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Grob’s Basic
Electronics
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
12th Edition

Mitchel E. Schultz
Western Technical College
GROB’S BASIC ELECTRONICS, TWELFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-
Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2007,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schultz, Mitchel E.
Grob’s basic electronics / Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College.
-- 12th edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-337387-4 (alk. paper)
1. Electronics--Textbooks. I. Grob, Bernard. Basic electronics. II.
Title. III. Title: Basic electronics.
TK7816.G75 2016
621.381--dc23
2014042490

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com
Dedication
This textbook is dedicated to all of my students, both past and present.
 Brief Contents
I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
Chapter 1 Electricity 22
Chapter 2 Resistors 54
Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 76
Chapter 4 Series Circuits 108
Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 142
Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 174
Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 208
Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 232
Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 264
Chapter 10 Network Theorems 288
Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 320
Chapter 12 Batteries 350
Chapter 13 Magnetism 386
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 406
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 440
Chapter 16 Capacitance 484
Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 524
Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 546
Chapter 19 Inductance 572
Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 618
Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 640
Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 668
Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 702
Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 732
Chapter 25 Resonance 762
Chapter 26 Filters 798
Chapter 27 Diodes and Diode Applications 842

vii
 Chapter 28 Bipolar Junction Transistors 890
Chapter 29 Transistor Amplifiers 924
Chapter 30 Field Effect Transistors 966
Chapter 31 Power Amplifiers 1006
Chapter 32 Thyristors 1038
Chapter 33 Operational Amplifiers 1056
Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1108
Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1111
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1118
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1119
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1125
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1140
Glossary 1182
Answers Self-Tests 1191
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1197
Photo Credits 1219
Index 1220

viii Brief Contents

 Contents
Preface xviii

I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
I–1 Scientific Notation 4 I–6 Reciprocals with Powers
I–2 Engineering Notation and of 10 13
Metric Prefixes 6 I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed
I–3 Converting between Metric in Powers of 10 Notation 14
Prefixes 10 I–8 Square Roots of Numbers
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Expressed in Powers of
Involving Powers of 10 Notation 14
10 Notation 11 I–9 The Scientific Calculator 15
I–5 Multiplication and Division Summary 17
Involving Powers of
10 Notation 12

Chapter 1 Electricity 22
1–1 Negative and Positive 1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to
Polarities 24 Current 38
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the 1–8 The Closed Circuit 40
Atom 24 1–9 The Direction of Current 42
1–3 Structure of the Atom 27 1–10 Direct Current (DC) and
1–4 The Coulomb Alternating Current (AC) 45
Unit of Electric Charge 30 1–11 Sources of Electricity 46
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential 1–12 The Digital Multimeter 47
Difference 33
Summary 49
1–6 Charge in Motion Is
Current 35

Chapter 2 Resistors 54
2–1 Types of Resistors 56 2–5 Power Rating of
2–2 Resistor Color Coding 59 Resistors 66
2–3 Variable Resistors 63 2–6 Resistor Troubles 68
2–4 Rheostats and Summary 70
Potentiometers 64

Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 76

3–1 The Current I 5 V/R 78 3–5 Multiple and Submultiple
3–2 The Voltage V 5 IR 80 Units 82
3–3 The Resistance R 5 V/I 81 3–6 The Linear Proportion
between V and I 84
3–4 Practical Units 82

ix
 3–7 Electric Power 86 3–11 Electric Shock 95
3–8 Power Dissipation in 3–12 Open-Circuit and Short-
Resistance 90 Circuit Troubles 96
3–9 Power Formulas 91 Summary 99
3–10 Choosing a Resistor for a
Circuit 93

Chapter 4 Series Circuits 108

4–1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts 4–7 Series-Aiding and
of a Series Circuit 110 Series-Opposing
4–2 Total R Equals the Sum Voltages 119
of All Series 4–8 Analyzing Series Circuits
Resistances 112 with Random
4–3 Series IR Voltage Unknowns 120
Drops 114 4–9 Ground Connections in
4–4 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law Electrical and Electronic
(KVL) 115 Systems 122
4–5 Polarity of IR Voltage 4–10 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Drops 117 Shorts in Series
Circuits 124
4–6 Total Power in a Series
Circuit 118 Summary 131

Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 142

5–1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the 5–6 Total Power in Parallel
Same across Parallel Circuits 155
Branches 144 5–7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
5–2 Each Branch I Equals with Random
VA /R 145 Unknowns 156
5–3 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 5–8 Troubleshooting: Opens and
(KCL) 146 Shorts in Parallel
5–4 Resistances in Parallel 148 Circuits 156
5–5 Conductances in Summary 165
Parallel 154

Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 174

6–1 Finding R T for Series-Parallel 6–5 Analyzing Series-Parallel
Resistances 176 Circuits with Random
6–2 Resistance Strings in Unknowns 181
Parallel 177 6–6 The Wheatstone Bridge 184
6–3 Resistance Banks in 6–7 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Series 179 Shorts in Series-Parallel
6–4 Resistance Banks and Strings Circuits 188
in Series-Parallel 180 Summary 194

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 1 to 6 206

x Contents
 Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current
Dividers 208
7–1 Series Voltage Dividers 210 7–4 Series Voltage Divider
7–2 Current Divider with Two with Parallel Load
Parallel Resistances 214 Current 217
7–3 Current Division by Parallel 7–5 Design of a Loaded Voltage
Conductances 216 Divider 219
Summary 221

Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 232

8–1 Moving-Coil Meter 234 8–7 Digital Multimeter
8–2 Meter Shunts 236 (DMM) 249
8–3 Voltmeters 239 8–8 Meter Applications 251
8–4 Loading Effect of a 8–9 Checking Continuity with
Voltmeter 242 the Ohmmeter 253
8–5 Ohmmeters 244 Summary 255
8–6 Multimeters 247

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 7 to 8 263

Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 264

9–1 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 9–4 Node-Voltage Analysis 275
(KCL) 266 9–5 Method of Mesh
9–2 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law Currents 277
(KVL) 268 Summary 281
9–3 Method of Branch
Currents 271

Chapter 10 Network Theorems 288

10–1 Superposition Theorem 290 10–6 Thevenin-Norton
10–2 Thevenin’s Theorem 291 Conversions 300
10–3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two 10–7 Conversion of Voltage and
Voltage Sources 294 Current Sources 302
10–4 Thevenizing a Bridge 10–8 Millman’s Theorem 304
Circuit 295 10–9 T or Y and p or D
10–5 Norton’s Theorem 297 Connections 306
Summary 311

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 9 to 10 319

Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 320

11–1 Function of the 11–4 Connectors 327
Conductor 322 11–5 Printed Circuit Board 328
11–2 Standard Wire Gage 11–6 Switches 329
Sizes 323
11–7 Fuses 331
11–3 Types of Wire
Conductors 325 11–8 Wire Resistance 333

Contents xi
 11–9 Temperature Coefficient
of Resistance 336
11–10 Ion Current in Liquids and
Gases 338
11–11 Insulators 340
Chapter 12 Batteries 350
12–1 Introduction to
Batteries 352
12–2 The Voltaic Cell 354
12–3 Common Types of Primary
Cells 356
12–4 Lead-Acid Wet Cell 360
12–5 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells 363
12–6 Series-Connected and
Parallel-Connected Cells 366
Cumulative Review Summary
Chapter 13 Magnetism 386
13–1 The Magnetic Field 388
13–2 Magnetic Flux (␾) 390
13–3 Flux Density (B ) 392
13–4 Induction by the Magnetic
Field 394
13–5 Air Gap of a Magnet 396
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 406
14–1 Ampere-Turns of
Magnetomotive Force
(mmf ) 408
14–2 Field Intensity (H ) 409
14–3 B-H Magnetization
Curve 412
14–4 Magnetic Hysteresis 414
14–5 Magnetic Field around an
Electric Current 416
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 440
15–1 Alternating Current
Applications 442
15–2 Alternating-Voltage
Generator 443
15–3 The Sine Wave 446
15–4 Alternating Current 447
15–5 Voltage and Current Values
for a Sine Wave 448
15–6 Frequency 451
xii
11–12 Troubleshooting Hints for
Wires and Connectors 342
Summary 345
12–7 Current Drain Depends
on Load Resistance 368
12–8 Internal Resistance
of a Generator 369
12–9 Constant-Voltage and
Constant-Current
Sources 372
12–10 Matching a Load Resistance
to the Generator ri 374
Summary 378
Chapters 11 to 12 383
13–6 Types of Magnets 397
13–7 Ferrites 398
13–8 Magnetic Shielding 399
13–9 The Hall Effect 399
Summary 401
14–6 Magnetic Polarity of a
Coil 418
14–7 Motor Action between Two
Magnetic Fields 419
14–8 Induced Current 421
14–9 Generating an Induced
Voltage 423
14–10 Relays 427
Summary 433
15–7 Period 453
15–8 Wavelength 454
15–9 Phase Angle 457
15–10 The Time Factor in Frequency
and Phase 460
15–11 Alternating Current Circuits
with Resistance 461
15–12 Nonsinusoidal AC
Waveforms 463
Contents
 15–13 Harmonic Frequencies 465 15–16 Three–Phase AC Power 470
15–14 The 60-Hz AC Power Summary 474
Line 465
15–15 Motors and Generators 468

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 13 to 15 482

Chapter 16 Capacitance 484

16–1 How Charge Is Stored 16–7 Parallel Capacitances 505
in a Dielectric 486 16–8 Series Capacitances 505
16–2 Charging and Discharging 16–9 Energy Stored in Electrostatic
a Capacitor 487 Field of Capacitance 507
16–3 The Farad Unit of 16–10 Measuring and Testing
Capacitance 489 Capacitors 508
16–4 Typical Capacitors 493 16–11 Troubles in Capacitors 511
16–5 Electrolytic Capacitors 498 Summary 515
16–6 Capacitor Coding 500

Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 524

17–1 Alternating Current 17–5 Applications of Capacitive
in a Capacitive Circuit 526 Reactance 532
17–2 The Amount of XC Equals 17–6 Sine-Wave Charge
1/(2␲fC ) 527 and Discharge Current 533
17–3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Summary 538
Reactances 531
17–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC 532

Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 546

18–1 Sine Wave vC Lags iC by 18–6 RF and AF Coupling
908 548 Capacitors 558
18–2 X C and R in Series 549 18–7 Capacitive Voltage
18–3 Impedance Z Triangle 551 Dividers 559
18-4 RC Phase-Shifter 18–8 The General Case of
Circuit 553 Capacitive Current iC 561
18–5 XC and R in Parallel 554 Summary 562

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 16 to 18 570

Chapter 19 Inductance 572

19–1 Induction by Alternating 19–7 Transformer Ratings 589
Current 574 19–8 Impedance
19–2 Self-Inductance L 575 Transformation 592
19–3 Self-Induced Voltage vL 578 19–9 Core Losses 596
19–4 How vL Opposes a Change 19–10 Types of Cores 597
in Current 579 19–11 Variable Inductance 598
19–5 Mutual Inductance L M 580 19–12 Inductances in Series or
19–6 Transformers 583 Parallel 599

Contents xiii
 19–13 Energy in a Magnetic Field 19–15 Measuring and Testing
of Inductance 601 Inductors 604
19–14 Stray Capacitive Summary 609
and Inductive Effects 602

Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 618

20–1 How XL Reduces the Amount 20–5 Applications of XL for Different
of I 620 Frequencies 626
20–2 XL 5 2␲f L 621 20–6 Waveshape of vL Induced
20–3 Series or Parallel Inductive by Sine-Wave Current 627
Reactances 625 Summary 632
20–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to X L 625

Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 640

21–1 Sine Wave iL Lags vL by 21–5 Q of a Coil 651
908 642 21–6 AF and RF Chokes 654
21–2 XL and R in Series 643 21–7 The General Case
21–3 Impedance Z Triangle 645 of Inductive Voltage 656
21–4 XL and R in Parallel 648 Summary 658

Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 668

22–1 Response of Resistance 22–8 Long and Short Time
Alone 670 Constants 681
22–2 L/R Time Constant 670 22–9 Charge and Discharge
22–3 High Voltage Produced by with a Short RC Time
Opening an RL Circuit 672 Constant 682
22–4 RC Time Constant 674 22–10 Long Time Constant for an RC
Coupling Circuit 683
22–5 RC Charge and Discharge
Curves 677 22–11 Advanced Time Constant
Analysis 685
22–6 High Current Produced by
Short-Circuiting an RC 22–12 Comparison of Reactance and
Circuit 678 Time Constant 688
22–7 RC Waveshapes 679 Summary 691

