances to be even cursorily examined here. The trend, however,
was definitely a part of the post-war attitude of the American mind,
the breaking up into violently opposing groups, each claiming to
assert the true American spirit. The same attitude of repression
appears in the churches in the form of heresy trials and an
aggressive Fundamentalism. It appears in the form of legislative acts
to prohibit the teaching of evolution in the state universities of
several Southern states (most of which failed of passage). Dr. Ward
feels that the
Mob attacks, lynchings and prosecutions involving the use of free
speech reached their peak at the end of 1922, declining rapidly in.
1923. Interference with meetings by public authorities and private
groups reached a peak at the end of 1921, fell sharply in 1922, and
87
then went up again to a midway point in 1923.... We have a
manifest abatement of post-war repression, but that experience has
left us a heritage of repressive laws and ordinances and a technique
of administrative illegality all ready to be used on due occasion. It has
also strengthened our lynching habit of mind, with its determination to
enforce its type of goodness, and our traditional demand for
conformity already overstimulated by the increasing standardization of
life. The occasions for the use of those qualities and instruments of
repression are increasing rather than diminishing.
Attempts were made during the height of the anti-Russian and
anti-radical movement to connect Jews with Bolshevism in Russia
and with radicalism in the United States, so that this movement also
has its anti-Semitic phase. Thus anti-Semitism is bound up with the
Ku Klux Klan, with the immigration bills, with the economic
repression,—it is an integral part of the group reaction from national
unity, and appears in every phase of the post-war group reactions.
 CHAPTER VII.
ANTI-SEMITISM
In “Loyalties” by John Galsworthy, there occur two statements of
anti-Semitism so powerful and so keen that they may serve as a key
to the whole situation. The young Jew has accused a Christian
aristocrat of stealing his purse. The gentile girl, naturally a liberal,
has to choose her loyalty. She says: “Oh! I know lots of splendid
Jews, and I rather like little Ferdie; but when it comes to the point—
they all stick together; why shouldn’t we! It’s in the blood....
Prejudices—or are they loyalties—I don’t know—criss-cross—we all
cut each other’s throats from the best of motives.” And later on an
English grocer of the lower middle class confesses: “To tell you the
truth, I don’t like—well, not to put too fine a point on it—‘ebrews.
They work harder; they’re more sober; they’re honest; and they’re
everywhere. I’ve nothing against them, but the fact is—they get on
so.”

1.
Anti-Semitism is, then, a typical because a violent group attitude.
In America in its newest manifestation it is a part of the complex of
group revolts after the World War; it is intimately associated with the
Ku Klux Klan, anti-immigration movement, and repression generally,
at the same time that it has distinctive phases of its own. As Lewis S.
Gannett wrote:
88
Because anti-Semitism is world-wide it is easy to assume that it
has the same causes everywhere; but conditions in America are very
different from conditions in countries where religion is taught in the
schools, where the Jews are virtually all middlemen, where the
Ghetto is an abiding place for generations of the same family....
American anti-Semitism can largely be explained without reference
to the religious beliefs of Christians or Jews.
This last statement applies only to the immediate situation, not the
background.
The two elements in American anti-Semitism, then, are the
imported prejudice from Europe and the American soil which
received it. The form of the prejudice was the importation; its
material backing and impulse was the native American reaction
against the apparently new or apparently different group. The
intensity of the movement at this particular moment in history is a
part of the post-war mental state of the American people. In addition
to the movements described in the last chapter there are other
manifestations mentioned in the introduction: such as the attempt to
limit the proportion of Jews in the colleges; the anti-Semitic books
and periodicals; and the activity of the Russian emigrés constituting
the immediate connecting link with anti-Semitism in Europe and the
world over. The agencies which hunted down the radicals, whether
as Russian sympathizers or from economic motives or merely as a
different group, tried assiduously to find Jews among their leaders
and were bitterly disappointed when economic radicalism turned out
to be an American movement in which Jews had merely a minority
share.
As we have seen, in 1919 the soil of the United States was
abundantly prepared for the imported seeds of anti-Semitism. Group
was arrayed against group, native and alien, Nordic and South
European, Catholic and Protestant, Christian and Jew. In addition to
the local and timely fact, we must also presuppose an old inheritance
of specific prejudice against the Jew of a strictly religious nature.
This is by no means the immediate occasion of the present
movement, as it may have been of pogroms in Russia; but it is
certainly an element in the national subconsciousness and in the
conscious thinking of certain more orthodox Christian churches.
