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Preface vii
of New Orleans; Dennis Kivlighan, University of Missouri, Columbia; Brent Mallinckrodt, Uni-
versity of Oregon; Diana McDermott, University of Kansas; Bernard Nisenholz, private practice,
California; Susan Orr, California State University, Sacramento; John G. Pappas, Eastern Michi-
gan University; Sally E. Thigpen, Northeast Louisiana University; Charles Weiner, Henderson
State University; Fred Bemak, George Mason University; Brian J. Den, Georgia State University;
Jean E. Griffin, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Susanna A. Hayes, Western Washington Uni-
versity; Barbara Couden Hernandez, Indiana State University; Kathleen M. May, University of
Virginia; J. J. McWhirter, Arizona State University; Steven Pfeiffer, Florida State University;
Daniel Eckstein, Sam Houston State University; Kathy Evans, University of South Carolina;
Walter Frazier, Mississippi College; and Elizabeth Sites, Liberty University.
I want to especially thank the following reviewers for their helpful comments and sugges-
tions for the seventh edition: Joel F. Diambra, University of Tennessee; Mary E. Dillon, Univer-
sity of Central Florida; Diane M. Waryold, Appalachian State University; Jonathan Ohrt,
University of North Texas; and Brian Wortham, Texas A&M University–Central Texas.
Others who have been of great assistance to me with this project are former graduate stu-
dents Jo Spradling (University of Alabama, Birmingham), Paul Myers (University of Alabama,
Birmingham), Regan Reding (Wake Forest), Beverly Huffstetler (Wake Forest), Erin Binkley
(Wake Forest), and Katie-Anne Burt (Wake Forest). All have been exemplary in helping me ferret
out original sources, in proofing pages, and in making changes at times in my sentence structure
to improve the clarity of this text. My youngest son, Tim, now in his early 20s, has also been very
helpful in making constructive suggestions, and my most recent graduate student, Derek Rutter
(Wake Forest), has been of assistance as well, in locating recent articles on groups. Then, of
course, the professionals at Merrill Education/Pearson—including my former editors, Vicki
Knight, Linda Sullivan, Meredith Fossel, and present editor, Kevin Davis—gave me much to
think about as well as encouragement.
My family group, to whom all editions of this book have been dedicated, has been patient
and supportive during my writing and rewritings. My wife, Claire, has given me encouragement,
support, and a healthy helping of humor throughout this process. My children—Ben, Nate, and
Tim—were 4, 2, and just born, respectively, when I began this project. They are now 28, 26, and
24. Time goes by quickly, and writing a revision of the book every four years has helped me keep
track of their lives and mine individually and collectively.
Conclusion
In concluding the seventh edition of Groups, I am more aware than ever of the importance of
collaboration in accomplishing goals and fulfilling dreams. The poet John Donne was correct in
reminding us that we are not isolated islands sufficient unto ourselves. We are connected to
humanity and have the power to help or hinder one another’s growth and development. It is in the
mixing of personalities and processes that the heart of group work lies, through which our past
gains meaning, and from which our present and future are created.
Samuel T. Gladding
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Brief Contents
PART 1 Group Development

Chapter 1 Types of Groups and Group Work 1
Chapter 2 Group Dynamics 25
Chapter 3 Effective Group Leadership 52
Chapter 4 Forming a Group 80
Chapter 5 The Transition Period in a Group: Storming and Norming 103
Chapter 6 The Working Stage in a Group: Performing 121
Chapter 7 Closing a Group 140
PART 2 Diversity, Social Justice, Creativity, and Ethical/

Legal Aspects of Groups
Chapter 8 Diversity and Social Justice in Group Work 163
Chapter 9 Specialty Groups and Creativity in Groups 186
Chapter 10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Working with Groups 213
PART 3 Groups Throughout the Life Span

Chapter 11 Groups for Children 234
Chapter 12 Groups for Adolescents 255
Chapter 13 Groups for Adults 277
Chapter 14 Groups for Older Adults 300
PART 4 Theoretical Approaches to Groups

Chapter 15 Transactional Analysis, Reality Therapy, Adlerian,
and Person-Centered Groups 319
Chapter 16 Existential, Gestalt, Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy,
and Psychodrama Groups 351
Appendix A History of Group Work 381

Appendix B History of Group Work Chart 392
Appendix C Some Prominent Self-Help Group Organizations 395
ix
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Contents
Part 1 Group Development
Chapter 1 Types of Groups and Group Work 1

Classifying Groups 3
Task/Work Groups 5
An Example of Task/Work Groups: Teams 6
Psychoeducational Groups 9
An Example of Psychoeducational Group Work: Life-Skills
Development Groups 11
Counseling Groups 13
An Example of a Counseling Group: A Counseling Group
for Counselors 14
Psychotherapy Groups 15
An Example of Group Psychotherapy: Group Work with Abusers and
the Abused 16
Mixed Groups and a Proposed Regrouping of Categories 18
An Example of a Mixed Group: A Consumer-Oriented Group 21
Summary and Conclusion 23 • Classroom Exercises 23
Chapter 2 Group Dynamics 25

Group Content and Group Process 27
Group Content 27
Group Process 28
Balance Between Content and Process 30
The Group as a System: A Way of Explaining Group Dynamics 32
Influencing Group Dynamics 34
Preplanning 34
Group Structure 35
Group Exercises and Activities 38
Group Interaction 40
Members’ Roles 43
The Effect of Positive and Negative Variables on Group Dynamics 45
Learning Group Dynamics 48
Group, Individual, and Family Dynamics 48
Persons 49
Processing 49
xi
xii Contents
Consequences 50
Chapter 3 Effective Group Leadership 52

Leadership: A Concept in Search of a Definition 53
Group Leadership Styles 54
Leadership Styles for Different Groups 57
Personal Qualities of Effective Group Leaders 59
The Trait Approach 59
Personality and Specific Groups 60
Theory and Effective Group Leaders 60
Knowledge and Skills of Effective Group Leaders 62
Core Group Knowledge and Skills 62
Specific Group Skills 63
Group Leadership Roles and Functions 67
Leaders and Group Conflict 68
Co-leaders in Groups 70
Advantages 70
Limitations 71
Group Leadership Training 72
Group Supervision 76
Chapter 4 Forming a Group 80

Steps in the Forming Stage 82
Step 1: Developing a Rationale for the Group 82
Step 2: Deciding on a Theoretical Format 83
Step 3: Weighing Practical Considerations 84
Step 4: Publicizing the Group 84
Step 5: Screening and Pretraining 86
Step 6: Selecting Group Members 88
Step 7: Selecting a Group Leader 89
Tasks of the Beginning Group 89
Dealing with Apprehension 89
Reviewing Goals and Contracts 89
Specifying Group Rules 90
Setting Limits 91
Promoting a Positive Interchange Among Members 91
Resolving Potential Group Problems in Forming 92
Contents xiii
People Problems 92
Group Procedural Problems 95
Useful Procedures for the Beginning Stage of a Group 99
Joining 100
Linking 100
Cutting Off 100
Drawing Out 101
Clarifying the Purpose 101
Chapter 5 The Transition Period in a Group:

Storming and Norming 103
Storming 105
Peer Relationships in Storming 106
Resistance During Storming 107
Task Processing in Storming 110
Working Through Storming 111
Results of Working Through Storming 112
Norms and Norming 113
Peer Relationships During Norming 114
Task Processing During Norming 117
Examining Aspects of Norming 117
Promoting Norming 118
Results of Norming 119
Chapter 6 The Working Stage in a Group: Performing 121

Peer Relationships 122
Task Processes During the Working Stage 125
Teamwork and Team Building During the Working Stage 126
Problems in the Working Stage of Groups 128
Racial and Gender Issues 128
Group Collusion 129
The Working Stage of the Group and Groups that Work 130
Strategies for Assisting Groups in the Working Stage 130
Modeling by the Leader 131
Exercises 131
Group Observing Group 132
Brainstorming 133
xiv Contents
Nominal-Group Technique 133

Synectics 134
Written Projections 134
Group Processing 134
Teaching of Skills 135
Outcomes of the Working Stage 136
Chapter 7 Closing a Group 140

Preparing for Closing a Group 142
Effects on Individuals of Ending a Group 144
Premature Closing of a Group 145
Premature Closing of the Group as a Whole 145
Premature Closing Initiated by Group Members 145
Preventing Premature Closing 146
Closing of Group Sessions 148
Member Summarization 148
Leader Summarization 148
Rounds 149
Dyads 150
Scaling Activities 150
Written Reactions 150
Rating Sheets 152
Homework 152
Final Closing of a Group 152
Capping Skills in Closings 153
Problems in Closings of Groups 157
Denial 157
Transference 157
Countertransference 158
Handling the Closing of a Group Correctly 159
Follow-Up Sessions 159
Part 2 Diversity, Social Justice, Creativity, and Ethical/