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 19 to 22 700

Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 702

23–1 AC Circuits with Resistance 23–7 Series-Parallel Reactance
but No Reactance 704 and Resistance 713
23–2 Circuits with XL Alone 705 23–8 Real Power 714
23–3 Circuits with XC Alone 706 23–9 AC Meters 716
23–4 Opposite Reactances 23–10 Wattmeters 717
Cancel 707 23–11 Summary of Types of Ohms
23–5 Series Reactance and in AC Circuits 717
Resistance 709 23–12 Summary of Types of Phasors
23–6 Parallel Reactance and in AC Circuits 718
Resistance 711 Summary 723

xiv Contents
 Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC
Circuits 732
24–1 Positive and Negative 24–9 Converting Polar to
Numbers 734 Rectangular Form 743
24–2 The j Operator 734 24–10 Complex Numbers in Series
24–3 Definition of a Complex AC Circuits 745
Number 736 24–11 Complex Numbers in Parallel
24–4 How Complex Numbers Are AC Circuits 747
Applied to AC Circuits 736 24–12 Combining Two Complex
24–5 Impedance in Complex Branch Impedances 749
Form 737 24–13 Combining Complex
24–6 Operations with Complex Branch Currents 750
Numbers 739 24–14 Parallel Circuit with Three
24–7 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Branches 751
Complex Number 740 Summary 753
24–8 Polar Form of Complex
Numbers 742

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 23 to 24 760

Chapter 25 Resonance 762

25–1 The Resonance Effect 764 25–7 Tuning 783
25–2 Series Resonance 764 25–8 Mistuning 785
25–3 Parallel Resonance 768 25–9 Analysis of Parallel
25–4 Resonant Frequency Resonant Circuits 786
___
fr 5 1y(2␲ ÏLC ) 771 25–10 Damping of Parallel
Resonant Circuits 787
25–5 Q Magnification Factor
of a Resonant Circuit 775 25–11 Choosing L and C for a
Resonant Circuit 789
25–6 Bandwidth of a Resonant
Circuit 779 Summary 790

Chapter 26 Filters 798

26–1 Examples of Filtering 800
26–2 Direct Current Combined
with Alternating Current 800
26–3 Transformer Coupling 803
26–4 Capacitive Coupling 804
26–5 Bypass Capacitors 807
26–6 Filter Circuits 809
26–7 Low-Pass Filters 810
26–8 High-Pass Filters 811
26–9 Analyzing Filter Circuits 812
26–10 Decibels and Frequency
Response Curves 821
26–11 Resonant Filters 828
26–12 Interference Filters 830
Summary 832

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 25 to 26 840

Chapter 27 Diodes and Diode Applications 842

27–1 Semiconductor 27–3 Volt-Ampere Characteristic
Materials 844 Curve 849
27–2 The p -n Junction Diode 846 27–4 Diode Approximations 852

Contents xv
 27–5 Diode Ratings 855 27–7 Special Diodes 874
27–6 Rectifier Circuits 856 Summary 882

Chapter 28 Bipolar Junction Transistors 890

28–1 Transistor 28–4 Transistor Ratings 900
Construction 892 28–5 Checking a Transistor
28–2 Proper Transistor with an Ohmmeter 903
Biasing 894 28–6 Transistor Biasing
28–3 Transistor Operating Techniques 905
Regions 898 Summary 917

Chapter 29 Transistor Amplifiers 924

29–1 AC Resistance of a 29–6 Common-Collector
Diode 926 Amplifier 939
29–2 Small Signal Amplifier 29–7 AC Analysis of an Emitter
Operation 928 Follower 941
29–3 AC Equivalent Circuit of 29-8 Emitter Follower
a CE Amplifier 932 Applications 946
29–4 Calculating the Voltage Gain, 29-9 Common-Base Amplifier 949
A V, of a CE Amplifier 932 29-10 AC Analysis of a Common-
29–5 Calculating the Input and Base Amplifier 950
Output Impedances in a CE Summary 956
Amplifier 937

Chapter 30 Field Effect Transistors 966

30–1 JFETs and Their 30–5 MOSFET Biasing
Characteristics 968 Techniques 993
30–2 JFET Biasing 30–6 Handling MOSFETs 995
Techniques 973 Summary 997
30–3 JFET Amplifiers 979
30–4 MOSFETs and Their
Characteristics 987

Chapter 31 Power Amplifiers 1006

31–1 Classes of Operation 1008 31–4 Class C Amplifiers 1025
31–2 Class A Amplifiers 1009 Summary 1031
31–3 Class B Push-Pull
Amplifiers 1018

Chapter 32 Thyristors 1038

32–1 Diacs 1040 32–4 Unijunction
32–2 SCRs and Their Transistors 1047
Characteristics 1040 Summary 1051
32–3 Triacs 1045

xvi Contents
 Chapter 33 Operational Amplifiers 1056
33–1 Differential Amplifiers 1058 33–4 Popular Op-Amp
33–2 Operational Amplifiers and Circuits 1082
Their Characteristics 1065 Summary 1098
33–3 Op-Amp Circuits with
Negative Feedback 1072

Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1108

Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1111
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1118
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1119
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1125
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1140
Glossary 1182
Answers Self-Tests 1191
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1197
Photo Credits 1219
Index 1220

Contents xvii
 Preface
The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics provides students and instruc-
tors with complete and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals of electricity
and electronics. The book is written for beginning students who have little or no
experience and/or knowledge about the field of electronics. A basic understanding
of algebra and trigonometry is helpful since several algebraic equations and right-
angle trigonometry problems appear throughout the text.
The opening material in the book, titled “Introduction to Powers of 10,”
prepares students to work with numbers expressed in scientific and engineering
notation as well as with the most common metric prefixes encountered in elec-
tronics. Students learn how to add, subtract, multiply, divide, square, and take the
square root of numbers expressed in any form of powers of 10 notation.
Chapters 1 through 12 cover the basics of atomic structure, voltage, current,
resistance, the resistor color code, Ohm’s law, power, series circuits, parallel cir-
cuits, series-parallel (combination) circuits, voltage and current dividers, analog
and digital meters, Kirchhoff’s laws, network theorems, wire resistance, switches,
insulators, primary and secondary cells, battery types, internal resistance, and
maximum transfer of power. The first 12 chapters are considered DC chapters
because the voltages and currents used in analyzing the circuits in these chapters
are strictly DC.
Chapters 13 through 26 cover the basics of magnetism, electromagnetism, re-
lays, alternating voltage and current, capacitance, capacitor types, capacitive reac-
tance, capacitive circuits, inductance, transformers, inductive reactance, inductive
circuits, RC and L/R time constants, real power, apparent power, power factor,
complex numbers, resonance, and filters. Chapters 13–26 are considered the AC
chapters since the voltages and currents used in analyzing the circuits in these
chapters are primarily AC.
Chapters 27 through 33 cover the basics of electronic devices, which include
semiconductor physics; diode characteristics; diode testing; half-wave and full-
wave rectifier circuits; the capacitor input filter; light-emitting diodes (LEDs);
zener diodes; bipolar junction transistors; transistor biasing techniques; the
common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifiers; JFET and
MOSFET characteristics; JFET amplifiers; MOSFET amplifiers; class A, class B
and class C amplifiers; diacs; SCRs; triacs; UJTs; op-amp characteristics; invert-
ing amplifiers; noninverting amplifiers; and nonlinear op-amp circuits. These
seven additional chapters covering electronic devices may qualify this text for
those who want to use it for DC fundamentals, AC fundamentals, as well as
electronic devices.
Appendixes A through F serve as a resource for students seeking additional
information on topics that may or may not be covered in the main part of the
text. Appendix A lists all of the electrical quantities and their symbols. It also
includes a listing of the most popular multiple and submultiple units encountered
in electronics as well as a listing of all the Greek letter symbols and their uses.
Appendix B provides students with a comprehensive overview of solder and the
soldering process. Appendix C provides a list of preferred values for resistors. The
list of preferred values shows the multiple and submultiple values available for a
specified tolerance. Appendix D provides a complete listing of electronic compo-
nents and their respective schematic symbols. Appendix E provides students with
an introduction on how to use an oscilloscope. Both analog and digital scopes

xviii
 are covered. Appendix F provides an extensive overview on the use of Multisim,
which is an interactive circuit simulation software package that allows students
to create and test electronic circuits. Appendix F introduces students to the main
features of Multisim that directly relate to their study of DC circuits, AC circuits,
and electronic devices.

What’s New in the Twelfth Edition

of Grob’s Basic Electronics?
• The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics continues to provide
students and instructors with a Laboratory Application Assignment at the
end of every chapter in the book! In the twelfth edition, many of the lab
application assignments have been modified and/or expanded based on
the recommendations of several reviewers. Each laboratory application
assignment is a hands-on lab exercise in which students build and test
circuits in a laboratory environment. Each lab application assignment
reinforces one or more of the main topics covered within the chapter.
The labs are short and concise yet thorough and complete. With the
inclusion of the lab application assignments, additional lab supplements
may not be necessary. Never before has an electronics book of this
magnitude provided a laboratory activity as part of the main text.
• Multisim continues to be a key component in the twelfth edition of
Grob’s Basic Electronics. All of the Multisim files for use with this
textbook have been updated to version 12.1, the latest version of
Multisim software available at the time of publication. Appendix F,
Introduction to Multisim, has also been completely updated to reflect the
latest changes in version 12.1 of the software.
• The Good to Know feature, appearing in the margins of the text, has once
again been expanded in several chapters of the book.
• In Chapter 3, Ohm’s Law, coverage of the inverse relation between I and
R has been expanded. Also, a streamlined approach for calculating energy
costs has been included.
• Chapter 7, Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers, has been expanded to
include variable voltage dividers. Also, increased emphasis has been placed
on the voltage divider rule (VDR) and the current divider rule (CDR).
• Also new to the twelfth edition is a much heavier emphasis of real-world
applications. At the end of several chapters throughout the book, new
sections including real-world applications have been added. These real-
world applications bring to life the concepts covered in a specific chapter.
In Chapter 3, Ohm’s Law, calculating the current drawn by several
different home appliances is discussed. In Chapters 4 and 5, Series
Circuits and Parallel Circuits, respectively, the wiring and characteristics
of holiday lights are thoroughly discussed. In Chapter 11, Conductors
and Insulators, the electrical wire used in residential house wiring is
explained in detail. Extension cords and speaker wire are also discussed.
In Chapter 12, Batteries, lead-acid battery ratings are covered along with
information on charging, testing, storage, and disposal. In Chapter 14,
Electromagnetism, solenoids and solenoid valves are discussed. In
Chapter 15, Alternating Voltage and Current, the 120-V duplex
receptacle is thoroughly covered. In Chapter 16, Capacitance, an
emerging new type of capacitor, known as a supercapacitor, is thoroughly
explained. Several of its applications are also discussed. In Chapter 19,
Inductance, isolation transformers and their advantages are carefully
examined. And finally, in Chapter 23, Alternating Current Circuits, the
different types of power in AC circuits are explained as well as power
factor and the need for power factor correction.

Preface xix
 Ancillary Package
The following supplements are available to support Grob’s Basic Electronics,
twelfth edition.

Problems Manual for use with Grob’s

Basic Electronics
This book, written by Mitchel E. Schultz, provides students and instructors with
hundreds of practice problems for self-study, homework assignments, tests, and
review. The book is organized to correlate chapter by chapter with the textbook.
Each chapter contains a number of solved illustrative problems demonstrating
step-by-step how representative problems on a particular topic are solved. Fol-
lowing the solved problems are sets of problems for the students to solve. The
Problems Manual is a must-have for students requiring additional practice in
solving circuits.

Experiments Manual for Grob’s Basic Electronics

This lab book, written by Wes Ponick, provides students and instructors with
easy-to-follow laboratory experiments. The experiments range from an introduc-
tion to laboratory equipment to experiments dealing with operational amplifiers.
All experiments have been student tested to ensure their effectiveness. The lab
book is organized to correlate with topics covered in the text, by chapter.
All experiments have a Multisim activity that is to be done prior to the actual
physical lab activity. Multisim files are part of the Instructor’s Resources on Con-
nect. This prepares students to work with circuit simulation software, and also to
do “pre-lab” preparation before doing a physical lab exercise. Multisim coverage
also reflects the widespread use of circuit simulation software in today’s electron-
ics industries.

Digital Resources
Connect Engineering
The online resources for this edition include McGraw-Hill Connect®, a web-
based assignment and assessment platform that can help students perform better
in their coursework and master important concepts. With Connect®, instructors
can deliver assignments, quizzes, and tests easily online. Students can prac-
tice important skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Ask your
McGraw-Hill Representative for more details, and check it out at www.mc-
grawhillconnect.com.