Granted that Horace M. Kallen exaggerates the importance of this
factor, still he has done well in pointing it out. He says:
 89
In the Christian system the Jews are assigned a central and
dramatic status. They are the villains of the Drama of Salvation....
Nowhere in Europe could there be a village to whose inhabitants the
word “Jew” did not denote the people who had denied the Savior and
crucified Him, who were thus the enemies of God and of mankind....
The word “Jew” became a stimulus which touched off this emotion. It
was a word to curse with.... The root of the special Jewish difficulty is
the position of the Jews in the Christian religion. If you can end this
teaching that the Jews are enemies of God and of mankind you will
strike anti-Semitism at its foundations.
Certainly the teachings of infancy and childhood have left this,
residue of anti-Judaism in the minds of millions of persons, who
would be the first to deny the possession of religious bigotry;
certainly the Christian church, as a group mind, contains a tradition
of anti-Judaism as one of its ideas. But this means merely that
religion to the Jew takes the place of skin color to the Negro or
language to the Czech. We have ancient warrant that so trivial a
matter as the mispronunciation of the word Shibboleth was sufficient
identification for one sub-group of Hebrews to kill members of
another group of their own people. All that intolerance needs is some
mark of identification, however irrelevant or petty, to set off the rival
group.

2.
The European importation at this period was the race theory.
Originated in France by Gobineau, taken up in Germany by scientific
thinkers and made the rallying cry of political parties, the theory was
adapted to American conditions. In Germany and France the “great
race” was the Teuton, below whom were ranged in order the Alpine,
the Mediterranean, and the Semite. The safety of the Teuton and
therefore of civilization as a whole depend on the purity of blood of
the Teuton and his guarding from contamination by alien blood. The
Semite, in particular, is a menace by reason of his lower moral and
social standards and his inability ever to be assimilated by the higher
races; he must be driven out of power and if possible out of the
“sacred German land” itself. In the United States this theory was
taken over bodily by such writers as Lothrop Stoddard and Grant
Madison, with the trifling change that the word “Teuton” was altered
to “Nordic.” This was done in order to include the many sub-varieties
of the older immigration, most of whom came at some time from
northern and western Europe. The Klan and the writers in the
Dearborn Independent echoed them. The Russians in the United
States attacking the Soviet government, many sub-groups of new
Americans who imported their anti-Semitism with them, and the
constant flood of letters, periodicals and books regarding the growth
of mob violence, political discrimination and social obloquy in
Europe, furnished the connecting link. The race theory became
acclimatized.
Peculiarly enough, one of the most radical statements of the race
theory was by a Jew, Maurice Samuel in “You Gentiles,” where he
showed quite unintentionally how the theory is reversible to form
opposite conclusions on the same premises. To Samuel, Jew and
gentile are two radically different sorts of people, as the anti-Semite
agrees; the difference he finds, however, is one of temperament, of
viewpoint.
90
To you (gentiles) life is a game and a gallant adventure, and all
life’s enterprises partake of the spirit of the adventurous. To us (Jews)
life is a serious and sober duty pointed to a definite and inescapable
91
task. We know nothing of science for science’s sake, as we know
nothing of art for art’s sake. We know only of art for God’s sake.... Art
and science, this is your gentile world, a lovely and ingenious world....
But not our world, not for us Jews.
To this we may contrast the remark of Irwin Edman:
92
The Jews have been accused so often of impossible racial
defects that they have in self defense, ascribed to themselves wholly
imaginary racial virtues.... They have added to the unfavorable myths
invented by outsiders a whole folklore of favorable myths about
themselves.

The reprints from the Dearborn Independent can match this sort
of hasty generalization a hundred times over in the language of anti-
Semitism.
 93
The Jew is against the Gentile scheme of things. What are the
causes of this disruptive tendency? First, his essential lack of
94
democracy. Jewish nature is autocratic. In a sense the United
States is private property. It is the property of those who share the
ideals of the founders of the government. And those ideals were
ideals held by a white race of Christians. And with most of these the
95
Jews not only disagree, but hold them in contempt. The fathers
were the men of the Anglo-Saxon-Celtic race ... who have given form
to every government and a livelihood to every people and an ideal to
every century. They got neither their God nor their religion from Judah,
nor yet their speech nor their creative genius—they are the Ruling
People, Chosen throughout the centuries to Master the world.... Into
the camp of this race comes a people that has no civilization to point
to, no aspiring religion, no universal speech, no great achievement in
any realm but the realm of “get,” cast out of every land that gave them
hospitality, and these people endeavor to tell the sons of the Saxons
what is needed to make the world what it ought to be.