Legal Aspects of Groups
Chapter 8 Diversity and Social Justice in Group Work 163
A Brief Historical Overview of Diversity and Social Justice
in Groups 164
Contents xv
Stages of Social Justice 166

Challenges of Culturally Diverse Groups 167
Myths About Multicultural Groups 168
Goals of Diverse and Multicultural Groups 170
Assessing Cultural Diversity in a Group 171
Leadership in Culturally Diverse Groups 171
Working with Different Cultural Populations in Groups 174
African Americans 175
Hispanic/Latino/a Americans 176
Asian Americans 178
Native American Indians 179
Arab Americans 181
European Americans 182
Groups for Gays, Lesbians, Bisexuals, Transgenders, Queers,
and Questioning Individuals 183
Chapter 9 Specialty Groups and Creativity in Groups 186

Specialty Groups 187
Groups for Health Care Providers and Health Care Consumers 188
Groups for Military Personnel and Their Families 188
New Mothers’ Groups 189
Involuntary and Mandated Groups 189
Anger and Aggression Management Groups 190
Cancer Support Groups 191
Telephone Groups 191
Online Groups 192
Trauma Stress Groups 193
Disabled Persons Groups 194
Adventure Groups 195
Prevention Groups 195
Groups for Depression 196
Achievement Groups 196
Creativity in Groups 197
DeBono’s Six Hats Approach to Creativity 197
Eberle’s SCAMPER Model of Creativity 199
Sawyer’s Zig Zag Model of Creativity 201
The Six Hats, SCAMPER, and Zig Zag Ways of Working
with Groups as a Whole 201
xvi Contents
Creative Exercises for Different Group Stages 206

Chapter 10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Working

with Groups 213
The Nature of Ethics and Ethical Codes 215
Major Ethical Issues in Group Work 217
Training of Group Leaders 217
Screening of Potential Group Members 218
Rights of Group Members 219
Confidentiality 219
Personal Relationships Between Group Members and Leaders 220
Dual/Multiple Relationships 220
Personal Relationships Among Group Members 221
Uses of Group Techniques 222
Leaders’ Values 223
Referrals 223
Records 223
Closings and Follow-Up 224
Making Ethical Decisions 225
Promoting Ethical Principles in Groups 226
Training Group Leaders 226
Continuing Education and Peer Supervision 227
Responding to Complaints of Unethical Behavior 228
Legal Issues in Groups 229
Community, State, and National Standards 229
Legal Action 230
Part 3 Groups Throughout the Life Span
Chapter 11 Groups for Children 234

Types of Groups for Children 236
Group Guidance for Elementary/Middle School Children 238
Group Counseling Within the Schools 240
Group Guidance and Counseling in Community Settings 242
Setting Up Groups for Children 243
Nonverbal Versus Verbal Communication 243
Group Structure and Materials 244
Recruiting Members and Screening 245
Contents xvii
Group Session Length and Number in Group 245

Gender and Age Issues 246
Role of the Leader in Children’s Groups 247
Studies on the Outcomes of Children’s Groups 249
Strengths and Limitations of Using Groups with Children 251
Chapter 12 Groups for Adolescents 255

Types of Groups for Adolescents 257
Developmental Psychoeducational Groups 258
Nondevelopmental Counseling/Psychotherapy Groups 260
Setting Up Groups for Adolescents 263
Nonverbal Versus Verbal Communication 263
Group Structure and Materials 264
Recruiting Members and Screening 266
Group Session Length and Number in Group 266
Gender and Age Issues 267
Role of the Leader in Adolescents’ Groups 268
Problems in Adolescents’ Groups 270
Outright Disruptiveness 270
Hesitancy to Engage with Others 270
Polarization 271
Monopolizing 271
Inappropriate Risk Taking 271
Overactivity or Giddiness 271
Studies on the Outcomes of Groups for Adolescents 272
Strengths and Limitations of Using Groups with Adolescents 274
Strengths 274
Limitations 274
Chapter 13 Groups for Adults 277

Types of Groups for Adults 278
Setting Up Groups for Adults 279
Role of the Leader in Groups for Adults 280
Studies on the Outcomes of Groups for Adults 280
Groups for College Students 281
Groups for Adults in Midlife 284
Groups for Men and Women 287
xviii Contents
Groups for Couples, Families, the Divorced, the Widowed,

and the Remarried 293
Groups for Adult Offenders and Persons with Life-Threatening
Illnesses 295
Strengths and Limitations of Using Groups with Adults 297
Strengths 297
Limitations 297
Chapter 14 Groups for Older Adults 300

Types of Groups for Older Adults 303
Psychoeducational and Task/Work Groups 303
Counseling and Psychotherapy Groups 304
Setting Up Groups for Older Adults 309
Role of the Leader in Groups for Older Adults 311
Studies on the Outcomes of Groups for Older Adults 313
Groups for Caregivers for Older Adults 314
Strengths and Limitations of Groups for Older Adults 315
Strengths 315
Limitations 316
Part 4 Theoretical Approaches to Groups
Chapter 15 Transactional Analysis, Reality Therapy,

Adlerian, and Person-Centered Groups 319
Transactional Analysis Groups 321
Premises of Transactional Analysis Groups 321
Practice of Transactional Analysis in a Group 325
Role of the Transactional Analysis Group Leader 327
Desired Outcome of Transactional Analysis Groups 328
Evaluation of Transactional Analysis Groups 328
Learning More 329
Reality Therapy Groups 330
Premises of Reality Therapy Groups 330
Practice of Reality Therapy in a Group 331
Role of the Reality Therapy Group Leader 333
Desired Outcome of Reality Therapy Groups 334
Evaluation of Reality Therapy Groups 334
Learning More 336
Contents xix
Adlerian Groups 336

Premises of Adlerian Groups 336
Practice of Adlerian Theory in a Group 337
Role of the Adlerian Group Leader 338
Desired Outcome of Adlerian Groups 339
Evaluation of Adlerian Groups 342
Learning More 343
Person-Centered Groups 343
Premises of Person-Centered Groups 343
Practice of Person-Centered Theory in a Group 344
Role of the Person-Centered Group Leader 346
Desired Outcome of Person-Centered Groups 347
Evaluation of Person-Centered Groups 347
Learning More 349
Chapter 16 Existential, Gestalt, Rational-Emotive Behavior

Therapy, and Psychodrama Groups 351
Existential Groups 354
Premises of Existential Groups 354
Practice of Existential Theory in a Group 354
Role of the Existential Group Leader 355
Desired Outcome of Existential Groups 355
Evaluation of Existential Groups 356
Learning More 357
Gestalt Groups 358
Premises of Gestalt Groups 358
Practice of Gestalt Theory in a Group 359
Role of the Gestalt Group Leader 362
Desired Outcome of Gestalt Groups 363
Evaluation of Gestalt Groups 363
Learning More 364
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Groups 364
Premises of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) Groups 364
Practice of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy in a Group 365
Role of the Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Group Leader 367
Desired Outcome of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Groups 368
Evaluation of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Groups 369
Learning More 370
xx Contents
Psychodrama Groups 370

Premises of Psychodrama Groups 370
Practice of Psychodrama in a Group 372
Role of the Psychodrama Group Leader 376
Desired Outcome of Psychodrama Groups 377
Evaluation of Psychodrama Groups 377
Learning More 379
Appendix A History of Group Work 381

Uses of Groups Before 1900 381
Growth of Work with Groups: 1900 to the Present 381
1900 to 1909 381
1910 to 1919 382
1920 to 1929 382
1930 to 1939 382
1940 to 1949 383
1950 to 1959 384
1960 to 1969 385
1970 to 1979 386
1980 to 1989 387
1990 to 1999 387
2000 to the Present: Group Work Now 388
Social Justice 388
Training and Education 389
Technology 389
Research 390
Brief Group Work 390
Standards 390
The Future of Group Work 391
Appendix B History of Group Work Chart 392

Appendix C Some Prominent Self-Help Group
Organizations 395
Glossary 406
References 428
Name Index 463
Subject Index 473
CHAPTER 1
Types of Groups
and Group Work
I live in a group
that contains many groups
all spinning in different cycles
Monkey Business/Fotolia
like planets around the sun.
In each I am me,
differently,
distinctively,
collectively,
and freely.*
*From “Planets” © 2010 by Samuel T.