McGraw-Hill LearnSmart®
McGraw-Hill LearnSmart® is an adaptive learning system designed to help stu-
dents learn faster, study more efficiently, and retain more knowledge for greater
success. Through a series of adaptive questions, Learnsmart® pinpoints concepts
the student does not understand and maps out a personalized study plan for suc-
cess. It also lets instructors see exactly what students have accomplished, and it
features a built-in assessment tool for graded assignments. Ask your McGraw-
Hill Representative for more information, and visit www.mhlearnsmart.com for
a demonstration.

McGraw-Hill SmartBook™
Powered by the intelligent and adaptive LearnSmart engine, SmartBook™
is the first and only continuously adaptive reading experience available today.

xx Preface
 Distinguishing what students know from what they don’t, and honing in on con-
cepts they are most likely to forget, SmartBook personalizes content for each
student. Reading is no longer a passive and linear experience but is an engaging
and dynamic one, where students are more likely to master and retain important
concepts, coming to class better prepared. SmartBook includes powerful reports
that identify specific topics and learning objectives that students need to study.
These valuable reports also provide instructors with insight into how students are
progressing through textbook content and are useful for identifying class trends,
focusing precious class time, providing personalized feedback to students, and
tailoring assessment. How does SmartBook work? Each SmartBook contains
four components: Preview, Read, Practice, and Recharge. Starting with an initial
preview of each chapter and key learning objectives, students read the material
and are guided to topics for which they need the most practice based on their
responses to a continuously adapting diagnostic. Read and practice continue until
SmartBook directs students to recharge important material they are most likely to
forget to ensure concept mastery and retention.

Electronic Textbooks
This text is available as an eBook at www.CourseSmart.com. At CourseSmart,
your students can take advantage of significant savings off the cost of a print text-
book, reduce their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful web
tools for learning. CourseSmart eBooks can be viewed online or downloaded to
a computer. The eBooks allow students to do full text searches, add highlighting
and notes, and share notes with classmates. CourseSmart has the largest selection
of eBooks available anywhere. Visit www.CourseSmart.com to learn more and to
try a sample chapter.

McGraw-Hill Create™
With McGraw-Hill Create™, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material
from other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written, such as
your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by
searching through thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your
book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s
appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course in-
formation. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review
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(eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and reg-
ister to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students
your way.

Preface xxi
Before you read . . .

Chapter Introductions briefly outline

the main chapter topics and concepts.

I
Chapter Outlines guide you through
Introduction to
the material in the chapter ahead. The
outlines breakdown the individual topics Powers of 10
covered, and each outline is tied to a
main heading to emphasize important
topics throughout the chapter. T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or

Chapter Outline
1–1 Negative and Positive Polarities 1–8 The Closed Circuit
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom 1–9 The Direction of Current
1–3 Structure of the Atom 1–10 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
Current (AC)
1–4 The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
1–11 Sources of Electricity
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
1–12 The Digital Multimeter
1–6 Charge in Motion Is Current
1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current

Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ List the two basic particles of electric ■ Describe the difference between voltage and Chapter Objectives organize and
charge. current.
■ Describe the basic structure of the atom. ■ Define resistance and conductance and list highlight the key concepts covered within
the unit of each.
■ Define the terms conductor, insulator, and
semiconductor and give examples of each ■ List three important characteristics of an
the chapter text.
term. electric circuit.
■ Define the coulomb unit of electric charge. ■ Define the difference between electron flow
sch73874_intro_002-021.indd 2 09/12/14 2:59 PM
■ Define potential difference and voltage and and conventional current.
list the unit of each. ■ Describe the difference between direct and
■ Define current and list its unit of measure. alternating current.

Important Terms
alternating current conductor electron valence ohm
(AC) conventional current element potential difference Important Terms help students
ampere
atom
coulomb
current
free electron
insulator
proton
resistance
identify key words at the beginning of
atomic number dielectric ion semiconductor each chapter. They are defined in the
circuit direct current (DC) molecule siemens
compound electron neutron static electricity
text, at the end of the chapter, and in the
conductance electron flow nucleus volt glossary.

xxii
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 23 09/12/14 11:22 AM
While you read . . .

Figure 1–5 Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two
negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.

Pioneers in Electronics offer Opposite Like  Like 

charges charges charges
background information on the scientists attract repel repel

and engineers whose theories and      

discoveries were instrumental in the (a) (b) (c)

development of electronics.

repel in Fig. 1–5b, and two positive charges of the same value repel each other in
Fig. 1–5c.

PIONEERS
Good to Know boxes provide IN ELECTRONICS Polarity of a Charge
French natural philosopher Charles- An electric charge must have either negative or positive polarity, labeled 2Q or
additional information in the margins of Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) 1Q, with an excess of either electrons or protons. A neutral condition is considered
the text. developed a method for measuring zero charge. On this basis, consider the following examples, remembering that the
electron is the basic particle of charge and the proton has exactly the same amount,
the force of attraction and
although of opposite polarity.
repulsion between two electrically
charged spheres. Coulomb
established the law of inverse
squares and defined the basic unit
of charge quantity, the coulomb.
Section Self-Reviews allow students to
check their understanding of the material Example 1-1
A neutral dielectric has 12.5 3 1018 electrons added to it. What is its charge in
just presented. They are located at the GOOD TO KNOW coulombs?
end of each section within a chapter, As an aid for determining the
ANSWER This number of electrons is double the charge of 1 C. Therefore,
added charge (6Q) to a neutral
with answers at the end of the chapter. 2Q 5 2 C.
dielectric, use the following
equation:
Number of electrons added or removed
oved
6Q 5 ________________________
6.25 3 1018 electrons/C
___

■ 1–1 Self-Review
GOOD TO KNOW Answers at the end of the chapter.

Electricity is a form of energy,

a. Is the charge of an electron positive or negative? Examples throughout the text expand
b Is the charge of a proton positive or negative?
where energy refers to the ability
to do work. More specifically,
c. Is it true or false that the neutral condition means equal positive and on key concepts and offer students a
negative charges?
electrical energy refers to the deeper understanding of complex
energy associated with electric
charges.
material.
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom
Although there are any number of possible methods by which electrons and protons
might be grouped, they assemble in specific atomic combinations for a stable ar-
rangement. (An atom is the smallest particle of the basic elements which forms the

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 31 09/12/14 11:22 AM

Multisim Icons, identify circuits for MultiSim Figure 1–8 Chemical cell as
a voltage source. (a) Voltage output is the
which there is a Multisim activity. potential difference between the two
terminals. (b) Schematic symbol of any
Multisim files can be found on the DC voltage source with constant polarity.
Longer line indicates positive side.
Instructor Resources section for
Connect.
p w w . ,
then, is a voltage source, or a source of electromotive force (emf). The schematic
symbol for a battery or DC voltage source is shown in Fig. 1–8b.
Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf, but the standard symbol V represents
any potential difference. This applies either to the voltage generated by a source or
to the voltage drop across a passive component such as a resistor.
It may be helpful to think of voltage as an electrical pressure or force. The higher
the voltage, the more electrical pressure or force. The electrical pressure of voltage is
in the form of the attraction and repulsion of an electric charge, such as an electron.
The general equation for any voltage can be stated as
W
V 5 __ (1–1)
Q
where V is the voltage in volts, W is the work or energy in joules, and Q is the charge
in coulombs.
Let’s take a look at an example.

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 24 09/12/14 11:22 AM

Example 1-5
What is the output voltage of a battery that expends 3.6 J of energy in moving
0.5 C of charge?

ANSWER Use equation 1–1.

W
V 5 __
(a) Q

Guided Tour xxiii

After you’ve read . . .

Real world applications bring to

Application of Ohm’s Law and Power Formulas
HOME APPLIANCES
Every electrical appliance in our home has a nameplate attached
to it. The nameplate provides important information about the
appliance such as its make and model, its electrical specifications
and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing mark. The
nameplate is usually located on the bottom or rear-side of the
appliance. The electrical specifications listed are usually its
power and voltage ratings. The voltage rating is the voltage at
which the appliance is designed to operate. The power rating is
the power dissipation of the appliance when the rated voltage is
applied. With the rated voltage and power ratings listed on the
nameplate, we can calculate the current drawn from the
appliance when it’s being used. To calculate the current (I) simply
divide the power rating (P) in watts by the voltage rating (V)
in volts. As an example, suppose you want to know how much
current your toaster draws when it’s toasting your bread. To
find the answer you will probably need to turn your toaster
life the concepts covered in a specific
chapter.
rating of 120 V and a power rating of 850 W, the current drawn
by the toaster is calculated as follows;
I 5 __ 850 W 5 7.083 A
P = _____
V 120 V
Some appliances in our homes have a voltage rating of 240 V
rather than 120 V. These are typically the appliances with very
high power ratings. Some examples include; electric stoves,
electric clothes dryers, electric water heaters and air
conditioning units. These appliances may have power ratings as
high as 7.2 kW or more. The reason the higher power appliances
have a higher voltage rating is simple. At twice the voltage you
only need half the current to obtain the desired power. With half
as much current, the size of the conductors connecting the
appliance to the power line can be kept much smaller. This is
important because a smaller diameter wire costs less and is
physically much easier to handle.

Each chapter concludes with a

Summary, a comprehensive recap
of the major points and takeaways. Summary
■ Electricity is present in all matter in
the form of electrons and protons.
■ The electron is the basic particle
of negative charge, and the proton
is the basic particle of positive
charge.
■ A conductor is a material in which
electrons can move easily from one
atom to the next.
■ An insulator is a material in which
electrons tend to stay in their own
orbit. Another name for insulator is
dielectric.
■ The atomic number of an element
gives the number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom, balanced by an
■ One coulomb (C) of charge is a
quantity of electricity
corresponding to 6.25 3 1018
electrons or protons. The symbol for
charge is Q.
■ Potential difference or voltage is an
electrical pressure or force that
exists between two points. The unit
of potential difference is the volt (V).
1J W.
1 V 5 ___ In general, V 5 ___
1C Q is considered conventional current.
■ Current is the rate of movement of
electric charge. The symbol for
current is I, and the basic unit of
measure is the ampere (A).
1 C In general, I 5 __Q.
1 A 5 ___
1s T because a DC voltage source has
■ Resistance is the opposition to the
■ An electric circuit is a closed path
for current flow. A voltage must be
connected across a circuit to
produce current flow. In the
external circuit outside the voltage
source, electrons flow from the
negative terminal toward the
positive terminal.
■ A motion of positive charges, in the
opposite direction of electron flow,
■ Voltage can exist without current,
but current cannot exist without
voltage.
■ Direct current has just one direction

Related Formulas are a quick, easy

Related Formulas
way to locate the important formulas
1 C 5 6.25 3 1018 electrons Q5I3T
from the chapter. R 5 1/G
W
V 5___
Q G 5 1/R

I 5 Q/T

Self-Test

Multiple-Choice Self-Tests at the Answers at the back of the book. 4. The electron valence of a neutral
copper atom is
7. In a metal conductor, such as a
copper wire,
end of every chapter allow for quick 1. The most basic particle of negative
charge is the
a. 11. a. positive ions are the moving
charges that provide current.
b. 0.
learning assessment. a. coulomb.
b. electron.
c. 64. b. free electrons are the moving
charges that provide current.
d. 21.
c. proton. c. there are no free electrons.
sch73874_ch03_076-107.indd 98 d. neutron. 09/12/14 11:23 AM
5. The unit of potential difference is d. none of the above.
the
2. The coulomb is a unit of a. volt. 8. A 100-V resistor has a conductance,
a. electric charge. G, of
b. ampere.
b. potential difference. a. 0.01 S.
c. siemens.
c. current. b. 0.1 S.
d. coulomb.
d. voltage. c. 0.001 S.

Essay Questions
1. Name two good conductors, two good insulators, and 7. List three important characteristics of an electric The Essay Questions at the end of
two semiconductors. circuit.

2. In a metal conductor, what is a free electron? 8. Describe the difference between an open circuit and a
each chapter are great ways to spark
3. What is the smallest unit of a compound with the same
short circuit. classroom discussion, and they make
chemical characteristics? 9. Is the power line voltage available in our homes a DC or
an AC voltage? great homework assignments.
4. Define the term ion.
10. What is the mathematical relationship between
5. How does the resistance of a conductor compare to that resistance and conductance?
of an insulator?
11. Briefly describe the electric field of a static charge.
6. Explain why potential difference is necessary to produce
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 50 09/12/14 11:22 AM
current in a circuit.