3.
I shall devote very few words to showing that this race theory,
whether from the Nordic or any other angle, is composed of hasty
and unscientific generalizations, merely the rationalization of the
group prejudice whose actual background we are tracing. In the first
place, anthropologists are not at all agreed either on the definition or
the history of races. There seems, however, to be fairly general
agreement that there is no such thing as a pure race—certainly not
the English and probably not the Jews either. All sub-varieties of the
white race are greatly mixed in blood. For the Jewish side of this
problem, an interesting study is that of M. Fishberg, “The Jews, a
Study of Race and Environment,” where the author has
demonstrated the many physical types which appear in the Jewish
people the world over, whether these are due to local and climatic
influences, or as Dr. Fishberg holds, to interbreeding with other racial
stocks. In the second place, even such racial groupings as can be
roughly established vary indefinitely and overlap indefinitely in every
physical and mental characteristic. There is no considerable body of
people who conform to the Nordic type—blond, tall, long-headed,
and so on. No test has ever been devised which can adequately
compare the intelligence of different races, for every intelligence test
yet invented presupposes a certain cultural and language
background, and is therefore favorable to the group which has this
background, and certain to give a low intelligence quotient to any
different cultural group, whatever be its race or its potential
intellectual power.
As Jean Finot sums up the entire theory in his book, “Race
Prejudice”:
96
The differences among individuals belonging to the same human
variety are always greater than those perceived between races
regarded as distinct units.
97
No one has ever been able to show a single authentic Aryan.
The descriptions of him, both moral and physical, his measurements
and also the description of his inner life, are all purely fantastical....
Today out of a thousand educated Europeans, nine hundred ninety-
nine are persuaded of the authenticity of their Aryan origin. In the
history of human errors this doctrine will some day without doubt
assume a place of honor.
98
When we go through the list of external differences which appear
to divide men, we find literally nothing which can authorize their
division into superior and inferior beings, into masters and pariahs....
The science of inequality is emphatically a science of White people. In
pursuing this course the elementary commandments of experimental
science are transgressed.
99
In a word, the term, race, is only a product of our mental
activities, and outside all reality.... They (races) exist in us but not
outside us.
The eminence of certain European nations today is historical and
cultural, not racial. Otherwise, how explain the past eminence of
Egypt, Babylon, Greece and Rome? True, some try to detect an
admixture of Nordic, or at least of Aryan blood in these nations as a
cause of their once high civilization. But to claim this is so to dilute
the meaning of the word that almost any blood may be considered
“Aryan.” The fact is that the Jew now in the United States did not kill
Jesus but is still accused of it; and is not a Semite but is still accused
of that. The one accusation like the other is merely a rationalization
of the social trait of intolerance, now sprung to growth in the United
States.

4.
Minor accusations against the Jews need only summary
consideration. Needless to say, many of them are true but probably
none of them are actual causes for hatred of the Jews. The theory of
Burton J. Hendrick that the Russian Jews are inferior racially to the
west European ones is merely another variety of the race theory and
is worth no more than any variety. The Jews are called materialists
and money-grabbers, which many of them are, as well as many non-
Jews; they are accused of having wealth and of being subverters of
wealth, and some Jews are in each of these categories. Some Jews
are bootleggers, as they are called. Possibly some Jews have been
traitors, though the writer in the Dearborn Independent seems to
have taken a great deal of trouble to prove that Benedict Arnold may
or may not have had some Jewish accomplices. Certainly the
complaint of the colleges that many of their Jewish students are not
socially acceptable is entirely correct. The Jew is the only immigrant
group whose poor boys attend institutions of higher learning in any
large numbers. Other groups usually wait at least a generation until
they have acquired both prosperity and some American culture
before their children attend college. Besides, there are a number of
Catholic universities which are attended by many Irish and Italian
youths, while there is no such school to divert the Jewish youth.
Hence there is no doubt that many young Jews attend college who
are externally uncouth, who speak English with an accent, who wear
shabby clothes, and who have no interest in athletics, dancing or
undergraduate activities. It is certain, however, that these young
people learn to conform very rapidly indeed; and that, before they
learn, they may be able to contribute a little variety and interest to
the monotony of American youth.