Gladding. Reprinted by permission from
Samuel T. Gladding.
Chapter Overview
From reading this chapter, you will learn about
• Different classifications of groups and examples of each:
○○ task/work,
○○ psychoeducational,
○○ counseling,
○○ psychotherapy,
○○ mixed
As you read, consider

• The need for each type of group
• The intended outcomes of each type of group
• What types of groups you have been in or seen demonstrated and their effectiveness
1
2 Part 1 • Group Development
O
n April 11, 1970, Apollo 13, the third Apollo mission intended to land men on the moon,
was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. As portrayed in the movie Apollo 13, a mid-
mission oxygen tank explosion not only aborted the goal of the mission but put the lives
of the astronauts aboard in jeopardy. To survive, the crew of the mission shut down the command
module and used the lunar module as a “lifeboat” during the return trip to Earth. Despite great
hardship caused by limited power, loss of cabin heat, and a shortage of potable water, the crew
returned safely to Earth on April 17, but only because a group of engineers devised a method to
help them meet their needs. The engineers took materials available within the spacecraft that had
been designed for one function and found ways to connect them to serve other functions so that
the astronauts could survive. If there ever was a time when the wisdom and power of a group
prevailed in the face of overwhelming odds, it was this mission, and the creativity that went on
within the engineering group behind the scenes after the astronauts sent back word to Mission
Control: “Houston, we’ve had a problem.”
Groups, whether on rescue or routine missions, are a part of everyday life and are defined
in many ways. Not every gathering or collection of people qualifies as a group, because they may
lack an awareness and purpose of seeing themselves as such (Meneses, Ortega, & Navarro, 2008).
The following definition, adapted and modified from Johnson and Johnson (2013), encompasses
the main qualities of groups. A group is a collection of two or more individuals who meet face
to face or virtually in an interactive, interdependent way, with the awareness that each belongs to
the group and for the purpose of achieving mutually agreed-on goals. From family councils to
town meetings, groups are an important component of everyday life. Healthy groups are contex-
tually unique, are complex in regard to their multiple transactions, and are open systems as well
(Conyne & Bemak, 2004).
Groups vary according to type and purpose. There are four distinct group specializations:
task/work, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapy. The Association for Specialists in
Group Work (ASGW) (1991, 2000) has defined and developed standards for each. Within these
types of groups are multiple purposes—for example, remediation, development, prevention, skill
training, and problem solving. There may be several types of groups that meet the purpose of
individuals joining them. For example, a psychoeducational group may be preventive and skill
focused, whereas a task/work group may be remedial, preventive, and problem solving. Thus, it
is prudent to focus on types of groups initially, because a number of types of groups can be ben-
eficial to individuals seeking help.
That group work is effective has been established through multiple research-based studies
(Ward & Ward, 2014). Developing standards and competencies for group workers was a major
breakthrough complementing the evolution of the group work literature. Explicitly defining spe-
cific group types and establishing skills that need to be acquired and developed in each has fos-
tered evidence-based interventions (Ward, 2006). Furthermore, exemplary training models set up
in educational institutions for each type of group have promoted the growth of competent group
leaders. Having such models allows programs that prepare group specialists from a variety of
disciplines to point to examples of what should be done in the preparation process of forming a
group as well as in the implementation of groups (Conyne, Wilson, & Ward, 1997).
Groups, if run well, are dynamic. They include numerous activities, which are verbal and
nonverbal undertakings a group and its members participate in, such as expressing themselves in
different ways and interacting with others. Activities rarely produce meaningful learning in and
of themselves. “Rather, it is the carefully selected and planned use of an activity, targeted for a
specific purpose with a specific group,” that when processed effectively is likely to lead to or
promote change and understanding (Nitza, 2014, p. 95). For example, Jill may be asked to
Chapter 1 • Types of Groups and Group Work 3
describe herself in five words to other group members as the group begins. If Jill is not asked or
allowed to explain why she picked the words she did, the activity will soon be forgotten and use-
less. However, if Jill is given an opportunity to explore the words she picked and why, she and
other group members are likely to understand her better.
In human service occupations, groups have usually been thought of as dedicated to mental
health issues, but they may focus on task and education agendas as well. Today, the concept of
group work is broad. That is why the Association for Specialists in Group Work (2000) defines
group work as
a broad professional practice involving the application of knowledge and skill in
group facilitation to assist an interdependent collection of people to reach their
mutual goals, which may be intrapersonal, interpersonal, or work related. The goals
of the group may include the accomplishment of tasks related to work, education,
personal development, personal and interpersonal problem solving, or remediation of
mental and emotional disorders. (pp. 329–330)
This chapter explores each type of group that has been well defined and that has educational
standards to match (task/work, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapy groups).
Group work in the context of its purpose, structure, and intended outcome is also covered. In
addition, other models, past and present, for classifying groups are discussed, especially the goals
and process (GAP) model. The ways in which group purposes and skills can be combined are
also illustrated through an examination of the ways in which self-help groups operate. By being
aware of different types of groups and their purposes and group work as an entity, you should
gain immediate knowledge and insight into a growing and essential field of working with people.
Classifying Groups
Before exploring the four different types of groups, it is important to briefly examine how they
came into being. In truth, there is no systematic way these groups came to be recognized. Rather,
the process was one that has developed over time and has come in spurts. In fact, the classifica-
tion system for categorizing group work is still being debated, as is discussed later in this chapter.
Need was part of the reason for the development of different types of groups. Group workers
needed a way to describe what they were doing and what could be expected. For example, contact-
focused group theory was an early forerunner of the group type model. The focus of this theory
was on the purpose of groups. Three primary contact groups described in this theory were group
guidance, group counseling, and group psychotherapy. Mahler (1971) differentiated among these
groups as follows: (a) the group’s initially defined purpose, (b) the group’s size, (c) the management
of the content, (d) the length of the group’s life, (e) the leader’s responsibility, (f) the severity of the
problem, and (g) the competency of the leader. To further distinguish among these three groups,
Gazda (1989) emphasized that guidance, counseling, and psychotherapy groups could be viewed
along a continuum with overlapping goals, professional competencies, and unique distinctions.
A model that was even more comprehensive and useful in conceptualizing groups was the
specialty/standards model pioneered by Saltmarsh, Jenkins, and Fisher (1986). This model
evolved out of the realization that groups differ in their purpose and functioning. Not all groups
are created equal, and to try to conduct them in similar ways is neither prudent nor possible.
Thus, Saltmarsh et al. set up a model of group work known by the acronym TRAC, with each
letter representing an area in the total picture of group work: tasking, relating, acquiring, and
contacting (see Figure 1.1).
Process Enhancement
Therapy Laboratory Resource Discovery
Group Group Group Group
CONTACTING GROUPS ACQUIRING GROUPS
Process Recognition and Access to and Expansion of

Catalytic Function Information and Awareness
Encounter Mutual Concern Discussion Education
Group Process
Facilitation Nature of Management Leadership

Nature of
Staff
Relationship Volunteer Mission
Development
Skills Group Group Group
Group
RELATING GROUPS TASKING GROUPS
Restructuring and Rehearsal Control, Efficiency, Achievement