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 49 09/12/14 11:22 AM

xxiv Guided Tour

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 51 09/12/14 11:22 AM

End-of-Chapter Problems,
organized by chapter section, provide
another opportunity for students to
check their understanding, and for
instructors to hone in on key concepts.
Critical Thinking Problems for each
chapter provide students with more
challenging problems, allowing them to
polish critical skills needed on the job.
Laboratory Application Assignment
In your first lab application assignment you will use a DMM to
measure the voltage, current, and resistance in Fig. 1–18.
Refer to Sec. 1–12, “The Digital Multimeter,” if necessary.
Equipment: Obtain the following items from your instructor.
• Variable DC power supply
• 1-kV, ½-W resistor
• DMM
• Connecting leads
Measuring Voltage
Set the DMM to measure DC voltage. Be sure the meter leads
are inserted into the correct jacks (red lead in the VV jack and
the black lead in the COM jack). Also, be sure the voltmeter
range exceeds the voltage being measured. Connect the
DMM test leads to the variable DC power supply as shown in
Fig. 1–18a. Adjust the variable DC power supply voltage to any
value between 5 and 15 V. Record your measured voltage.
V 5 __________ Note: Keep the power supply voltage set to
this value when measuring the current in Fig. 1-18c.
Figure 1–18 Measuring electrical quantities. (a) Measuring voltage. (b) Measuring resistance. (c) Measuring current.
(red)
 R
Variable DC
V DMM 1 k
power supply 
(black) (b) Measuring resistance.
(a) Measuring voltage.
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 53
Troubleshooting Challenges appear
in selected chapters to give students a
feel for troubleshooting real circuits,
again providing real-world applications of
chapter content.
Guided Tour
Problems
SECTION 1–4 THE COULOMB UNIT OF ELECTRIC SECTION 1–6 CHARGE IN MOTION IS CURRENT
CHARGE 1–11 A charge of 2 C moves past a given point every 0.5 s.
1–1 If 31.25 3 1018 electrons are removed from a How much is the current?
neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
1–12 A charge of 1 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
coulombs?
How much is the current?
1–2 If 18.75 3 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–13 A charge of 0.05 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs?
How much is the current?
1–3 A dielectric with a positive charge of 15 C has 18.75 3 1–14 A charge of 6 C moves past a given point every 0.3 s.
1018 electrons added to it. What is the net charge of the How much is the current?
dielectric in coulombs?
1–4 If 93.75 3 1018 electrons are removed from a
1–15 A charge of 0.1 C moves past a given point every 0.01 s.
How much is the current?
neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
coulombs? 1–16 If a current of 1.5 A charges a dielectric for 5 s, how
much charge is stored in the dielectric?
1–5 If 37.5 3 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–17 If a current of 500 mA charges a dielectric for 2 s, how
dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs? much charge is stored in the dielectric?
1–18 If a current of 200 ␮A charges a dielectric for 20 s, how
SECTION 1–5 THE VOLT UNIT OF POTENTIAL much charge is stored in the dielectric?
DIFFERENCE
1–6 What is the output voltage of a battery if 10 J of energy SECTION 1–7 RESISTANCE IS OPPOSITION TO
is expended in moving 1.25 C of charge?
CURRENT
1–19 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
1–7 What is the output voltage of a battery if 6 J of energy is
expended in moving 1 C of charge? conductance values: (a) 0.001 S (b) 0.01 S (c) 0.1 S (d) 1 S.
1–8 What is the output voltage of a battery if 12 J of energy 1–20 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
conductance values: (a) 0.002 S (b) 0.004 S (c) 0.00833
is expended in moving 1 C of charge?
S (d) 0.25 S.
1–9 How much is the potential difference between two 1–21 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of
points if 0.5 J of energy is required to move 0.4 C of
charge between the two points?
the following resistance values: (a) 200 V (b) 100 V
(c) 50 V (d) 25 V.
1–10 How much energy is expended, in joules, if a voltage 1–22 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of the
of 12 V moves 1.25 C of charge between two following resistance values: (a) 1 V (b) 10 k V (c) 40 V
points? (d) 0.5 V.
Critical Thinking
1–23 Suppose that 1000 electrons are removed from a 1–25 Assume that 6.25 3 1015 electrons flow past a given
neutral dielectric. How much charge, in coulombs, is point in a conductor every 10 s. Calculate the current I
stored in the dielectric? in amperes.
1–24 How long will it take an insulator that has a charge 1–26 The conductance of a wire at 100°C is one-tenth its
of 15 C to charge to 130 C if the charging current value at 25°C. If the wire resistance equals 10 V at 25°C
is 2 A? calculate the resistance of the wire at 100°C.
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 52 09/12/14 11:22 AM
Measuring Resistance
Disconnect the meter leads from the power supply terminals.
Set the DMM to measure resistance. Keep the meter leads in
the same jacks you used for measuring voltage. Connect the
DMM test leads to the leads of the 1 kV resistor, as shown in
Fig. 1–18b. Record your measured resistance.
R 5 __________ (The measured resistance will most likely be
displayed as a decimal fraction in kV.)
Measuring Current
Set the DMM to measure DC current. Also, move the red test
lead to the appropriate jack for measuring small DC currents Laboratory Application
(usually labeled mA). Turn off the variable DC power supply.
Connect the red test lead of the DMM to the positive (1) Assignments, reinforce one or more
terminal of the variable DC power supply as shown in Fig.
1–18c. Also, connect the black test lead of the DMM to one lead of the chapter’s main topics by asking
of the 1 kV resistor as shown. Finally, connect the other lead of
the resistor to the negative (2) terminal of the variable DC students to build and test circuits in a
power supply. Turn on the variable DC power supply. Record
your measured current. laboratory environment.
I 5 __________
(red) (black)
A
 DMM 
Variable DC
R = 1 k
power supply 
(c) Measuring current.
Troubleshooting Challenge
Table 4–1 shows voltage measurements taken in Fig. 4–50. The first row shows the normal values that exist when the circuit is
operating properly. Rows 2 to09/12/14
15 are11:22
voltage
AM
measurements taken when one component in the circuit has failed. For each row,
identify which component is defective and determine the type of defect that has occurred in the component.
Figure 4–50 Circuit diagram for Troubleshooting Challenge. Normal values for V1, V2, V3,
V4, and V5 are shown on schematic.
3V 5.4 V
R1  100  R2  180 
   
V1 V2


V T  24 V

6.6 V V 3 R3  220 

5.4 V
V5
3.6 V
V4
 
R5  180 
 
R4  120 
xxv
sch73874_ch04_108-141.indd 138 09/12/14 11:24 AM
 Acknowledgments
The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics would not have been possible
without the help of some very dedicated people. I would first like to thank the
highly professional staff of the McGraw-Hill Higher Education Division, espe-
cially Vincent Bradshaw, Kelly Hart, and Raghu Srinivasan. Thank you for your
patience and understanding during the long period of manuscript preparation.

Eleventh and Twelfth Russ Leonard Mark Winans

Ferris State University, MI Central Texas College, TX
Edition Reviewers Wang Ng Keith Casey
Phillip Anderson Sacramento City College, CA Wilkes Community College
Muskegon Community College, MI Brian Ocfemia Walter Craig
Michael Beavers Wichita Technical Institute, KS Southern University and A & M
Lake Land College, IL Robert Pagel College
Jon Brutlag Chippewa Valley Technical Kenneth James
Chippewa Valley Tech College, WI College, WI California State Long Beach
Bruce Clemens William Phillips Marc Sillars
Ozarks Technical Community Madison Area Technical College, WI Oakton Community College
College, MO Constantin Rasinariu Thomas Jones
Brian Goodman Columbia College Chicago, IL Randolph Community College
Chippewa Valley Technical LouEllen Ratliff Christopher Ritter
College, WI Pearl River Community College, MS Cochise College
Mohamad Haj-Mohamadi Phillip Serina Michael Parker
Alamance Community College, NC Kaplan Career Institute, OH Los Medanos College
Patrick Hoppe James Stack Garrett Hunter
Gateway Technical College, WI Boise State University, ID Western Illinois University
Ali Khabari Andrew Tubesing
Wentworth Institute of New Mexico Tech, NM
Technology, MA

I would also like to extend a very special thank you to Bill Hessmiller, and Pat
Hoppe. Thank you, Bill, for the work you did on the supplements. Also, thank
you, Pat, for your work in updating Appendix F, “Introduction to Multisim,” to
version 12.1. My hat goes off to both of you!
Mitchel E. Schultz

xxvi Acknowledgments
About the Author
Mitchel E. Schultz is an instructor at Western Technical College in La

Crosse, Wisconsin, where he has taught electronics for the past

26 years. Prior to teaching at Western, he taught electronics for 8 years

at Riverland Community College in Austin, Minnesota. He has also

provided training for a variety of different electronic industries over the

past 34 years.

Before he began teaching, Mitchel worked for several years as an

electronic technician. His primary work experience was in the field of

electronic communication, which included designing, testing, and

troubleshooting rf communications systems. Mitchel graduated in

1978 from Minnesota State, Southeast Technical College, where he

earned an Associate’s Degree in Electronics Technology. He also

attended Winona State University, Mankato State University, and the

University of Minnesota. He is an ISCET Certified Electronics

Technician and also holds his Extra Class Amateur Radio License.

Mitchel has authored and/or co-authored several other electronic

textbooks which include Problems Manual for use with Grob’s

Basic Electronics, Electric Circuits: A Text and Software

Problems Manual, Electronic Devices: A Text and Software

Problems Manual, Basic Mathematics for Electricity and

Electronics, and Shaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

Electronic Communication.

xxvii
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
I
Introduction to
Powers of 10
T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or
large, can be expressed as a decimal number multiplied by a power of 10. A power of
10 is an exponent written above and to the right of 10, which is called the base. The
power of 10 indicates how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. For
example, 103 means 10 3 10 3 10 and 106 means 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10.
In electronics, the base 10 is common because multiples of 10 are used in the metric
system of units.

Scientific and engineering notation are two common forms of powers of 10 notation.
In electronics, engineering notation is generally more common than scientific
notation because it ties in directly with the metric prefixes so often used. When a
number is written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation,
it is said to be written in decimal notation (sometimes referred to as floating decimal
notation). When selecting a calculator for solving problems in electronics, be sure to
choose one that can display the answers in decimal, scientific, and engineering
notation.
 Chapter Outline
I–1 Scientific Notation I–6 Reciprocals with Powers of 10
I–2 Engineering Notation and Metric I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed in
Prefixes Powers of 10 Notation
I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes I–8 Square Roots of Numbers Expressed
in Powers of 10 Notation
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Involving
Powers of 10 Notation I–9 The Scientific Calculator
I–5 Multiplication and Division Involving
Powers of 10 Notation

Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ Express any number in scientific or
engineering notation.
■ List the metric prefixes and their
corresponding powers of 10.
■ Change a power of 10 in engineering
notation to its corresponding metric prefix.
■ Convert between metric prefixes.
■ Add and subtract numbers expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Multiply and divide numbers expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Determine the reciprocal of a power of 10.
■ Find the square of a number expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Find the square root of a number expressed
in powers of 10 notation.
■ Enter numbers written in scientific and
engineering notation into your calculator.

Important Terms
decimal notation metric prefixes scientific notation
engineering notation powers of 10

Introduction to Powers of 10 3
 I–1 Scientific Notation
Before jumping directly into scientific notation, let’s take a closer look at powers
Table I–1 Powers of 10 of 10. A power of 10 is an exponent of the base 10 and can be either positive or
negative.
1,000,000,000 5 109
100,000,000 5 108
10,000,000 5 107
1,000,000 5 106 Exponent
Base 10X
100,000 5 105
10,000 5 104
1,000 5 103
100 5 102 Positive powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers greater than 1, whereas negative
powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers less than 1. Table I–1 shows the powers
10 5 101 of 10 ranging from 10212 to 109 and their equivalent decimal values. In electronics,
1 5 100 you will seldom work with powers of 10 outside this range. From Table I–1, notice
that 100 5 1 and that 101 5 10. In the case of 100 5 1, it is important to realize
0.1 5 1021
that any number raised to the zero power equals 1. In the case of 101 5 10, it is
0.01 5 1022 important to note that any number written without a power is assumed to have a
power of 1.
0.001 5 1023
0.0001 5 1024
Expressing a Number in Scientific Notation
0.00001 5 1025
The procedure for using any form of powers of 10 notation is to write the original
0.000001 5 1026 number as two separate factors. Scientific notation is a form of powers of 10 nota-
0.0000001 5 1027 tion in which a number is expressed as a number between 1 and 10 times a power
of 10. The power of 10 is used to place the decimal point correctly. The power of
0.00000001 5 1028 10 indicates the number of places by which the decimal point has been moved to
0.000000001 5 1029 the left or right in the original number. If the decimal point is moved to the left in
the original number, then the power of 10 will increase or become more positive.
0.0000000001 5 10210 Conversely, if the decimal point is moved to the right in the original number then
0.00000000001 5 10211 the power of 10 will decrease or become more negative. Let’s take a look at an
example.
0.000000000001 5 10212

Example I-1
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 3900 (b) 0.0000056.