A charge of great importance during the height of prejudice
against the Russian Soviet government was that the Jews were
responsible for that government, its success and its excesses. The
inevitable conclusion was, then, that the Jews were trying to
introduce the ideals of the Soviets into the United States. Even when
this conclusion was not drawn, the connection was so emphasized
100
as to minister to anti-Semitic sentiment. John Spargo made a
special effort to minimize this rather indirect, but at the time very
dangerous piece of propaganda. He showed that the number of
Jews in high position in Russia was very small, while the larger
number of government clerks and similar functionaries was due to
the larger percentage of educated men among Jews than among the
mass of Russians; that the great commercial class of Jews were
financially ruined by the socialistic policy of the government; that the
Jews of Russia were divided among the several political parties for
and against the Communists; and finally that the Bolsheviki had
suppressed Jewish religious schools, like Christian ones, and
estranged the orthodox of both religions. But the anti-Semitic writers
used the Russian Revolution to show the growing menace of Jewish
power the world over.
Finally, the charge of the Dearborn Independent that there is a
Jewish world conspiracy to overthrow the governments of the world
in favor of an all-Judaic power. To the person who knows Jewish life,
broken into so many conflicting theories and different cultural and
economic groups, the whole viewpoint is too ridiculous to require
disproof. It is merely another sign that the modern conception of
social and economic process is very new indeed and has made little
headway into the group mind. Every world process from the World
War to the fall of the German mark, from immodest clothing to vapid
popular songs, must be blamed on a person or race. In this case the
person disliked is the Jew, and everything is blamed on him. But a
different group prejudice could just as well ascribe these same
factors to the German (as during the war), to the Russian, to the
international bankers, or to the Republican party. Again, we are
confronted by the rationalization of a group prejudice, and in this
case the rationalization is merely unusually fantastic.
As Ludwig Lewisohn sums up anti-Jewish prejudice:
 101
Jew-baiting has nothing to do with the quality of Jewish
characteristics. We are hated for our wealth and for our poverty, for
our plutocrats and for our Reds, for display and for hard-headedness
and warm-heartedness, for arrogance and servility, for pushingness
and reserve, for speech and silence, for political participation and
nonparticipation. If we desire assimilation you drive us out of your
universities by chicanery and insult; if we do not strive after
assimilation you say we ought to go where we came from.
To this we may compare the interesting if somewhat hasty
generalization of Friedman:
102
Any unabsorbed social group generates the ill will of the
majority.... It is characteristic for the superior culture to absorb the
inferior.... The seeming slowness of this movement is an irritant to the
non-Jewish world and the persistence of the Jews as a distinctive
cultural group is resented by the dominant group. It is an implied
challenge to the supremacy of the culture of the lands where Jews
dwell.
103
And Shailer speaks of “This most striking and universal of
ethnic judgments,” that the Jews are an unpleasant people. The
Semite to him is “the ablest type of man the world has known, but a
type that is somewhat archaic” because religious rather than
scientific in mental trend. He feels that Jew and Aryan are different in
their mode of meeting the stranger, the Jew is more impulsive due to
swifter mental processes, which invariably causes bad first
impressions to be later overcome. And so on. These reasons seem
hardly better than those of the anti-Semites themselves—for the Jew
today is not a Semite; Dr. Shailer compared him with the rather
repressed New Englander at Harvard, not with the Aryan of
Germany or Italy or Russia; since he wrote seven Jews have
received the Nobel prize for scientific distinction; and finally, the
challenge to the superior race (of Dr. Friedman) is simply the fact of
difference. No characterization of the Jew accounts for anti-
Semitism, whether it be formulated by friend or foe; the only genuine
causes are those that can be found in the group mind itself.

5.