of New Behavior
Task Achievement
Theme-Defined In-Service Goal Working

FIGURE 1.1 The TRAC map of group processes and management. Source: Robert E. Saltmarsh, Stephen J.
Jenkins, Gary L. Fisher, Figure 1.1: The TRAC map of group processes and management, “The TRAC Model: A
Practical Map for Group Processes and Management” Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 11, p. 32, Taylor &
Francis—US Journals, 1986, 32.
The main characteristic that distinguishes one type of group from another in this
model is the focus. Tasking groups are focused on task achievement. Relating groups
emphasize the options for movement within the life of each person. Acquiring groups
are directed toward learning outcomes that members can apply to others. In contrast,
contacting groups are focused on the individual growth of members. (Saltmarsh
et al., 1986, p. 34)
It is possible by using this model to explain how groups that start out in one major area
(e.g., tasking) may move into other areas (e.g., relating). For example, a group set up for a special
event, such as staging a race for a charity, may evolve into one where members simply enjoy get-
ting together and hold frequent “reunions.” The TRAC model of groups clearly delineates group
process and management and the types of specific groups found in each of four areas. It was the
forerunner of the ASGW (1991, 2000) Professional Standards for the Training of Group Workers,
which delineated the four types of groups that we now discuss: task/work, psychoeducational,
counseling, and psychotherapy.
Task/Work Groups
Task/work groups “promote efficient and effective accomplishment of group tasks among peo-
ple who are gathered to accomplish group task goals” (ASGW, 2000, p. 330). They are the “only
group type not inherently formed with personal psychological learning as a primary objective”
(Ward & Ward, 2014, p. 45). There are as many types of task/work groups as there are kinds of
everyday jobs and assignments. The major types of tasking groups, according to Saltmarsh et al.
(1986), are volunteer groups, mission groups, goal groups, and working groups. Task/work
groups also take the form of “task forces, committees, planning groups, community organiza-
tions, discussion groups, and learning groups” (ASGW, 1991, p. 14).
Regardless of type or form, all task/work groups emphasize accomplishment and efficiency
in successfully completing identified external work goals (a performance, an assignment, or a
finished product) through collaboration (Falco & Bauman, 2014; Stanley, 2006). Skillfully led
work groups engage workers in a process where problems are identified and explored and col-
laborative solutions are developed and implemented (Letendre, Gaillard, & Spath, 2008). Unlike
other groups, task/work groups do not focus on changing individuals. Whether the group is suc-
cessful depends on group dynamics—the interactions fostered through the relationships of
members and leaders in connection with the complexity of the task involved.
Because task/work groups run the gamut from informal subcommittee meetings to major
Hollywood productions or corporate transactions, the number of members within a task/work
group may be large, but this type of group usually works best with fewer as opposed to more
people. In an analysis of group size, development, and productivity, Wheelan (2009) examined
329 for-profit and nonprofit work groups in organizations across the United States. She found
that groups
containing 3 to 8 members were significantly more productive and more develop-
mentally advanced than groups with 9 members or more. Groups containing 3 to 6
members were significantly more productive and more developmentally advanced
than groups with 7 to 10 members or 11 members or more. The groups with 7 to 10
members or 11 members were not different from each other. Finally, groups contain-
ing 3 to 4 members were significantly more productive and more developmentally
advanced on a number of measures than groups with 5 to 6 members. (p. 247)
From her study Wheelan concluded that work-group size is a crucial factor in increasing or
decreasing both group development and productivity. In small groups, unintended subgrouping
does not occur and members may focus more on the tasks at hand.
The length of a task/work group varies, but most are similar to other groups in that they
have a beginning, a working period, and an ending. Total quality groups found in business set-
tings are a good example of task/work groups. These groups apply group methods “to solve
problems related to consumer satisfaction and quality” (Smaby, Peterson, & Hovland, 1994,
p. 217). Juries are another good example of task/work groups. The movie 12 Angry Men not only
illustrates how some task/work groups operate but shows the many facets of group process as
well (Armstrong & Berg, 2005).
Like other types of groups, task/work groups run best if the following assumptions are met:
• If the purpose of the group is clear to all participants,
• If process and content issues are balanced,
• If the systems of the group as a whole, leader, member, and subsets of members are recog-
nized and acknowledged,
• If time is taken for culture building and learning about each other,
• If the ethic of collaboration, cooperation, and mutual respect is developed and nurtured,
• If conflict is addressed,
• If feedback is exchanged,
• If leaders pay attention to the here-and-now,
• If members are active resources,
• If members learn to be effective and influential participants,
• If leaders exhibit a range of skills for helping members address task and human relations
issues,
• If members and leaders take time to reflect on what is happening. (Hulse-Killacky, Killacky,
& Donigian, 2001, pp. 21–22)
There are, however, at least two major differences between task/work groups and other
types of groups. First, these groups may disband abruptly after accomplishing their goal. In this
way they have the most similarity to psychoeducational groups that may end hurriedly because
of time constraints, especially in a school setting. If members or leaders pay little attention to the
termination stage in a task/work group, then members may feel incomplete when the group is
finished. A second difference between task/work groups and other types of groups is that task/
work group members and leaders may have considerable contact with others in an organization
in which the group is housed. The reason is that task/work groups need input and feedback from
people who are not group members.
Reflection
Task and work groups can either be rewarding or disappointing. What is the most satisfying
task/work group you were ever in? What made it so? What was the worst? What factors contrib-
uted to your being disappointed in the group?
An Example of Task/Work Groups: Teams

Task/work groups “have great importance for our everyday lives, our jobs, our government, and
our world” (Stanley, 2006, p. 27). A special type of a task/work group is a team. A team is a
group of “two or more people who interact dynamically, interdependently, and adaptively and
who share at least one common goal or purpose” (Azar, 1997, p. 14). In this respect, a team is
more than the sum of its parts. Just think of athletics teams, for instance, such as those in the
Olympics or at the college or professional level. There may be some players who are more skilled
than others, but if the team as a whole does not cooperate and work together to maximize strengths
and abilities, the team will fail to reach its potential.
Teams differ from other types of groups in four main ways (Kormanski, 1999; Reilly &
Jones, 1974): (a) They have shared goals, as opposed to individual goals, as in most groups; (b)
they stress interdependency more; (c) they require more of a commitment by members to a team
effort; and (d) they are by design accountable to a higher level within the organization. “A lack of
commitment to the team effort creates tension and reduces overall effectiveness” (Kormanski,
1999, p. 7).
Teams differ from task/work groups in at least a couple of ways. For one thing, more inter-
dependence and accountability are evident in a team than in a task/work group. In addition, in a
team effort, there is more sharing of information and work toward a common goal than in a task/
work group. The result is usually a greater bonding of members to one another and more coop-
eration and unity in achieving a common objective (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Table 1.1
describes other differences between teams and task/work groups.
Although teams can be classified in many ways, one of the more common is by setting.
From this perspective, teams are primarily found within work, sports, and learning situations
(Johnson & Johnson, 2013). Examples of teams can be found in environments in surgery (such
as the 4077th M*A*S*H medical unit of film and television notoriety), exploratory excision
Table 1.1 Task/work groups versus teams.

Working Groups Teams
A strong, clearly focused leader is Shared leadership responsibilities exist

appointed. among members.
The general organizational mission is the A specific, well-defined purpose is unique
group’s purpose. to the team.
Individual work provides the only products. Team and individual work develop products.
Effectiveness is measured indirectly by Effectiveness is measured directly by
group’s influence on others (e.g., financial assessing team work products.
performance of business, student scores on
standardized examination).
Individual accountability only is evident. Both team and individual accountability are
evident.
Individual accomplishments are recognized Team celebration. Individual efforts that
and rewarded. contribute to the team’s success are also
recognized and celebrated.
Meetings are efficiently run and last for Meetings with open-ended discussion and
short periods of time. include active problem solving.
In meetings members discuss, decide, and In meetings members discuss, decide, and
delegate. do real work together.
Source: From Johnson, David W.; Johnson, Frank P.; Joining Together: Group Therapy and Group Skills, 5th ed. © 1994.
Reprinted and Electronically produced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
(such as Lewis and Clark’s mapping of the Louisiana Territory), and flying (such as the miracle
landing on the Hudson River of a USAirways plane by its pilot, Captain Chesley “Sully” Sul-
lenberger). In a work team, the emphasis is on interpersonal interaction in which members’
proficiency and success in doing their jobs are maximized and their efforts are coordinated and
integrated with those of the other team members.
A second way to classify a team is by how it is used. Common uses include problem solv-
ing (e.g., ways to improve quality, efficiency, and the work environment), special purpose (e.g.,
facilitating collaboration between unions and management), and self-management (e.g., a small
group of employees who produce an entire product or service).
A final way teams can be classified is in regard to what they recommend, do, or run. Teams
that recommend include task forces that study and help find solutions for problems, whereas
teams that do focus on performance (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). It is rare for a team to run some-
thing, such as an organization, especially a large and complex one such as Microsoft or AT&T.
A number of guidelines should be considered in establishing teams. First, it is important that
teams be kept small, half a dozen members or so at most, because large numbers of people gener-
ally have difficulty interacting constructively in a group. Second, team members should be selected
for their already-established expertise and skills as well as those they have the ability to master.
Therefore, effective teams are heterogeneous, and their members possess a variety of abilities. In
such groups, team members will often serve as “external memory aids” for one another and “divvy
up what needs to be remembered about a task, with individual members remembering different
aspects of the task and everyone knowing who knows what” (Azar, 1997, p. 14). A final necessity
for forming a team is to bring together the resources necessary to function, including both tangi-
bles and intangibles, such as materials, support personnel, space, and time.
Once a team has been established, it must be structured and nurtured. A crucial ingredient
in this process is giving the team a mission and the independence to operationalize the goals that
go with the mission. Teams function best when they have a meaningful and worthwhile purpose,
such as winning an athletic competition or finding a cure for a disease. A further necessity in
structuring and nurturing a team is to provide opportunities for team members to interact face to
face or virtually and promote one another’s success (Johnson & Johnson, 2013). Frequent and
regular meetings are one way this may be done in a face-to-face way, but electronic communica-
tion, such as e-mail, Skype, and phone time, can also be counted as time spent together.
Other matters that must be attended to in structuring and nurturing a team, according to
Johnson and Johnson (2013), include the following:
• Paying particular attention to first meetings, especially what those in authority do in such
meetings because they are the role models for the members
• Establishing clear rules of conduct, especially pertaining to attendance, discussion, confi-
dentiality, productivity of members, and constructive confrontation
• Ensuring accountability of the team as a whole and its members individually
• Showing progress, especially obtaining easy goals early in the life of the group
• Exposing the team to new information and facts that help them redefine and enrich their
understanding of their mission, purpose, and goals
• Providing training to enhance both task/work and teamwork skills
• Having frequent team celebrations and opportunities to recognize members’ contributions
to the team success
• Ensuring frequent team-processing sessions so the team can examine how effectively it is
working and discuss ways to improve
Overall, teams that function best emphasize continuous improvement of themselves on an