ANSWER (a) To express 3900 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 3.9 in this
case, times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted three places to the left. The number of places by
which the decimal point is shifted to the left indicates the positive power of 10. Therefore, 3900 5 3.9 3 103 in scientific
notation.
(b) To express 0.0000056 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 5.6 in this case,
times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted six places to the right. The number of places by which the
decimal point is shifted to the right indicates the negative power of 10. Therefore, 0.0000056 5 5.6 3 1026 in scientific
notation.

4 Introduction
 When expressing a number in scientific notation, remember the following rules.

Rule 1: Express the number as a number between 1 and 10 times a power

of 10.

Rule 2: If the decimal point is moved to the left in the original number, make
the power of 10 positive. If the decimal point is moved to the right in
the original number, make the power of 10 negative.

Rule 3: The power of 10 always equals the number of places by which the
decimal point has been shifted to the left or right in the original
number.

Let’s try another example.

Example I-2
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 235,000 (b) 364,000,000 (c) 0.000756 (d) 0.00000000000016.

ANSWER (a) To express the number 235,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point five places to the left, which
gives us a number of 2.35. Next, multiply this number by 105. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 5 because the decimal
point was shifted five places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 235,000 5 2.35 3 105 in scientific notation.
(b) To express 364,000,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point eight places to the left, which gives us a number of
3.64. Next, multiply this number by 108. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 8 because the decimal point was shifted eight
places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 364,000,000 5 3.64 3 108 in scientific notation.
(c) To express 0.000756 in scientific notation, move the decimal point four places to the right, which gives us a number of
7.56. Next, multiply this number by 1024. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 4 because the decimal point was shifted four
places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.000756 5 7.56 3 1024.
(d) To express 0.00000000000016 in scientific notation, move the decimal point 13 places to the right, which gives us
a number of 1.6. Next, multiply this number by 10213. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 13 because the decimal
point was shifted thirteen places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.00000000000016 5 1.6 3 10213 in scientific
notation.

Decimal Notation
Numbers written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation
are said to be written in decimal notation, sometimes called floating decimal nota-
tion. In some cases, it may be necessary to change a number written in scientific
notation into decimal notation. When converting from scientific to decimal notation,
observe the following rules.

Rule 4: If the exponent or power of 10 is positive, move the decimal point

to the right, the same number of places as the exponent.

Rule 5: If the exponent or power of 10 is negative, move the decimal point to

the left, the same number of places as the exponent.

Introduction to Powers of 10 5
 Example I-3
Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into decimal
notation: (a) 4.75 3 102 (b) 6.8 3 1025.

ANSWER (a) To convert 4.75 3 102 into decimal notation, the decimal
point must be shifted 2 places to the right. The decimal point is shifted to the
right because the power of 10, which is 2 in this case, is positive. Therefore;
4.75 3 102 5 475 in decimal notation.
(b) To convert 6.8 3 1025 into decimal notation, the decimal point must
be shifted 5 places to the left. The decimal point is shifted to the left
because the power of 10, which is 25 in this case, is negative. Therefore,
6.8 3 1025 5 0.000068 in decimal notation.

■ I–1 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers less
than 1?
b. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers
greater than 1?
c. 100 5 1. (True/False)
d. Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 13,500
(b) 0.00825 (c) 95,600,000 (d) 0.104.
e. Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into
decimal notation: (a) 4.6 3 1027 (b) 3.33 3 103 (c) 5.4 3 108
(d) 2.54 3 1022.

I–2 Engineering Notation

and Metric Prefixes
Engineering notation is another form of powers of 10 notation. Engineering notation
is similar to scientific notation except that in engineering notation, the powers of 10
are always multiples of 3 such as 10212, 1029, 1026, 1023, 103, 106, 109, 1012, etc.
More specifically, a number expressed in engineering notation is always expressed
as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3.

Example I-4
Express the following numbers in engineering notation: (a) 27,000 (b) 0.00047.

ANSWER (a) To express the number 27,000 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and
1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. It is often helpful to begin by expressing the number in scientific
notation: 27,000 5 2.7 3 104. Next, examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 106 or decreased to 103. If
the power of 10 is increased to 106, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be shifted two places to the left.

6 Introduction
Because 0.027 is not a number between 1 and 1000, the answer of 0.027 3 106 is not representative of engineering
notation. If the power of 10 were decreased to 103, however, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be
shifted one place to the right and the answer would be 27 3 103, which is representative of engineering notation. In
summary, 27,000 5 2.7 3 104 5 27 3 103 in engineering notation.
(b) To express the number 0.00047 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. Begin by expressing the number in scientific notation: 0.00047 5 4.7 3 1024. Next,
examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 1023 or decreased to 1026. If the power of 10 were increased to
1023, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted one place to the left. Because 0.47 is not a number
between 1 and 1000, the answer 0.47 3 1023 is not representative of engineering notation. If the power of 10 were decreased
to 1026, however, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted two places to the right and the answer
would be 470 3 1026 which is representative of engineering notation. In summary, 0.00047 5 4.7 3 1024 5 470 3 1026 in
engineering notation.

When expressing a number in engineering notation, remember the following

rules:

Rule 6: Express the original number in scientific notation first. If the power
of 10 is a multiple of 3, the number appears the same in both
scientific and engineering notation.

Rule 7: If the original number expressed in scientific notation does not use a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3, the power of 10 must either be
increased or decreased until it is a multiple of 3. The decimal point in
the numerical part of the expression must be adjusted accordingly to
compensate for the change in the power of 10.

Rule 8: Each time the power of 10 is increased by 1, the decimal point in

the numerical part of the expression must be moved one place to
the left. Each time the power of 10 is decreased by 1, the decimal
point in the numerical part of the expression must be moved one
place to the right.

You know that a quantity is expressed in engineering notation when the original
number is written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a
multiple of 3.

Metric Prefixes
The metric prefixes represent those powers of 10 that are multiples of 3. In the field
of electronics, engineering notation is much more common than scientific notation
because most values of voltage, current, resistance, power, and so on are specified in
terms of the metric prefixes. Once a number is expressed in engineering notation, its
power of 10 can be replaced directly with its corresponding metric prefix. Table I–2
lists the most common metric prefixes and their corresponding powers of 10.

Introduction to Powers of 10 7
 Table I–2 Metric Prefixes
GOOD TO KNOW
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
The uppercase letter K is not
used as the abbreviation for the 1012 tera T
metric prefix kilo because its use 10 9
giga G
is reserved for the kelvin unit of
106 mega M
absolute temperature.
103 kilo k
1023 milli m
1026 micro m
1029 nano n
10212 pico p

Notice that uppercase letters are used for the abbreviations of the prefixes involving
positive powers of 10, whereas lowercase letters are used for negative powers of 10.
There is one exception to the rule however; the lowercase letter “k” is used for kilo
corresponding to 103. Because the metric prefixes are used so often in electronics, it
is common practice to express the value of a given quantity in engineering notation
first so that the power of 10, which is a multiple of 3, can be replaced directly with
its corresponding metric prefix. For example, a resistor whose value is 33,000 V can
be expressed in engineering notation as 33 3 103 V. In Table I–2, we see that the
metric prefix kilo (k) corresponds to 103. Therefore, 33,000 V or 33 3 103 V can
be expressed as 33 kV. (Note that the unit of resistance is the ohm abbreviated V.)
As another example, a current of 0.0000075 A can be expressed in engineering
notation as 7.5 3 1026 A. In Table I–2, we see that the metric prefix micro (m)
corresponds to 1026. Therefore, 0.0000075 A or 7.5 3 1026 A can be expressed as
7.5 mA. (The unit of current is the ampere, abbreviated A.)
In general, when using metric prefixes to express the value of a given quantity,
write the original number in engineering notation first and then substitute the ap-
propriate metric prefix corresponding to the power of 10 involved. As this technique
shows, metric prefixes are direct substitutes for the powers of 10 used in engineering
notation.
Table I–3 lists many of the electrical quantities that you will encounter in your
study of electronics. For each electrical quantity listed in Table I–3, take special note

Electrical Quantities with Their

Table I–3
Units and Symbols
Quantity Unit Symbol
Current Ampere (A) I
Voltage Volt (V) V
Resistance Ohm (V) R
Frequency Hertz (Hz) f
Capacitance Farad (F) C
Inductance Henry (H) L
Power Watt (W) P

8 Introduction
 of the unit and symbol shown. In the examples and problems that follow, we will use
several numerical values with various symbols and units from this table. Let’s take
a look at a few examples.

Example I-5
Express the resistance of 1,000,000 V using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER First, express 1,000,000 V in engineering notation: 1,000,000 V 5

1.0 3 106 V. Next, replace 106 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because
the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106, the value of 1,000,000 V can be
expressed as 1 MV. In summary, 1,000,000 V 5 1.0 3 106 V 5 1 MV.

Example I-6
Express the voltage value of 0.015 V using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER First, express 0.015 V in engineering notation: 0.015 V 5 15 3

1023 V. Next, replace 1023 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because the
metric prefix milli (m) corresponds to 1023, the value 0.015 V can be expressed
as 15 mV. In summary, 0.015 V 5 15 3 1023 V 5 15 mV.

Example I-7
Express the power value of 250 W using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER In this case, it is not necessary or desirable to use any of the

metric prefixes listed in Table I–2. The reason is that 250 W cannot be expressed
as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3.
In other words, 250 W cannot be expressed in engineering notation. The closest
we can come is 0.25 3 103 W, which is not representative of engineering
notation. Although 103 can be replaced with the metric prefix kilo (k), it is
usually preferable to express the power as 250 W and not as 0.25 kW.
In summary, whenever the value of a quantity lies between 1 and 1000, only the
basic unit of measure should be used for the answer. As another example, 75 V
should be expressed as 75 V and not as 0.075 kV or 75,000 mV, and so forth.

■ I–2 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Express the following numbers in engineering notation:
(a) 36,000,000 (b) 0.085 (c) 39,300 (d) 0.000093.

Introduction to Powers of 10 9
 b. List the metric prefixes for each of the powers of 10 listed:
(a) 1029 (b) 106 (c) 10212 (d) 103 (e) 104.
c. Express the following values using the appropriate metric prefixes:
(a) 0.000010 A (b) 2,200,000 V (c) 0.000000045 V (d) 5600 V (e) 18 W.

I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes

As you have seen in the previous section, metric prefixes can be substituted for
powers of 10 that are multiples of 3. This is true even when the value of the original
quantity is not expressed in proper engineering notation. For example, a capaci-
tance value of 0.047 3 1026 F could be expressed as 0.047 mF. Also, a frequency of
1510 3 103 Hz could be expressed as 1510 kHz. Furthermore, the values of like
quantities in a given circuit may be specified using different metric prefixes such as
22 kV and 1.5 MV or 0.001 mF and 3300 pF, as examples. In some cases, therefore,
it may be necessary or desirable to convert from one metric prefix to another when
combining values. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change
in the power of 10. When the power of 10 is changed, however, care must be taken to
make sure that the numerical part of the expression is also changed so that the value
of the original number remains the same. When converting from one metric prefix
to another observe the following rule:

Rule 9: When converting from a larger metric prefix to a smaller one,

increase the numerical part of the expression by the same factor by
which the metric prefix has been decreased. Conversely, when
converting from a smaller metric prefix to a larger one, decrease the
numerical part of the expression by the same factor by which the
metric prefix has been increased.

Example I-8
Make the following conversions: (a) convert 25 mA to mA (b) convert 2700 kV
to MV.

ANSWER (a) To convert 25 mA to mA, recall that the metric prefix milli
(m) corresponds to 1023 and that metric prefix micro (m) corresponds to 1026.
Since 1026 is less than 1023 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be increased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 25 mA 5
25 3 1023 A 5 25,000 3 1026 A 5 25,000 mA.
(b) To convert 2700 kV to MV, recall that the metric prefix kilo (k)
corresponds to 103 and that the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106. Since
106 is larger than 103 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 2700 kV 5
2700 3 103 V 5 2.7 3 106 V 5 2.7 MV.

■ I–3 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change in
the power of 10. (True/False)
b. Make the following conversions: (a) convert 2.2 MV to kV
(b) convert 47,000 pF to nF (c) convert 2500 mA to mA
(d) convert 6.25 mW to mW.