 In addition to the background of American group mind, already
studied, and the imported theory of anti-Semitism, there are certain
facts which affect the situation in its special manifestations. The most
important of these is the great increase of Jewish population in the
United States. At the time of the Know-Nothings there were not over
50,000 Jews in this country, and many of them had lived here since
before the Revolution, possessing fine patriotic records; there was
thus no motive to single them out for the anti-alien agitation of that
period. At the time of the A. P. A., there were about 500,000 Jews,
but these were still not a large enough group to attract special
attention; they were widely scattered through the south and west;
and the agitation against the larger numbers of Catholic immigrants
passed them by. In 1925, however, the number of Jews in the United
States is estimated at 3,600,000, of whom 1,735,000 have
immigrated into America in the last 25 years, and 900,000 of these in
the last 15. Here, then, is a tremendous body of Jews who are also
foreigners, who speak the Yiddish language, adhere to traditional
Jewish religious practices, and who are massed in great bodies in
certain cities and in certain industries. The foreign Jew is thus more
conspicuous today than any other immigrant group, even than those
much larger in number. New York City alone has 1,500,000 Jews,
such a huge number of whom are of obviously foreign origin that
they are a conspicuous attraction for the intolerance of other groups
in America. As Mecklin says:
104
The Jew, who has recently been coming to this country mainly
from Russia and Southeastern Europe by hundreds and thousands,
and who, true to his urban traits, has crowded into New York and other
large cities where his native characteristics are thrust into the face of
the native American on the street, in the hotel or department store,
has also come in for his share of the prevalent fear psychology. Henry
Ford ... has voiced the fears of the native American brought into close
contact with the unassimilated and disagreeably alien Jewish
population of our large centers.
A special feature of this present Jewish immigration is that much
of it comes from a belated civilization. The Jew of Poland or Ukrainia
or Rumania steps from an agricultural society into an industrial one;
from an aristocratic class society into a democratic one; from an
isolated Jewish Ghetto life into a maelstrom of races and cultural
groups, among whom he must grope his way. No wonder that his
adjustment is not always a correct one, still less often the same
adjustment as that of the standardized, typical American. Many of
them become radicals in economics, religion and politics as a
reaction against their former experience of oppression; some of them
were pro-German during the World War to oppose their former
Russian tyrants; for all of them the problem is doubly difficult
because it involves not only a personal adjustment to new economic
and social conditions, but also the group adjustment into the life of
the United States. Many of them in their new-found freedom become
super-patriots, take America to their hearts, and are thus doubly
disappointed when America also repulses them.
But Jewish immigration also has been largely stopped and the
foreign aspect of American Jewry is rapidly disappearing. In 1914,
the Jewish admissions to the United States numbered 138,000 or
11.3%; when departures are taken into account, the Jews became
14.3% of the total. During the war the Jewish immigration was
negligible; but in 1921 it again amounted to 119,000 or 14.7% of the
total, or deducting departures, 21.2%. The passage of the quota law
of 1921 resulted in reducing the total Jewish admissions to 53,000
and 49,000 in the next two years; or 17.3% and 9.5% of the total
admissions. As 1922 was a year of many departures among Greeks,
Italians and several other groups, the net Jewish immigration of that
year actually amounted to 47.5% of the total net immigration. The
effect of the 1924 immigration act has already been noted by social
workers and others in touch with immigration, but it is still too early to
show by statistics what has occurred, namely the practical cessation
of this great Jewish immigration into the United States. It is obvious
that this fact will alter the animus and the nature of anti-Semitism,
just as all anti-alien sentiments, even though it will not eradicate the
other causes and therefore will not stop anti-Semitism completely.
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE RETORT TO ANTI-SEMITISM
There are two kinds of answers possible to a movement like anti-
Semitism, the explicit refutation of its doctrines and teachings,
whether by Jews or non-Jews; and the response by adjustment and
by psychological traits. It is a commonplace that Jewish loyalty is
always strengthened by anti-Semitism; it is equally true that the
Jewish inferiority complex is conditioned, if not caused, by anti-
Semitism. In fact, we may well conclude that Jewish characteristics
are greatly influenced and molded by the adverse forces of the
environment. Both these types of response, the explicit and the
implied, exist in this particular case, whether as counterpart or as
results of anti-Semitism itself, and both can be traced in the United
States in connection with the present movement.

1.
Defense of Jews by non-Jews is a notable phenomenon of
modern times, associated with the general growth of tolerance.
Beginning with the Renaissance there have been a few hardy spirits
in every generation who were willing to espouse the cause of these
pariahs of Christendom, chiefly the liberals who were challenging
group standards in many directions. Such advocates as Mirabeau,
Lessing, Jefferson and Macaulay endeavored to remove Jewish
disabilities and to defend the Jews against the attacks of the
intolerant groups. Here in America we have seen the same result;
the use of the individual intelligence has drawn many non-Jews out
of the unified group mind of the persecutors; many entire groups, in
fact, of Catholics, liberals, and others had never entered into it. Even
before the World War the Reverend Madison Peters of Brooklyn was
widely known for his book, “Justice to the Jew,” and several similar