interpersonal, process, and product basis. They work as a group to create a culture that is sup-
portive for members—one that gives them a sense of identity. At the same time, team members
focus on specific goals and missions they wish to accomplish and make sure their energy is con-
stantly focused on outcomes that are directly related to their purpose. Effective teams also train
together, with the result being better performance over time, increased productivity, and fewer
mistakes (Azar, 1997). Teamwork is a set of skills that must be developed through practice and
feedback (Levi, 2014).
Case Example
Bradley at the Bat company. There seems to be a spillover effect,
and whether he is at the ballpark or at his com-
Bradley has always loved baseball. He was never a puter, Bradley is trying hard to do a good job. He
great player, but he has now joined the city recrea- notices that he and others now, regardless of
tion league and is a member of his company’s team. where they are, use phrases such as “Let’s have a
He plays second base, and his colleagues applaud winning attitude here” and “Let’s do this—for
him for both his effort and, at times, his efficiency. the team!”
Bradley is the lead-off batter. His job is to get
a hit and get on base. He finds that whenever he
comes to the plate his teammates cheer for him
Questions
whether he gets a hit or not. That makes him feel
good, and as a result he tries harder. When have you seen a team positively affecting one
Bradley has noticed recently that he is of its members? What do you think this says about
becoming closer to his fellow workers at his the power of teams and teamwork?
Psychoeducational Groups
Psychoeducational groups were originally developed for use in educational settings, specifi-
cally public schools. “The developmental nature of psychoeducational groups [proved] very use-
ful when working with children’s self-concepts and attitudes toward school” (Villalba, 2003,
p. 264). One of the first types of groups to evolve in the development of group work, psychoedu-
cational groups were premised on the idea that education is treatment not only because of the
knowledge acquired in the process but also because of the perceptions that may be changed as a
result (M. Young, 2013). Basically, psychoeducational groups, with well-organized and struc-
tured activities and exercises, help increase the self-worth of participants (Villalba, 2003).
Because of their structure, psychoeducational groups, in many instances, lend themselves to
work with cultural diverse populations (Champe & Rubel, 2012). Furthermore, drawing on
Yalom’s research on therapeutic factors, these groups provide information, socializing tech-
niques, hope, and modeling (Waldo, Kerne, & Kerne, 2007). Sometimes psychoeducational
groups are simply referred to as educational groups or guidance groups.
Regardless of the name, “psychoeducation group work emphasizes using education meth-
ods to acquire information and develop related meaning and skills” (Brown, 1997, p. 1). Thus,
psychoeducational groups are able to function on multiple levels and with a wide variety of cli-
ents. They can be preventive, growth oriented, or remedial in their purpose and focus. Because of
their versatility, psychoeducational groups are increasingly being used in various settings outside
of schools, including hospitals, mental health agencies, correctional institutions, social service
agencies, spiritual settings, and universities (Champe & Rubel, 2012; Christmas & Van Horn,
2012; Morgan, 2004). They include “discussion groups, guided group interactions, recovery
groups, support groups, orientation groups, educational groups, or student-centered learning
groups” (Rivera, Wilbur, Roberts-Wilbur, Phan, Garrett, & Betz, 2004, p. 391). Lefley (2009) has
found that psychoeducational groups help members who have serious mental illnesses “combat
social isolation, redeem self esteem and hope, and improve their life situation” (p. 369). Emotional
support and education rather than psychotherapy in many cases is what is needed and valued.
“The overarching goal in psychoeducational group work is to prevent future development
of debilitating dysfunctions while strengthening coping skills and self-esteem” (Conyne, 1996,
p. 157). For instance, Hage and Nosanow (2000) reported that an 8-week, 90-minute psychoedu-
cational group for young adults from divorced families helped participants “reduce isolation,
establish connectedness, and build a stronger sense of their own identity and empowerment”
(p. 64). In addition, Morgan (2004) states that cognitive-behavioral or behavioral approaches for
offenders and mandated clients work well, especially if the psychoeducational group is structured
on a topic such as stress management, problem solving, or life skills. Because of their flexibility
and efficiency, psychoeducational groups may even be preferred in counseling and psychother-
apy environments “when managed care policies demand brief and less expensive treatment”
(Brown, 1997, p. 1). They may also be preferred when the leader has less clinical experience and
wants the group members to realize immediately why they are in a group.
The size of psychoeducational groups will vary across settings (e.g., whether the activity is
in a self-contained classroom or in a public lecture hall), but a range from 20 to 40 individuals is
not unusual. In such large groups, discussion and skill practice can take place in subgroups. How-
ever, if subgroups are set up, they must be small enough to ensure that each member of the sub-
group is not seriously limited in the available airtime (“the amount of time available for
participation in the group”; Brown, 1997, p. 4). Therefore, subgroups should be limited to 10 to
12 adult members at most, and fewer if the members are children.
The leader of psychoeducational groups is in charge of managing the group as a whole,
disseminating information, and breaking groups into subgroups when necessary. “Effective lead-
ers are those who are skillful at managing time, are able to redirect the focus of the session when
appropriate, provide considerable structure for the group, and are competent at helping members
set clear, specific, and concrete goals” (Riva, 2014, p. 150). A leader who is not an expert in the
group’s focus area must bring in someone who is. The leader’s responsibilities then include man-
aging the expert’s presentation as well as the group’s activities. The juggling of data, along with
processes ensuring that group members benefit from the group experience, is demanding. Timing
is crucial, and the group leader must be cognizant of group members’ readiness to approach cer-
tain activities (Jones & Robinson, 2000). To do the job well, a psychoeducational group leader
should take preventive steps before the group’s first session. These include planning for session
length, session frequency, number of sessions, and what will occur within sessions (the curricu-
lum). Follow-up planning for subsequent sessions is crucial.
In the planning process, it is vital that the leader focus specifically on the design of the
group. Such attention to detail is a highly involved endeavor but has a tremendous payoff in keep-
ing the group focused and on course (Furr, 2000). In designing a group, Furr advocates a six-step
process: (1) stating the purpose, (2) establishing goals, (3) setting objectives, (4) selecting con-
tent, (5) designing experiential activities, and (6) evaluating. Such a procedure leads to purpose-
ful and meaningful outcomes.
Although the length, frequency, and number of sessions of psychoeducational groups will
differ according to the ages of the people involved and the stage of the group, these groups
u sually last from 50 minutes to 2 hours. In general, psychoeducational groups work best when
they have a regular meeting time, such as once a week. The number of sessions offered will
depend on the purpose, but the range varies from 4 to 20 or more sessions. The average number
of sessions is 8 to 10. Regardless of the number of sessions, psychoeducational groups should
have opening and termination sessions and at least one session dedicated to each of the goals of
the group (DeLucia-Waack & Nitza, 2014). However, all of these parameters are subject to
change as “emerging policies on parity for insurance coverage of mental health services . . . influ-
ence the length and focus of many psychoeducation groups, as part of the mental health care
system” (Brown, 1997, p. 13).
In general, psychoeducational groups stress growth through knowledge (ASGW, 1991,
2000). Summing up previous comments about such groups, Rivera et al. (2004) state that the
focus of psychoeducational groups is on transmitting, discussing, and integrating factual knowl-
edge. Because of this focus, psychoeducational groups are “amenable to certain technological
applications,” such as computer-assisted programs, video and audio transmissions, and com-
puter simulations (Bowman & Bowman, 1998, p. 434). Content includes, but is not limited to,
personal, social, vocational, and educational information. Activities in these groups can take
many forms but usually are presented in the form of nonthreatening exercises or group discus-
sions (Bates, Johnson, & Blaker, 1982). For instance, in working with individuals who have
undergone cardiac transplantation and their families in a psychoeducational short-term group,
Konstam (1995) found that framing anger in a positive way helped the group to discuss this
normally “taboo” emotion for heart patients. Furthermore, the group process helped members
realize they were not unique in their experiences of anger. By the end of the group, anger had
significantly decreased.
One way to improve psychoeducational groups is to give members out-of-group homework
exercises (Morgan, 2004). For instance, instead of just talking about the positive aspects of anger,
group members might be assigned a photo opportunity of taking pictures of anger at work in a
positive way. They might find that mild forms of anger or frustration can lead to people planting
gardens, paving roads, or clipping hedges, all of which have a positive outcome.
Reflection
When have you been a member of a psychoeducational group? What did you learn from the
experience? How did it help you or give you fresh insight or knowledge?
An Example of Psychoeducational Group Work: Life-Skills Development Groups