10 Introduction
 I–4 Addition and Subtraction Involving
Powers of 10 Notation
When adding or subtracting numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rule:

Rule 10: Before numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation can be added

or subtracted, both terms must be expressed using the same power
of 10. When both terms have the same power of 10, just add or
subtract the numerical parts of each term and multiply the sum or
difference by the power of 10 common to both terms. Express the
final answer in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.

Example I-9
Add 170 3 103 and 23 3 104. Express the final answer in scientific notation.

ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 104 as the common
power of 10. Either one can be used. In this example we will use 103 as the
common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 23 3 104 using 103 as the
power of 10 gives us 230 3 103. Notice that because the power of 10 was
decreased by a factor of 10, the numerical part of the expression was increased
by a factor of 10. Next, add the numerical parts of each term and multiply the
sum by 103 which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This gives us
(170 1 230) 3 103 or 400 3 103. Expressing the final answer in scientific
notation gives us 4.0 3 105. In summary (170 3 103) 1 (23 3 104) 5
(170 3 103) 1 (230 3 103) 5 (170 1 230) 3 103 5 400 3 103 5 4.0 3 105.

Example I-10
Subtract 250 3 103 from 1.5 3 106. Express the final answer in scientific
notation.

ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 106 as the common
power of 10. Again, either one can be used. In this example, we will use 106 as
the common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 250 3 103 using 106 as the
power of 10 gives us 0.25 3 106. Notice that because the power of 10 was
increased by a factor 1000 (103), the numerical part of the expression was
decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Next, subtract 0.25 from 1.5 and multiply
the difference by 106, which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This
gives us (1.5 2 0.25) 3 106 or 1.25 3 106. Notice that the final answer is
already in scientific notation. In summary, (1.5 3 106) 2 (250 3 103) 5
(1.5 3 106) 2 (0.25 3 106) 5 (1.5 2 0.25) 3 106 5 1.25 3 106.

Introduction to Powers of 10 11
 ■ I–4 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Add the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation. Express
the answers in scientific notation. (a) (470 3 104) 1 (55 3 106)
(b) (3.5 3 1022) 1 (1500 3 1025).
b. Subtract the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express the answers in scientific notation. (a) (65 3 104) 2
(200 3 103) (b) (850 3 1023) 2 (3500 3 1024).

I–5 Multiplication and Division

Involving Powers of 10 Notation
When multiplying or dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rules.

Rule 11: When multiplying numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation,

multiply the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When
multiplying powers of 10, simply add the exponents to obtain the
new power of 10. Express the final answer in the desired form of
powers of 10 notation.

Rule 12: When dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, divide

the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When dividing
powers of 10, subtract the power of 10 in the denominator from
the power of 10 in the numerator. Express the final answer in the
desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Let’s take a look at a few examples.

Example I-11
Multiply (3 3 106) by (150 3 102). Express the final answer in scientific
notation.

ANSWER First, multiply 3 3 150 to obtain 450. Next, multiply 106 by 102
to obtain 106 3 102 5 10612 5 108. To review, (3 3 106) 3 (150 3 102) 5
(3 3 150) 3 (106 3 102) 5 450 3 10612 5 450 3 108. The final answer
expressed in scientific notation is 4.5 3 1010.

Example I-12
Divide (5.0 3 107) by (2.0 3 104). Express the final answer in scientific notation.

ANSWER First, divide 5 by 2 to obtain 2.5. Next, divide 107 by 104 to

5.0 3 107 5 __
obtain 10724 5 103. To review, ________ 107 5 2.5 3 103.
5 3 ___
2.0 3 104 2 104
Notice that the final answer is already in scientific notation.

12 Introduction
 ■ I–5 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Multiply the following numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express your answers in scientific notation. (a) (3.3 3 1022) 3
(4.0 3 1023) (b) (2.7 3 102) 3 (3 3 1025).
b. Divide the following numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express your answers in scientific notation. (a) (7.5 3 108) ÷
(3.0 3 104) (b) (15 3 1026) ÷ (5 3 1023).

I–6 Reciprocals with Powers of 10

Taking the reciprocal of a power of 10 is really just a special case of division using
powers of 10 because 1 in the numerator can be written as 100 since 100 5 1. With
zero as the power of 10 in the numerator, taking the reciprocal results in a sign
change for the power of 10 in the denominator. Let’s take a look at an example to
clarify this point.

Example I-13
Find the reciprocals for the following powers of 10: (a) 105 (b) 1023.

ANSWER (a) ___ 100 5 100–5 5 1025; therefore, ___

1 5 ___ 1 5 1025.
105 105 105
1 5 ____
(b) ____ 100 5 1002(23) 5 103; therefore, ____
1 5 103.
23
10 1023 1023
Notice that in both (a) and (b), the power of 10 in the denominator is
subtracted from zero, which is the power of 10 in the numerator.

Here’s a simple rule for reciprocals of powers of 10.

Rule 13: When taking the reciprocal of a power of 10, simply change the
sign of the exponent or power of 10.

Negative Powers of 10
Recall that a power of 10 indicates how many times the base, 10, is to be mul-
tiplied by itself. For example, 104 5 10 3 10 3 10 3 10. But you might ask
how this definition fits with negative powers of 10. The answer is that nega-
tive powers of 10 are just reciprocals of positive powers of 10. For example,
1 5 _________________
1024 5 ___ 1 .
104 10 3 10 3 10 3 10

■ I–6 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Take the reciprocals of each of the powers of 10 listed.
(a) 1024 (b) 109 (c) 10218 (d) 100.

Introduction to Powers of 10 13
 I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed
in Powers of 10 Notation
When squaring a number expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe the follow-
ing rule.

Rule 14: To square a number expressed in powers of 10 notation, square

the numerical part of the expression and double the power of 10.
Express the answer in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Example I-14
Square 3.0 3 104. Express the answer in scientific notation:

ANSWER First, square 3.0 to obtain 9.0. Next, square 104 to obtain
(104)2 5 108. Therefore, (3.0 3 104)2 5 9.0 3 108.

■ I–7 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Obtain the following answers and express them in scientific notation.
(a) (4.0 3 1022)2 (b) (6.0 3 105)2 (c) (2.0 3 1023)2.

I–8 Square Roots of Numbers Expressed

in Powers of 10 Notation
When taking the square root of a number expressed in powers of 10 notation,
observe the following rule.

Rule 15: To find the square root of a number expressed in powers of 10

notation, take the square root of the numerical part of the
expression and divide the power of 10 by 2. Express the answer
in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Example I-15
Find the square root of 4 3 106. Express the answer in scientific notation.
_______ __ ___
ANSWER Ï4 3 106 5 Ï4 3 Ï106 5 2 3 103
Notice that the answer is already in scientific notation.

14 Introduction

Figure I–1 Scientific calculator
(Sharp EL–531 X).
GOOD TO KNOW
When entering the number
25 3 1026, do not press the
multiplication (3) key and then
enter the number 10 prior to
pressing the EXP key. If you do,
the number you are intending to
enter (25 3 1026) will be larger
than it should be by a factor of
10. Since pressing the EXP key is
equivalent to entering 31000, you
do not have to duplicate these
steps! If you enter 310 prior to
pressing the EXP key, this is
what you have actually entered:
25 3 10 3 1026 which is
equivalent to 250.000 3 1026.
Introduction to Powers of 10
sch73874_intro_002-021.indd 15
Example I-16
Find the square root of 90 3 105. Express the answer in scientific notation.
ANSWER The problem can be simplified if we increase the power of 10
from 105 to 106 and decrease the_______
________ numerical part
__ of the___
expression from 90 to 9.
This gives us ​Ï90 3 105 ​ 5 ​Ï9 3 106 ​ 5 ​Ï9 ​ 3 ​Ï106 ​ 5 3.0 3 103. Again,
the answer is already in scientific notation.
■ I–8 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Obtain________
the following __________
answers and express them in scientific notation.
_________
​ 160 3 1025 ​(c) ​Ï25 3 1028 ​.
(a) ​Ï36 3 104 ​(b) Ï
I–9 The Scientific Calculator
Throughout your study of electronics, you will make several calculations involving
numerical values that are expressed in decimal, scientific, or engineering notation.
In most cases, you will want to use a scientific calculator to aid you in your calcula-
tions. Be sure to select a calculator that can perform all of the mathematical func-
tions and operations that you will encounter in your study of electronics. Also, make
sure the calculator you select can store and retrieve mathematical results from one
or more memory locations. If the school or industry responsible for your training
does not recommend or mandate a specific calculator, be sure to ask your instructor
or supervisor for his or her recommendation on which calculator to buy. And finally,
once you have purchased your calculator, carefully read the instructions that are in-
cluded with it. At first, you may not understand many of your calculators functions
and features, but as you progress in your studies, you will become more familiar
with them. Figure I–1 shows an example of a typical scientific calculator.
Entering and Displaying Values
Scientific calculators typically have four notation systems for displaying calculation
results: floating decimal notation, fixed decimal notation (FIX), scientific notation
(SCI), and engineering notation (ENG). The calculator display typically shows the
current notation system being used. When the FIX, SCI, or ENG symbol is dis-
played, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point can usually be set to any
value from 0 to 9. With floating decimal notation, however, there is no set number of
digits displayed for any given answer. For the examples that follow, assume that the
calculator has been set to display three digits to the right of the decimal point.
Most scientific calculators have a key labeled EXP   , EE , or 310^ for entering
the exponents associated with scientific and engineering notation. When entering a
number expressed in any form of powers of 10 notation, always enter the numeri-
cal part of the expression first, followed by the exponent or power of 10. Use the
change sign 1/2 key for entering negative exponents or for changing the sign of
an existing exponent. To illustrate an example, the keystrokes involved in entering
the number 25 3 1026 would be as follows:
2   5 EXP 1/2 6
(Some calculators require that you press the 1/2 key after the exponent is entered.)
It must be understood that pressing the EXP key is the same as entering 31000.
After the EXP key is pressed, the exponent in 1000 can be changed to any desired
15
6/12/17 7:18 PM
 value, which is 10206 in this case. Most calculators will display the value just entered
as either
25.000 3 10206 or 25E-06
For 25E-06, the base 10 is implied by the uppercase letter E.
Most students, like yourself, are very comfortable with decimal notation because
you have been exposed to it your entire life. In contrast, this chapter may be your
first exposure to engineering notation. As a result, you may be tempted to enter and
display all the values in decimal notation rather than engineering notation. For ex-
ample, you may find yourself entering 47 kV as
4 7 0 0 0 (decimal notation)
instead of
4 7 EXP 3 (engineering notation)
Entering and displaying values in decimal notation is a bad habit to get into for two
reasons:
1. Very small and very large values cannot be entered in decimal notation
because most calculators have only an 8- or 10-digit display.
2. Mentally converting between decimal and engineering notation is
cumbersome and time-consuming, not to mention the fact that this
practice is prone to error.
The main argument against using decimal notation is that most calculations encoun-
tered in electronics involve the use of the metric prefixes and hence engineering
notation. By entering and displaying all values in engineering notation, you will be
forced to learn the metric prefixes and their corresponding powers of 10.
When entering and displaying values in engineering notation remember that:
10212 5 pico (p) 103 5 kilo (k)
1029 5 nano (n) 106 5 mega (M)
1026 5 micro (m) 109 5 giga (G)
1023 5 milli (m) 1012 5 tera (T)

Example I-17
Show the keystrokes for multiplying 40 3 1023 by 5 3 106.

ANSWER The keystrokes would be as follows:

4 0 EXP 1/ 2 3 3 5 EXP 6 5
In engineering notation, the answer would be displayed as either
200.000 3 1003 or 200E03
As mentioned earlier, take the time to read the instruction manual for your calculator and keep it with you for future reference.
I guarantee you, it will come in handy!

■ I–9 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. When using a scientific calculator for the calculations encountered in
electronics, decimal notation is the preferred notation system when
entering and displaying values. (True/False)
b. Which key on a scientific calculator is used to enter the exponents
associated with scientific and engineering notation?

16 Introduction
Another random document with
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"Well," said Frank quietly, "we have enough bullets to keep them
back for a while, at any rate."
"They'll get us, in the long run."
"I suppose so."
Then the Hardy boys heard the voice of the man called Sam. He
came into the cave, shouting:
"They can't get out! There's been a cave-in and the tunnel is jammed
up with rock."
"Good!" exclaimed Gus exultantly. "Here! Hand me that light."
There was a moment of silence. Then the powerful lantern was
evidently turned toward the mouth of the tunnel, for the light gleamed
on the walls. As they were just around the bend in the passage, the
boys could not be seen, but the glaring light was reflected from the
rocks.
"They're out of sight," muttered some one. "Try a shot!"
Instantly, there was an explosion, as a revolver roared. The echoes
were deafening in that confined space.
Something whizzed past Frank's head and smacked against the
rock.
The bullet, aimed for the rock wall, had ricochetted across the bend
and had missed him by a hairbreadth.
This was too close for comfort. The revolver crashed again, and
there was a cry from Joe.
"Are you hurt?" asked Frank anxiously.
"No. But the bullet glanced off the rocks. I think it went through my
sleeve. It sure was close."
Their voices had been heard by the men in the cave.
"That's got 'em scared!" yelled Gus.
The boys retreated out of range of the glancing bullets.
"We're up against it," Frank admitted. "If we stay here they'll starve
us out. If we try to rush them, we'll get shot."
"I guess we'll have to surrender."
"Looks as if there's nothing else for it. We'll give ourselves up and
take our chances on escape. The way things are, we're liable to be
shot."
He edged back toward the bend in the passage. There was a lull in
the firing.
"We give up!" he shouted.
A yell of triumph followed.
"Now you're talkin' sense!" shouted Gus. "Throw your gun out here."
Frank hurled his revolver around the corner and it clattered on the
rocks. Some one crawled into the passage and retrieved it.
"Now come out with your hands up."
Bitter though their defeat was, the Hardy boys had to acknowledge
that the odds were against them. With their arms in the air, they
came around the corner, into the glare of the big lamp. Step by step,
they advanced until, at the junction of cave and tunnel, they were
seized by their captors.

CHAPTER XX
Tables Turned
The dazzling glare of the big lamp was turned full in the faces of the
Hardy boys.
They heard a gasp of astonishment.
"Why, it's a couple of kids!" exclaimed one of the men.
"Couple of kids!" rasped Gus Montrose, in astonishment. "Do you
know who we've got here?"
"Who?"
"Them Hardy boys. The pair that followed me yesterday."
"What?"
"It's them. The very same spyin' pair of brats." A rough hand seized
Frank's shoulder and swung him around. "I'd know them anywhere.
Fenton Hardy's kids."
The name of Fenton Hardy made a distinct impression on the gang.
There were mutterings of anger and fear.
"The detective's boys, eh?" growled one. "What are you doin' here,
boys?"
"That's for you to find out," replied Frank shortly.
"Is that so? Well, you've got no business here. You know that, don't
you?"
"Your own business here doesn't seem any too lawful."
"Never mind about us. You come spyin' around here and you've got
to expect to take the consequences. What'll we do with 'em, Gus?"
"They're not goin' out of here, that's certain. We're not goin' to let
them go back home and tell what they've seen."
"Or what they heard. How long were you two boys hidin' in that
tunnel?"
"You can try to find that out, too," retorted Frank.
"Smart, ain't you?" snarled Montrose. "You won't be so smart when
we get through with you. Anybody got a rope?"
"Here's some," said a man in the background.
"Give it here, then. We'll tie these brats up and keep 'em until we
figure out what to do with 'em."
"You let us alone," said Frank.
"You have no right to make us prisoners," added Joe.
"We'll take the right."
"You are mighty high-handed."
"Rats! You'll be lucky if you don't get worse," growled one of the auto
thieves.
"We ought to throw 'em into the bay," added another.
"Yes, with a few big stones in each pocket to hold 'em down," came
the response from a third.
"Shut up, you all talk too much," commanded Montrose. "Where is
that rope you spoke of?"
He snatched a length of heavy cord from the man who handed it to
him. Frank was turned roughly around and his arms thrust behind his
back. In a moment his wrists were firmly tied. Joe received the same
treatment. The boys were bound and helpless.
"Put 'em over in the corner," ordered Montrose.
The boys were pushed and jostled across the rocky floor and were
made to sit down against the wall at the back of the cave. The big
lamp was turned on them all this time and they could see the faces
of none of their captors.
"This is a fine mess!" grumbled one of the men. "It ruins the whole
game."
Montrose turned on him.
"We were going to clear out to-morrow anyway, weren't we?" he
said. "We'll just have to work a little quicker, that's all. Instead of
sending one car out to-night and the rest to-morrow night, we'll get
busy and drive 'em all out right now."
"What about these kids?"
"Leave 'em here."
"They'll starve," said one man dubiously.
"What of that?" demanded Gus Montrose. "They'd have had us all
landed in jail if they could."
"Well—I don't hold—"
"They brought it on themselves. Who'll ever find 'em here, anyway?"
"I'd rather take 'em out to the railway and dump 'em into an empty
box car. They might be five hundred miles away before anybody
found 'em. That would give us plenty of time to scatter."
Murmurs of approval from the other men greeted this plan.
"Do as you like," growled Montrose. "I figger we ought to clear out
and leave 'em here."
Suddenly the big lamp, which one of the gang was holding, dimmed
and went out.
"What's the matter now? Turn on that light, Joe."
"It's gone out."
"D'you think we're blind? Of course it's out. Turn it on."
"The lamp's gone dead, I think. There's somethin' wrong with it. It
won't light again." They could hear the man tinkering at the lamp.
"No use," he said at last.
The cave was in pitch blackness. One of the men struck a match,
and it cast a faint illumination.
"There's candles around here somewhere, ain't there?" asked Gus
Montrose.
"Whole box of 'em around if I can find them."
The man with the match moved off into another part of the cave. He
fumbled around for a while, then announced with a grunt of
satisfaction:
"Here they are." He lit one of the candles, brought it over and stood it
on a box.
"Light some more," ordered Gus.
The man did as he was told. In a few moments half a dozen candles
provided a fair amount of light in the gloom of the cave.
"That's better."
Just then there was a shout from the passage leading into the main
cave. Gus Montrose wheeled about.
"Who's that?"
The men crouched tensely.
"I don't know," whispered one. "We're all here but Dan."
In a moment footsteps could be heard in the passage. Then a voice:
"Hey—come out and help me. My car got stuck!"
"It's Dan," said Montrose, in a tone of relief.
A man entered the cave. He stopped short, in surprise.
"For the love of Pete!" he exclaimed. "What's this? Prayer meetin'?"
"The lamp went out," explained Gus. "We caught a couple of kids
spyin' on us."
The newcomer whistled.
"Spies, eh? Where are they?"
"We got 'em tied up. In the corner, there."
Dan, who was evidently the man who had driven the roadster down
from the Shore Road, came over and regarded the Hardy boys.
"This don't look so good," he said. "What are we goin' to do?"
"We'll attend to 'em," growled Montrose. "Your job is to drive that car
in to Clancy's place. The rest of us are bringin' the other cars in to-
night."
"Clearin' out a day earlier, eh?"
"That's the idea."
"Well, you'll have to come out and help me get my car out of the mud
or none of us will get away."
"You're bogged?"
"Up to the hubs. There's been so much rain that the gully road is
now knee-deep in mud."
"All right. We'll come and get you out. How many men do you want?"
"It'll take the whole crowd of us."
"No, it won't. We're not goin' to leave these kids here alone. Joe,
here, can stay and watch 'em."
"They're tied, ain't they?"
"What of it? I'm not trustin' to no ropes. Somebody's got to stay and
keep an eye on them."
"I'll stay," grumbled the man addressed as Joe.
"I don't care who stays," snapped Dan. "If you don't come out and
help drag that car out of the mud it'll be in so deep we'll never get it
out. Come on."
The men trooped out of the cave. Joe, who was left behind, sat down
on a box and regarded the lads balefully. However, he said nothing.
Gus came back through the passage.
"You might as well be loadin' some of those boxes into the other
cars, while we're away," he said. "Take a look in every little while and
see that those kids are still tied up."
The man grumbled assent, and followed Gus back down the
passage.
The Hardy boys were left alone in the light of the flickering candles
ranged about the gloomy cave.
"Well, we've lost out, I guess," remarked Frank bitterly. "If we ever do
get back to Bayport it won't be until the auto thieves have all cleared
out of here with the cars."
"It doesn't look very bright," sighed Joe.
Suddenly, Frank sat up.
"Say!" he exclaimed. "Did they take your revolver?"
"No. I guess they didn't know I had one."
"They took mine and missed yours. You still have it?"
"Right in my pocket."
"Good!"
"What good is it when I can't get at it?"
"If you can, we have only this chap Joe to deal with." The flame of
the candle caught Frank's eye. He had an inspiration. "If only I could
just get these ropes off my wrists!" he said.
Frank edged over toward the candle. Then, with his back to the
flame, he lowered his arms until the cord that bound his wrists was
within an inch of the wick.
A candle does not throw out much heat, but that little flame seared
Frank's wrists and he had to clench his teeth to keep from crying out
with the pain.
He could hold the rope in the flame for a few moments only, and then
he withdrew it. When the scorching pain had somewhat subsided, he
tried again. The flame licked at the heavy cord, weakening it strand
by strand.
"Look out, Frank," warned Joe.
Frank scrambled back to the corner.
He was just in time. Heavy footsteps in the passage announced the
approach of their guard, who came to the entrance, looked at them
sullenly for a moment, then turned away again. He went back to the
outer cave.
Hardly had he disappeared when Frank was back at the candle. He
thrust the rope into the flame again.
When he could stand the burning heat no longer he withdrew and
tried to break his bonds by sheer force. But, although the ropes had
been weakened, they refused to break. He returned to the flame
again, and on the next attempt he was successful. So many strands
had been burned through that the cords snapped, and his hands
were free.
Quickly, Frank went over to his brother. First of all, he took the
revolver from Joe's pocket and put it on the rock beside him, in
readiness. Then he knelt down and tugged at the strong ropes that
bound Joe's wrists so tightly.
The knots were stubborn, but he finally undid them. The ropes fell
apart and Joe was free.
"Now!" gritted Frank, picking up the revolver. "We'll go and attend to
our friend in the cave."
"Hadn't we better wait here for him? There may be some one with
him."
"I guess you're right. We'll take him by surprise the next time he
comes back."
Frank went over to the side of the tunnel that led out into the main
cave.
"Bring those ropes with you, Joe. Take the other side."
Joe picked up the cords that had bound his own wrists, and took up
his position at the other side of the entrance. There the boys waited.
In a short time they heard heavy footsteps in the tunnel. Their guard
was returning.
Frank gripped the revolver. The lads pressed themselves against the
wall. The footsteps drew closer. Then a dark figure emerged from the
opening.
Frank stepped swiftly out behind the rascal and pressed the revolver
against his back.
"Hands up!" he ordered sharply.
Their victim gave a cry of fright. He had been startled almost out of
his wits. His hands shot up.
"Stand where you are!"
Frank still pressed the muzzle of the revolver against their erstwhile
captor while Joe searched the man for weapons and found a small
automatic in the fellow's hip pocket. This he took.
"Put your hands behind your back!" ordered Frank.
Their prisoner obeyed.
Quickly, Joe tied the man's wrists.
"Go over and sit on that box!"
Muttering and grumbling with rage, the fellow did so. Joe hunted
around until he found another length of rope, and with this he bound
the man's feet.
"I guess you'll be all right here until the others come back," Frank
told the captive.
"If ever I get free of these ropes—"
"Keep quiet," ordered Frank, brandishing the revolver menacingly.
Their prisoner was silenced abruptly.
"Blow out the candles, Joe. He might think of the same idea."
The candles were blown out. The boys were in complete darkness.
"Hey!" roared their prisoner. "You're not goin' to leave me here alone
in the dark, are you?"
"Exactly. Where's our flashlight, Joe?"
"I have it here. It was in my pocket." Joe turned on the light. In its
glow they saw their prisoner, bound hand and foot, sitting
disconsolately on the box.
"Fine. We'll go now."
They left the cave, unmindful of the appeals of the auto thief, and
made their way down a passage that led into the outer cavern where
the stolen cars were stored. The light showed them a large opening
that they had not seen when they were in the place on the first
occasion.
"I guess this is the way they drive the cars out," remarked Frank.
"We'll go out the way we came in. We won't be so likely to meet the
others."
The boys hastened down the far passage. They hurried past their
roadster, on through the tunnel. At last they saw a gleam of light
ahead, shining faintly in the distance.