A special form of the psychoeducational group is the life-skills development group. The concept
of the life-skills group began to emerge in the 1970s when theorists such as Ivey (1973) and
Hopson and Hough (1976) started using terms such as psychoeducation and personal and social
education. In the 1980s, the momentum for this approach gained further impetus through the
social skills and life-skills training methods advocated by Gazda (1989). The emphasis on life-
skills training and its importance in society continues.
Life-skills training focuses on helping people identify and correct deficits in their life-
coping responses and learn new, appropriate behaviors. Sometimes these corrective measures are
achieved in individual counseling, but often they are carried out in a group setting. One example
is helping parents relate effectively to their children with disabilities (Seligman, 1993). The focus
of life-skills training is on immediate remediation and future prevention. The training itself is
primarily developmental, with the group emphasis being on “how to.” Activities within the group
may include the use of films, plays, demonstrations, role-plays, and guest speakers.
A life-skills emphasis is appropriate for individuals in schools, colleges, families, work
settings, clubs, and other natural group environments. Because many troubling situations arise in
groups, the group setting provides an excellent place in which to work on resolutions. Because of
the focus on life skills, such as increasing appropriate interpersonal communications or assertive-
ness abilities, “the growth process proceeds more comfortably, more observably, and with more
precise attention given to the specific ingredients that induce change” (Zimpfer, 1984, p. 204).
Through life-skills training, people can be taught on an intrapersonal level how to prevent
potential problems, such as depression, from occurring (Sommers-Flanagan, Barrett-Hakanson,
Clarke, & Sommers-Flanagan, 2000). They can also be reinforced for taking corrective measures
on behavioral and cognitive levels if difficulties arise. For example, Waldo and Harman (1999)
found that the communication and interpersonal relationships between state hospital patients and
staff improved and became more enjoyable when Bernard Guerney’s (1977) Relationship
Enhancement (RE) therapy approach was used in a group with both.
A number of steps are involved in learning life skills, many of which are the same as those
that Johnson and Johnson (2013) describe in learning group skills:
1. Understand why the skill is important and how it will be of value to you.
2. Understand what the skill is, what the component behaviors are that you have to engage in
to perform the skill, and when it should be used.
3. Find situations in which you can practice the skill over and over again while a “coach”
watches and evaluates how you are performing the skill.
4. Assess how well the . . . skill is being implemented.
5. Keep practicing until the skill feels real and it becomes an automatic habit pattern.
6. Load your practice toward success [set up practice units that can easily be mastered].
7. Get friends to encourage you to use the skill.
8. Help others learn the . . . skill. (pp. 53–54)
Through implementing these procedures, group members enable both themselves and oth-
ers. The result is a kind of snowball effect wherein skills continue to build on skills in an effective
and complementary way.
Life-skills development groups ideally offer both the opportunity to learn new ways of
behaving and the support necessary to continue to exercise them. Leaders and members can learn
through each other’s feedback and evaluations whether the strategies they employed have been
useful and thereby improve their mastery or delivery of skills for future situations. Participants
who profit most from these types of groups are those who have enough time and practice to fully
integrate what they have learned in the group into their real-life situations.
Case Example
Patrick Practices His Psychoeducational when he made his lesson plans for his four fifth-
Group Skills grade classes, he used different ways of presenting
the material: role-play, lecture, PowerPoint, and a
As a group leader, Patrick wanted to experiment in combination of these methods. He gave each class a
finding out what methods worked best in leading a pre- and posttest to see what they knew and what
psychoeducational group for preteens. Therefore,
they learned. He also measured how much they Questions

enjoyed the class.
Patrick was not surprised to find that the more Patrick’s results might be different from others
active role-play format received the highest rating. because of his circumstances. Therefore, think of
He was also not shocked to find that the lecture your own life experience and how you have learned
method was least well received. Interestingly, the best and with the most enjoyment when in a psy
classes learned about the same amount of informa- choeducational group. Were there methods used,
tion regardless of the method used, and in a follow- other than those just mentioned, that helped you
up test a few weeks later, Patrick found that the grasp or retain the material that was presented?
class that used a combination of methods had the What were they?
highest knowledge retention.
Counseling Groups
Counseling groups are preventive, growth oriented, and remedial. These groups are “generally
considered to be a treatment mode that is equal in effectiveness to individual counseling”
(Stockton, Morran, & Chang, 2014, p. 133). The focus of counseling groups, which are also
referred to as counseling/interpersonal problem-solving groups, is on the improvement of
interpersonal relationships and the intrapersonal growth of members through the help of the
group. Members are not in need of psychotherapy or remediation (Ward, 2010). Although goals
are personal, the group as a whole may share them. For instance, some counseling groups may
concentrate on ways for each individual in the group to deal with disabling emotions, such as
anger, whereas others may focus on disagreeable and crippling feelings, such as anxiety. Regard-
less, the interaction among people is highlighted, especially in problem solving. These groups
emphasize group dynamics and interpersonal relationships and tend to promote cohesion (Waldo
et al., 2007). Although psychoeducational groups are recommended for everyone on a continuous
basis, counseling groups are more selective. They “are generally for people who may be experi-
encing transitory maladjustment, who are at risk for the development of personal or interpersonal
problems, or who seek enhancement of personal qualities and abilities” (Merchant & Yozamp,
2014, p. 20). In other words, these groups are ideal for individuals experiencing usual, but often
difficult, problems of living that information alone will not solve.
The size of counseling groups varies with the ages of the individuals involved, ranging
from 3 or 4 in a children’s group to 8 to 12 in an adult group. The number of group meetings also
fluctuates but will generally be anywhere from 6 to 16 sessions. The leader is in charge of facili-
tating the group interaction but becomes less directly involved as the group develops.
Usually, the topics covered in counseling groups are developmental or situational, such as
educational, social, career, and personal. They also tend to be of short-term duration. Counseling
groups are a more direct approach to dealing with troublesome behaviors than are psychoeduca-
tional groups because they target specific behaviors and are focused on problem solving, instead
of being aimed at general difficulties that may or may not be pertinent to every member’s life. For
instance, Finn (2003) described a nine-session counseling group to help students cope with loss
in which members used artistic means, such as drawing, music, and drama, to access the underly-
ing feelings and thoughts common to grief and process what they were going through. The focus
in this counseling group was on a common experience, loss, that had taken many forms but that
was disruptive in these adolescents’ lives until dealt with openly.
A major advantage of counseling groups is the interpersonal interaction, feedback, and

contributions group members experience from one another over time. Certainly that was true in
the grief group just described.
One form a counseling group may take is adventure groups. This type of group was
originated by educator Kurt Hahn to enhance emotional and physical abilities in clients by hav-
ing them deal with safe but risk-taking events in the wilderness (Gillen & Balkin, 2006). Like
other groups, these groups go through a number of stages. They focus on the promotion of long-
term change and the opportunity to learn new coping skills. They may be used as adjuncts in
hospital and clinical settings. Fletcher and Hinkle (2002) found that integrating an adventure
component into an institutional setting produced positive results in participants, such as
enhanced self-confidence, self-concept, and well-being. Other findings support enhanced ben-
efits, such as more immediate insight and quicker movement through developmental stages
within the group.
Reflection
If you started a counseling group, do you think you would incorporate physical activities, such
as the arts or movement, into it, or do you think you would concentrate mainly on having mem-
bers talk about their concerns? Why would you do what you do, and how would it help the
group develop?
An Example of a Counseling Group: A Counseling Group for Counselors

Often counseling groups are conducted in schools or agencies with clients who want or need to
focus on a developmental or situational problematic aspect of their lives, such as making a career
decision or resolving negative feelings toward specific people or experiences. The purpose of the
group and its members is clear.
The counseling group chosen as an example here, a counseling group for counselors, can
be enhancing for several reasons. For example, it promotes a dialogue among members of a
profession who may otherwise not meet together at any other regular time. One of the most
important dimensions of this type of group, however, is to help counselors deal with what Kot-
tler (2010) describes as the “toxic effect” that comes from working with people in pain. The
toxic effect includes physical and psychic isolation, repeated feelings of loss in regard to client
termination, and interpersonal distancing from family and friends who may perceive counselors
as interpreting their words and actions. Thus, as Guy (1987) recommends, counselors need
periodic, regular counseling to keep themselves well and functioning in an adequate and effec-
tive manner.
A counseling group for counselors can be conducted in a number of ways, but Emerson
(1995) has set up an open-ended group model that appears to be most appropriate for practition-
ers in local communities. Her model is premised on Coche’s (1984) suggestion that experienced
group counselors reexperience participation in a counseling group. Specifically, Coche states that
this reexperience can help group workers go beyond blasé and stereotypical responses, make
them more aware of group participants’ feelings, and resensitize them professionally to their
power as group leaders.
In a counseling group for counselors, just as in other group counseling, self-disclosure and
exploration of one’s strengths and weaknesses are important for the development of the group
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Etching in England
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other
parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may
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located before using this eBook.
Title: Etching in England
Author: Sir Frederick Wedmore
Release date: May 7, 2022 [eBook #68011]
Language: English
Original publication: United Kingdom: George Bell and Sons, 1895
Credits: Charlene Taylor, Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading
Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETCHING IN ENGLAND ***

Etching in England
TURNER. “TWICKENHAM."
Etching in England
by
Frederick Wedmore
With 50 Illustrations
London
George Bell and Sons
1895
CHISWICK PRESS:—CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.

TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
PREFACE.
I READ, the other day, in a note of Abraham Haywar to his translation of “Faust,” how
Schlegel wrote of Gœthe—to M. de Rémusat,—“Il imait guère à donner des explications,
et il jamais voulu faire des préfaces.” It would not be seemly, perhaps, that in the present
volume of brief historical and critical record, I should endeavour to imitate so august a
silence.
Twenty-seven years have passed since one of the most interesting and judicial of
English writers upon Fine Art published the book which did amongst us the service of
popularising, in some degree at least, the knowledge of Etching. The craft of the aquafortist
has, since then, become a medium of expression generally accepted, if not precisely
understood; and the half-educated young woman of our period, far from considering the
art of whose achievements I treat, as “a form of elegant pen-drawing,” (as she did in Mr.
Hamerto first days), is likely perhaps to hold—with “Carry,” in my own little story—that
there is “nothing in the world so artistic as a very large etching.” The public, if it has not
become properly instructed in the technique of Etching, has at least had the opportunity of
becoming so. Hence I have conceived it to be no part of my business to discourse much
upon methods. For them the reader may turn now, not only to Mr. Hamerton, but to Sir
Seymour Haden, with his great practical experience, his native endowments, and his finely
trained taste; to Mr. Herkomer, with his frank and interesting personal record; to M.
Maxime Lalanne; to Mr. Frank Short—but the list is too long for me to attempt to exhaust
it.
What is done here—and done I think for the first time—is to devote a book to the
survey, not of good etched work generally, nor of all etched work—all popular etched work
—wrought in England, but of such work as has been wrought in England of the finer and
truer kind. That has led to many omissions; for, in the last generation and before it, people
were popular—as many are to-day—who were clever draughtsmen, perhaps, but bad
etchers. It has led, too, to many inclusions—inclusions not possible to Mr. Hamerton. Much
of the best work done in England has been done since he wrote; and a little excellent work,
done long before he wrote, he happened to pass over.
This present book, then, is devoted to the best English art. It treats of the foreigner only
when he has laboured much in our land, or—I am thinking perhaps of M. Helleu—has at
least been much associated with it. It includes necessarily a great American—Mr. Whistler
—who was amongst us for more than thirty years—and a man of French birth who has
been half his life with us—M. Legros. The art of Etching is not, it may be, like the art of
Water-Colour, essentially English; but I suppose that nowhere more than here has it been
practised with excellence and with legitimate variety. And this I say with the full knowledge
that the achievements of Rembrandt have made Holland classic ground for ever for the
lover of Etching, and that the history of that art in France includes two names, at least,
which are inevitably illustrious—Méryo name and Jacquemar.
F. W.
London: October, 1895.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Two Classes of Etching 1
II. Turner 3
III. Girton 6
IV. Wilkie 10
V. Geddes 14
VI. Crome 20
VII. Cotman 22
VIII. Samuel Palmer 26
IX. James McNeil Whistler 30
X. Sir Seymour Haden 45
XI. Alphonse Legros 62
XII. William Strang 71
XIII. Charles Holroyd 87
XIV. Frank Short 95
XV. C. J. Watson 103
XVI. Oliver Hall 115
XVII. Colonel Goff 119
XVIII. D. Y. Cameron 137
XIX. Joseph Pennell 140
XX. Mortimer Menpes 144
XXI. L. Raven-Hill 148
XXII. R. W. Macbeth, Hubert Herkomer, R.A., and Axel Haig 152
XXIII. Some Other Etchers 159
XXIV. Helleu 172
ILLUSTRATIONS.[1]
PAGE
1. Twickenham (Frontispiece) Turner
2. Seine Bridge Girtin 7
3. The Receipt Wilkie 11
4. Peckham Rye Geddes 15
5. Halliford on Thames ” 17
6. Near Whitby Cotman 23
7. The Herdsman Samuel Palmer 27
8. Thames Police Whistler 33
9. The Piazzetta ” 39
10. Tree Study Seymour Haden 43
11. Thomas Haden, after Wright of Derby Seymour Haden 47
12. Kidwelly Town ” ” 49
13. A Water Meadow ” ” 53
14. Windmill Hill ” ” 55
15. Scotch Firs ” ” 59
16. Communion dans glise St. Médard Legros 63
17. La Mort et le Bûcheron ” 67
18. The Potato Basket William Strang 73
19. The Bookstall ” ” 75
20. Lord Justice Lindley ” ” 77
21. Midnight Mass, Monte Oliveto Charles Holroyd 81
22. Farm behind Scarborough Charles Holroyd 83
23. Round Temple ” ” 85
24. Wrought Nails Frank Short 89
25. Sleeping till the Flood ” ” 91
26. Quarter Boys ” ” 93
27. Mill Bridge, Bosham C. J. Watson 99
28. St. Etienne du Mont ” ” 101
29. Landscape with Trees Oliver Hall 107
30. Roadside Trees ” ” 109
31. Trees on the Hill-side ” ” 111
32. The Edge of the Forest ” ” 113
33. Chain Pier, Brighton Colonel Goff 117
34. Norfolk Bridge, Shoreham ” ” 123
35. Pine Trees, Christchurch ” ” 127
36. Border Towers D. Y. Cameron 131
37. The Palace, Stirling Castle ” ” 133
38. Windmills, Zandaam ” ” 135
39. Le Puy en Velay Joseph Pennell 141
40. Japanese Girls Menpes 145
41. Wandle River L. Raven-Hill 149
42. Gwenydd Herkomer 153
43. The Open Window Elizabeth Armstrong 157
44. At the Loom Minna Bolingbroke 161
45. Dorking Percy Thomas 163
46. Sunrise in Wales W. Holmes May 167
47. A Hurrying Wind Alfred East 169
48. Etude de Jeune Fille Helleu 173
49. Femme à la Tasse ” 177
50. Le Salon Blanc ” 181
ETCHING IN ENGLAND.
I.
TWO CLASSES OF ETCHING.
A S in France and America, so, very specially, in England, the productions of the etcher
have to be divided broadly into two classes, one of which is the result mainly of a
commercial demand, and the other, of an artistic impulse. The etcher whose
employment of the etching-needle is confined wholly, or confined in the main, to the work
of realizing and translating the conceptions of another, is, like the reproductive line-
engraver, or the reproductive engraver in mezzotint, little more than the dexterous
instrument which carries anothe message. So artistic is his process, when it is properly
used, that it is preferable indeed that he be himself an artist as well as a craftsman—it is
indeed essential that he shall have some measure of artistic feeling, as well as the flexibility
of the executant. But our demands upon him stop, in any case, at a comparatively early
point; and we find him more or less sharply cut off in our minds, and in our estimation,
from the artist who, when he employs the etching-needle, is occupied with the spontaneous
expression of his own thought and fancy—of the particular things of beauty and of interest
which may strike him on his way through the world.
II.
TURNER.
O F fine original etchers within the confines of these realms, Turner was almost the first
to appear. He was the senior, considerably, of Wilkie and Geddes, who will have to be
spoken of soon after him. During twelve years of his “early middle” period—between
1807 and 1819—he wrought what were in some respects important etchings upon
something like seventy plates. But his etchings differed in aim, as well as in execution,
from almost all the others I shall speak of in this brief general survey of the achievements,
here in England, of the etche art. They did so partly by reason of the fact that it was never
intended that they should be complete in themselves. They laid the basis of an effect which
had to be completed by the employment of another art. They did hardly more than record—
though always with an unequalled power and an unerring skill—the leading lines of those
great landscape compositions which the mezzotint of the engraver (and the engraver was
often Turner himself) endowed with light and shade and atmosphere. For it was by a union
of these two arts that that noble publication was produced whose business it was to surpass
in variety and subtlety the “Liber Veritatis” of Claude.
It is very possible that in some of the plates of his “Liber Studiorum,” Turner did not
undertake the “biting-in,” with acid, of those subjects whose draughtsmanship was his own.
Probably he did in all the best of them. In an etching, the strength and the perfection of the
result—the relation of part to part—is dependent so much on the biting. It is hardly
conceivable that where the etchings of the “Liber Studiorum” strike us as most noble, they
were not wholly—in biting as well as in draughtsmanship—Turne own.
They differ much in merit, apart, I think, from the necessary difference in interest which
arises from the opportunity given by one subject and denied by another for the exercise of
an etche skill. They have generally, within their proper limits, perfect freedom of handling,
and an almost incomparable vigour, and a variety which liberates their author from any
charge of mannerism. There are few of them which could not hold their own with any plate
of Rembrand done under conditions sufficiently resembling theirs. The etching of the
“Severn and Wye,” or the etching of “St. Catherin Hill, Guildford,” is carried very nearly as
far as the etching of the “Cottage with White Palings,” and with a result very nearly as
delightful and distinguished. And in regard to the average etching of Turner, it may fairly
be said that a hand put in to pluck out of a portfolio by chance any one of the seventy,
would discover that it held a print which was at least the equal of that one of Rembrand
with which it is fairest of all to compare it—a print of Rembrand done, like Turne, for
“leading lines” alone—I mean the famous little tour de force, the “Si Bridge.”
So much for the greatness of our English master. I pass from him with this reminder,
given again for final word. Wonderful as is his etching for selection of line, wonderful for
firmness of hand, we must never allow ourselves to forget that it was not intended to
present, that it was not intended to be in any way concerned with, the whole of a picture.
III.
GIRTIN.
T HE limitations which we have marked in Turne aim in Etching, are to be noticed just as
clearly in the aim of Girtin. Nay, they are to be noticed yet more. For while Turner not
infrequently gave emphasis to his work by the depth and vigour of his bitten line,
Girtin, in his few and rare etchings—which, it is worth while to remember, just preceded
Turne—sought only to establish the composition and the outline. He did this with a skill of
selection scarcely less than Turne own, and admirable, almost as in his water-colour work,
is the quiet sobriety of his picturesque record.
But though Girti etchings—many soft-ground, and about twenty—may contain some
lessons for the craftsman, some indeed for the artist, they are scarcely for the portfolios of
the collector. They were wrought, all of them, towards the end of Girti life, that was cut
short in 1802,
GIRTIN. “A SEINE BRIDGE.”
when he was twenty-nine years old. They were the preparations for his aquatinted plates of
Paris, against which in their completed form there is only this to be said—that the
avoidance, generally, of any attempt at atmospheric effects, involves a seeming monotony
of treatment, though as dignified visions of old Parisian architecture, of Parisian landscape,
so to speak, in its habitual setting of wide sky and noble river, they have never been
surpassed, and very seldom equalled.
The vision of Girtin, it must always be remembered—whatever be his work—is not
emphatically personal. With all his charm and breadth and dignity, something of the pure
architectural draughtsman lingered to the end, in his labour. He had no parti pris about the
facts: no bias we forgive, no prejudice we welcome. He sought to represent simply the
“view,” although no doubt the “view” was generally bettered by his artistry.
IV.
WILKIE.
A FAMOUS Scotchman, David Wilkie, and his very distinguished friend and fellow-
countryman, Andrew Geddes, wrought, each of them, in the middle period of Turne
life, a certain number of etchings of independent merit. Those of Sir David Wilkie,
which were but few, happen to be the best known, because Wilkie, much more than
Geddes, was a leader of painting. But, meritorious as are the etchings of Wilkie, in their
faithful record of character and picturesque effect, they are seldom as admirable as the
prints of his less eminent brother. They have, generally, not so much freedom; and, while
they follow great traditions less, they are at the same time less individual. “Pope Examining
a Censer” has the dignity of the designer and the draughtsman, but not much of the etche
particular gift. “The Receipt”—or “A Gentleman Searching in a Bureau,”
DAVID WILKIE. “THE RECEIPT.”
for this second title explains the subject better—is the most successful of Wilki. It is
characteristic of his simpler and less ambitious genre, and is indeed faultless, and more
than faultless—charming.
V.
GEDDES.
A NDREW GEDDES etched four or five times as many plates as Wilkie. He issued ten
from Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, in 1826. The dates on some of them are 1812,
1816, and 1822; and, besides these ten that were published, about thirty more, which
there was no attempt to issue to the world, have to be taken account of. Some, like the
excellent “Portrait of the Painte Mother”—which is so fine in illumination, in drawing, and
in character—are directly suggested by the artis paintings. Others—including all the
landscapes—are, apparently, studies from Nature, done with a singular appreciation of the
ripest art of Rembrandt.
Geddes was very sensible of the charm of dry-point—of its peculiar quality of giving
individuality to each one of the few impressions which you may safely produce from it, and
of its unique capacity for rendering broad effects of light and shade.
ANDREW GEDDES. “AT PECKHAM RYE.”