CHAPTER XXI
At the Farmhouse
In a few moments, the Hardy boys had emerged from the passage
and stood in a heavy clump of bushes that obscured the entrance to
the tunnel in the bluff. Brushing aside the trees, they stepped out
onto the beach.
The light they had seen was from a ship, steaming into Bayport
Harbor, and in the distance they could see a dim yellow haze—the
lights of the city.
Above them towered the rocky bluff. Farther down the beach they
saw the break in the cliffs where the gully ran back toward the Shore
Road.
"We can't go that way," Frank decided quickly. "The thieves are up in
the gully helping get that car out of the mud."
Joe looked up at the steep cliff.
"We certainly can't climb up here."
"We can go out the way we came in. The roadster came down the
beach, you remember. We may find the trail back."
The storm had spent its force and a fine drizzle of rain was now
falling. The boys went back down the beach, the flashlight
illuminating the way.
By the smoothness of the beach they knew that this was the route
the car had followed on the way in. Later on they came to an open
stretch of sand. Beyond that lay rocks.
There was a break in the cliff, and by the flashlight, the boys picked
out an automobile track in a patch of sand, leading toward low
bushes that masked the entrance to a gully.
"This is the place we're looking for," said Frank. "I'll bet the roadster
came down through here."
He pushed aside the wet bushes. In the damp grass, the track was
still plainly visible. The gully was dank with undergrowth, but there
were evidences of a wide trail.
"We're getting there, anyway. From the direction, this ought to take
us up to the Shore Road."
"What shall we do then?" asked Joe. "Walk to Bayport?"
"We shouldn't have to. There are farms along the road. We ought to
be able to telephone to town."
"To the police?"
"Sure! Police and state troopers. We can't round up this gang by
ourselves, and we haven't any too much time to get help, as it is."
"Well, we at least know where they can trace the stolen cars. That's
one consolation."
"You mean Clancy?"
"In Atlantic City. The police ought to be able to catch him without any
trouble."
The boys struggled on up the gully, along the trail that led through
the wet woods toward the Shore Road. The underbrush had been
cleared away for the passage of the stolen cars, and they found no
difficulty following this strange road.
Finally, Frank gave a cry of delight.
"We're at the road!"
He emerged from the bushes, raced across a grassy stretch, and
scrambled up onto the highway. It was, indeed, the Shore Road at
last.
The boys looked about them. Some distance away they saw a gleam
of light.
"A farmhouse! We'll try it."
They hurried down the road, and at length the flashlight revealed the
entrance to a lane. Splashing through the water-filled ruts, the boys
made their way between the crooked fences toward the dim mass of
farm buildings.
"This place seems sort of familiar," remarked Joe.
"I was thinking the same thing."
"I know now! It's the Dodd farm!"
Joe was right. When the boys entered the barnyard, in spite of the
fact that darkness obscured their surroundings, they knew from the
size and position of the buildings that they had reached the Dodd
place.
"This makes it easier. They have a telephone," said Frank.
"And that light in the window shows that some one is up."
They hurried to the door of the farmhouse and knocked. In a little
while the door was flung open and Jack Dodd confronted them.
"Who's there?" he asked, peering out into the darkness. Then he
exclaimed with astonishment: "The Hardy boys! What on earth are
you doing here at this hour? Come in!"
Frank and Joe entered. They were wet and bedraggled, and Jack
Dodd looked at them curiously.
"I was working late at my studies," he explained. "What happened?
Did your car get stalled?"
"We've found the auto thieves—and the stolen cars!" Frank told him
quickly.
"They're not far from here, either. We want to use your telephone,"
added Joe.
"The auto thieves!" gasped Jack incredulously. "You've found them?"
"The whole gang. And if we move fast we'll be able to land the outfit,"
answered Frank.
Jack quickly realized the situation. There was no time to be lost. He
led the way into a hallway and pointed to the telephone.
"There you are!"
As it was a rural telephone line, he had to explain to the Hardy boys
the proper number of rings necessary to arouse Central.
It took Frank some little time to get Central, as calls at that hour were
infrequent out the Shore Road. The boys waited impatiently, but at
last a sleepy voice answered the ring, and Frank hurriedly
demanded the Bayport police headquarters.
He was soon in touch with the desk sergeant. He outlined the
situation quickly.
"The gang were all up in the gully hauling a car out of the mud when
we left. They'll be clearing out as soon as they discover their man in
the cave, so you'll have to hurry," said Frank.
"I'll put every man available on it right away," the sergeant promised.
"I'll call up Chief Collig at his house and tell him, too."
"Fine! Will you notify the state troopers? It's outside the city limits,
you know."
"I'll call them up."
"You'll need a strong force of men, for this crowd are armed, and
they'll have a hundred hiding places in the woods and along that
beach. We'll keep a watch on the gully roads until you get here, and
we'll wait for you."
"Good work! Are you sure it's the gang we've been after?"
"Certain. We found most of the stolen cars."
The sergeant was astonished.
"Found 'em? Where?"
"We'll tell you all about it later. In the meantime, get as many men
out here as you can."
The sergeant disconnected abruptly. Frank had a mental picture of
the activity that would follow in Bayport police circles on receipt of
the news.
Jack Dodd was eagerly waiting for information.
"You mean to say you've actually found the thieves!" he exclaimed
joyfully. "Then that means Dad and I will be cleared!"
"I hope so," Frank told his chum.
Briefly, the Hardy lads explained how they had hidden in the locker
of the roadster, how the car had been driven away by one of the
thieves, how they had overheard the conversation of the gang in the
cave, how they had been captured and how they had escaped.
The Dodd household had been aroused, and Mr. Dodd came
hurrying downstairs, half dressed. When he learned what had
happened he hustled into the rest of his clothes and produced an
ancient rifle from the back shed.
"I want to be in on this," he said grimly. "Those thieves have caused
us more trouble than enough, and I'd like to get some of my own
back."
Jack snatched up a flashlight.
"We'd better go out and watch the gully roads," Frank said.
"I know the road they drive out!" exclaimed Jack. "It's just a little
below the end of our lane. There's an abandoned road that used to
lead back to that old right of way, but I don't see how they reach it,
for there's a fence to cross."
"Probably they take down the bars and drive through the field," said
Mr. Dodd. "Now that you mention it, I always did think part of that
fence looked pretty rickety."
They left the house and hurried down the lane toward the main road.
"We'd better split up," Frank suggested. "I have a revolver—it's
Joe's, by the way—and Mr. Dodd has a rifle. Jack has a flashlight
and so has Joe. Two of us can watch the first gully."
"You and Joe know the place where you came out onto the Shore
Road," said Jack. "You'd better watch there. Dad and I will take the
upper gully."
"Good! We'll just keep watch until the police arrive."
They separated at the end of the lane. Frank and Joe hurried off
down the road, while the Dodds went in the opposite direction. When
the boys reached the gully that led down to the beach they settled
down to wait.
Because they were impatient and because they realized that the
gang would doubtless scatter to points of safety as soon as their
escape was discovered, it seemed to them that the police were a
long time in coming. In reality it was not long, because the desk
sergeant had lost no time in sending out the alarm.
The roar of approaching motorcycles and the drone of a speeding
motor car were the first intimations of the arrival of the police and the
state troopers. Even before the machines came into view their
clamor could be heard.
Then dazzling headlights flashed over the rise. Frank ran out into the
road, waving the flashlight, and in a few moments the first
motorcycle skidded to a stop.
"Where are they?" shouted a trooper.
"There are two ways in. We have two men watching the other gully. If
you'll put some of your men up there on guard, we can take you
down to the beach from here."
The other motorcycles came up, and finally an automobile which was
crowded with police officers. Everybody talked at once. The first
trooper, however, quickly took charge of the impending raid, and in
decisive tones he gave his orders.
"Johnson, take three policemen and go on up to the other gully.
These lads say you'll find a farmer and his son on guard. They have
a flashlight, so you can't miss them. Watch that gully and grab any
one who comes out."
One of the troopers got back onto his motorcycle. All but three of the
policemen scrambled out of their car. The motorcycle leaped forward
with a roar, and the automobile followed close behind.
"All right," said the trooper. "We'll leave one man here to watch the
road in case any of them slip through our fingers. The rest of us will
go on down this gully."
"Callahan, stay on duty here," ordered the sergeant in charge of the
police officers.
Callahan, a burly policeman, saluted. His face, revealed for a
moment in the glare of a flashlight, showed that he did not relish the
assignment, evidently preferring to go where there was promise of
some excitement.
"All right, boys. Lead the way!"
Frank and Joe went across the grass beside the road and plunged
into the undergrowth at the entrance of the gully. Their hearts were
pounding with excitement. The moment of success was at hand.
Behind them trooped nine stalwart officers, heavily armed.
Down the sloping gully they went. The trooper in charge fell in step
beside Frank and the boy explained the situation that lay ahead.
"Two openings to the caves, eh?" said the trooper. "Well, we have
them cornered. That is, if the birds haven't flown."
They came to the beach. Their boots clattered on the rocks as the
men hurried forward.
At length the bushes that concealed the entrance to the first tunnel
were in sight.
 CHAPTER XXII
The Round-Up
"This is the place!" Frank Hardy excitedly told the officer in charge of
the party. "The tunnel is right behind those bushes."
"Mighty well hidden," the trooper commented. "Do you think you can
find the other opening?"
"It's farther down the beach."
"I think I could find it," volunteered Joe.
"Take three of these men and watch that part of the beach, at any
rate." The trooper detailed three men to accompany Joe. "I'll wait
until I see your flashlight signal," he said. "When you find the place
where they drive the cars out, turn the light on and off. Then wait for
my whistle."
Joe and the men with him hurried on down the beach. The others
waited in silence near the entrance to the tunnel.
Eventually they saw the blinking light that plainly told them that the
outer passage was guarded.
"Fine," said the trooper. He raised the whistle to his lips. "All ready,
men?"
"All set," answered one of the constables, in a low voice.
The shrill blast of the whistle sounded through the night. With one
accord, the men leaped forward, plunged into the bushes, and
crowded into the tunnel. Their flashlights made the dark passage as
bright as day.
As they entered they could hear a confused uproar ahead. The roar
of an automobile, the sound magnified tenfold in the subterranean
passages, crashed out. There were shouts, cries of warning and
alarm.
"We've got them trapped!" shouted the trooper.
They stumbled down the rocky passage. A man came blundering
around a corner, right into the arms of the foremost officer. He was
seized, there was a gleam of metal, a click, and the auto thief was
handcuffed before he fully realized what had happened.
"One!" counted the sergeant. "Now for the others!"
They passed the Hardy boys' roadster and caught a glimpse of a
man fleeing before them into the main cave. The trooper drew his
revolver and sent a shot over the fellow's head.
The man came to an abrupt stop and raised his arms. He
surrendered without a fight.
"Two!" yelled the sergeant gleefully, pouncing on his prisoner.
Another pair of handcuffs was produced, the chain was slipped
through the chain of the other thief's shackles, and the pair were
swiftly manacled together.
The officers plunged on into the main cave.
In the glare of the flashlights they saw the truck and one of the
pleasure cars standing by the wall. The two other cars that had been
in the cave had disappeared. No men were in sight.
The raiding party heard the roar of a racing engine, a grinding of
brakes, and a confusion of shouts.
"They're getting out!" Frank Hardy shouted. He pointed to the huge
opening in the wall, through which the car had disappeared.
With the police at his heels, he headed down the passage. It was
wider than the one through which they had entered, and the rocky
floor gave way to earth, in which ruts were clearly visible.
Ahead of them they heard a shot, then more yells.
"Joe and his men are on the job," Frank reflected.
He was right. They reached the mouth of the passage, and there
they came upon a large touring car. Two men were standing up in
the front seat, arms upraised, and in the glare of the headlights they
could see Joe and the three officers pointing their weapons at the
pair.
The round-up was soon over. One of the policemen scrambled into
the automobile and clapped handcuffs on the two men. The trooper,
standing on the running board, turned a flashlight upon them.
The surly features of Gus Montrose were revealed. The other man
was his companion, Sam.
"All out!" snapped the officer, urging the crestfallen thieves out of the
car.
They stepped out sullenly.
"Well, here's four of 'em, anyway!" declared the trooper. He turned to
Frank. "Do you think there are any more?"
"There's still another. He was the chap who got stuck in the mud up
in the gully. Perhaps he's up there yet, if the Dodds haven't caught
him on the way out."
The trooper despatched two of his men up the gully road at once, to
see if they could locate the other member of the gang.
"Well, Montrose," he said, turning to the former hired man, "so we've
landed you at last."
Gus looked down at the handcuffs.
"I'd have been clear away if it wasn't for them brats of boys!" he said
viciously.
"They were a little too smart for you and your gang."
The four auto thieves were herded together and an officer with
drawn revolver was put on guard.
"I guess we'll go back into the cave and see what we can find,"
decided the trooper.
Leaving the prisoners under guard, he and some of his men,
together with the Hardy boys, went back into the main cavern, where
the officers inspected the remaining cars and the loot that they found
stored there. The sergeant rubbed his hands gleefully.
"Everything's here," he said. "At least, everything we need to make
an airtight case against that gang. And we'll recover the rest of the