ANDREW GEDDES. “AT HALLIFORD ON
THAMES.”
The “Peckham Rye” shows this. Nothing can show it better. And there is at least one
other plate by Geddes, “Halliford on Thames,” which proves him just as completely a
master of elegance and grace of line as “Peckham Rye” shows him a decisive master of
masculine effect, and curiously adept in the broad and balanced disposition of masses of
light and shade.
Gedde work will not decline in value, and the connoisseur has no business whatever to
forget or to ignore it. Only, if he collects the dry-points of Geddes, he had better wait for
years, if necessary, for early impressions of them, and he had better repudiate altogether the
unsatisfactory modern edition—the worthy Mr. David Lain volume, “Etchings by Wilkie
and Geddes,” issued, with the best intentions in the world, in Edinburgh in 1875.
VI.
CROME.
I T is the splendid work of Crome among the Norfolk coppices—among the fields studded
here and there with cattle, but chiefly in the tangle of the wood, or where the wood-path
winds under the rustic palings, and then through undergrowth, and out into the rising
meadow, to be lost at last, a thread against the horizon sky—it is this splendid tree-work,
large, massive, intricate, pictorial, never narrowly faithful alone, that gives interest and
value to Crom series of etchings. He did them mostly in the last years of his life (which
closed in 1821), and it was always for pleasure and remembrance that he wrought them.
Publication he cannot have intended, for he never did enough to be recognized a master
while he lived, and his etched subjects gave him memoranda for his pictures, and were
little records of places that he loved.
Their merits came slowly to be known by some few; and the etchings, carelessly
printed and ill-bitten, were given, here and there, by Crome to his friends. In 1834, his
widow, I am told, issued an edition, which must have been very small, and four years later
they came again in a measure before the lovers of Norfolk art, re-bitten by one Mr.
Ninham, re-touched by one Mr. Edwards of Bungay, and issued with a short biography by
Mr. Dawson Turner—a volume which may still be stumbled on at the booksellers. These
later states are of slight artistic value. They tell us little of Crome which we may not know
much better from other sources he has furnished, and much of their work is not Crom at all.
The early states are, at least, “signed all over” by him. Amateurish enough in biting and in
printing, they are yet pleasant, characteristic records. “At Bawburgh,” and “Near Hingham”
(dated 1813), and “At Woodrising” are some of those that one would like to cherish: and
cherished they ought to be, for the reasons I have named. Yet to put them beside even less
admirable works which have enjoyed the ordinary conditions of fair presentation—the
biting adequate, the printing careful, and the paper good—is to see them, of necessity, at a
disadvantage.
VII.
COTMAN.
C OTMA etchings—soft ground, for the most part—are scarcely for the average
collector, any more than Crom. No one, I mean, puts them carefully in the cabinet, or,
with reverence, in the shrine and sanctuary of the solander box; but, in book-form, they
stand, and should stand, on the shelves of some lovers of Art. One not unwieldy volume—
that “Liber Studiorum,” which, in the year 1838, Cotman brought together, not perhaps
without thought of Turne accomplished triumph—contains two score or so of plates which
show much, not only of Cotma capacity as a draughtsman, but of his genius for ideal
composition, of his faculty for dignity of line, and for so disposing masses of light and
shade that they should be not only significant, but impressive. It is here seen that this
glorious and original colourist could dispense with colour and yet be fine and individual.
Yet, as achievements in
COTMAN. “NEAR WHITBY.”
the art of Black-and-White, no careful student could place them in line with the plates of
the admitted masters of etching. They have not often the subtlety of technique which, allied
of course with fineness of conception, is the very sign of the master. Still, they are too good
to be passed by in silence. And they are a great ma work.

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Groups: A Counseling Specialty 7th

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

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PART 1 Group Development

PART 2 Diversity, Social Justice, Creativity, and Ethical/

PART 3 Groups Throughout the Life Span

PART 4 Theoretical Approaches to Groups

Appendix A History of Group Work 381

Part 1 Group Development

Chapter 1 Types of Groups and Group Work 1

Chapter 2 Group Dynamics 25

Chapter 3 Effective Group Leadership 52

Chapter 4 Forming a Group 80

Chapter 5 The Transition Period in a Group:

Chapter 6 The Working Stage in a Group: Performing 121

Nominal-Group Technique 133

Chapter 7 Closing a Group 140

Part 2 Diversity, Social Justice, Creativity, and Ethical/

Stages of Social Justice 166

Chapter 9 Specialty Groups and Creativity in Groups 186

Creative Exercises for Different Group Stages 206

Chapter 10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Working

Part 3 Groups Throughout the Life Span

Chapter 11 Groups for Children 234

Group Session Length and Number in Group 245

Chapter 12 Groups for Adolescents 255

Chapter 13 Groups for Adults 277

Groups for Couples, Families, the Divorced, the Widowed,

Chapter 14 Groups for Older Adults 300

Part 4 Theoretical Approaches to Groups

Chapter 15 Transactional Analysis, Reality Therapy,

Adlerian Groups 336

Chapter 16 Existential, Gestalt, Rational-Emotive Behavior

Psychodrama Groups 370

Appendix A History of Group Work 381

Appendix B History of Group Work Chart 392

*From “Planets” © 2010 by Samuel T.

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