ATOMIC

CHAPTER REPORT

Lecturer:
Dr. Dian Ekawati S.Pd., M.Pd.
Amalia Fitriani M.Pd

Group 4:
Dian Maulida :1232080012
Diana Siska Alzahra :1232080017

CHEMISTRY EDUCATION
FAKULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SUNAN GUNUNG DJATI BANDUNG
2024
 FREFACE
Praise be to Allah SWT who has given me convenience so that I can complete this
presentation assignment about "atoms". Without HIS help of course I would not have been able
to complete this task well. May prayers and greetings be abundantly showered on our beloved
king, namely the Prophet Muhammad SAW, whose intercession we will pray for in the afterlife.
On this occasion, we do not forget to thank Mrs. Amalia Fitriani M.Pd as a lecturer in
the English Language Education course who has guided us, and we also thank other parties
involved in the process of making this assignment, both in terms of direct. or indirectly. direct.
. Hopefully this chapter report provide benefits for writers, readers and all parties.
Until now, we realize that in the preparation of this chapter report there are still many
shortcomings so that the results obtained are far from perfect. Therefore, we really hope for
suggestions and constructive criticism.

Bandung, 24th May 2024

Group 4
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element. Atoms
are made of fundamental particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons
clump together to form a central nucleus. The electrons move in a cloud-like region around the
nucleus. Most atoms are stable. Their protons, neutrons, and electrons balance.
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the
electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by
the nuclear force.
Some atoms have too many neutrons in the nucleus, which makes them unstable.
They’re radioactive, giving off particles until they become stable. Atoms with extra or missing
electrons are called ions. They have a positive or negative electric charge and are responsible
for many chemical reactions. (chang, 2004)
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSION
A. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure comprised atoms,
the smallest particle responsible for the chemical reactions to occur. Postulates of Dalton’s
Atomic Theory.
The following are the postulates of his theory:
a. Every matter is made up of atoms.
b. Atoms are indivisible.
c. Specific elements have only one type of atom in them.
d. Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
e. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form
to another.
Dalton’s atomic theory successfully explained the Laws of chemical reactions, namely,
the Law of conservation of mass, Law of constant properties, Law of multiple proportions,
and Law of reciprocal proportions. Discovery of subatomic particles electrons, protons, and
neutrons discarded the indivisible nature of the atom proposed by John Dalton.
practice, Dalton's atomic theory has several shortcomings including:
a. Cannot describe how atoms combine with each other.
b. Atoms of one element and atoms of other elements cannot be described.
c. The relationship between compound solutions and the conductivity of electric current
cannot be described.
d. The electrical properties of matter cannot be described.
Dalton's atomic theory only survived for 90 years. This is because in 1886, Eugene
Goldstein discovered electrical particles that have a positive charge and are now known as
protons. After that, in 1897 Thomson discovered a negatively charged particle called an
electron.
Even though John Dalton's atomic theory still has shortcomings, Dalton is the father
who created modern atomic theory. And more importantly, Dalton's atomic theory is able
to explain Lavoisier's law of conservation of mass (the mass of substances before and after
the reaction is the same) and Proust's law of fixed proportions (the ratio of the masses of
the elements in a compound is fixed and certain). Gao,J, 2021)
B. Thomson’s Atomic Theory
After Dalton's atomic theory, the next figure in the development of atomic theory was
Thomson's atomic theory. In its development, Thomson corrected the shortcomings of
Dalton's previous atomic theory. In 1897, Thomson discovered negatively charged
particles called electrons.Electrons are a discovery that aims to correct the shortcomings
of previous atomic theory. Thomson's atomic theory originated from the discovery of the
cathode tube by William Crookes. From the research that Crookes had done, Thomson
developed his research on cathode rays at the Cavendish Laboratory.
 After completing and getting the results of the research carried out, Thomson
discovered that cathode rays were particles. This is because the cathode rays are able to
rotate the propeller placed between the cathode and anode. After knowing this, Thomson
stated that cathode rays were among the particles that make up atoms (subatomic particles)
which have a negative charge and are now called electrons.
These negatively charged particles or electrons will contain the contents of Thomson's
atomic theory. The content of Thomson's atomic theory is a positively charged solid ball
or billiard ball which contains several negatively charged particles or electrons. These
electrons will be scattered over the ball like plum on pudding.
Thomson's atomic theory can be called the raisin bread theory. It is called the raisin
bread theory because the negative charge or electrons (plum) surround the positively
charged atoms (pudding). In general, J.J Thomson's atomic theory can be summarized into
several outlines.
The following is the essence of Thomson's atomic theory.
a. An atom is not the smallest part of a substance.
b. The mass of an atomic electron is smaller than the atomic mass.
c. Overall the atom is neutral. This is because the positive and negative atomic
charges on an atom are the same and an atom does not have excessive positive and
negative charges.
d. Atoms with a positive charge will be distributed evenly throughout the atom, then
the atom is neutralized by the electrons that are scattered between the positive
charges.
Just like Dalton's atomic theory, Thomson's atomic theory also has shortcomings.
Following are some of the shortcomings of Thomson's atomic theory.
a. Thomson's atomic theory cannot explain how the positive charge is arranged and
the number of electrons in the ball.
b. The atomic nucleus cannot be explained.
Unfortunately, the theory developed by Thomson was no longer developed. The reason
this theory was not developed was that later this atomic theory was found to be
incompatible with the results of Ernest Ruthhrfood's experiments. Research conducted by
Rutherford was able to prove that in all parts of the atom, the positive charge of the atom
Rutherfood’s was not distributed evenly. Rutherford's research revealed that positive
charge atoms were not distributed evenly centered in the center of the atom which is now
called the atomic nucleus (Fang, 2020)
C. Rutherford’ Atomic Theory
The next atomic theory is the theory of Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford was born in New
Zealand and is of British nationality. He was a student and partner of Thomson. Even
though Rutherford was a student of Thomson, he developed atomic theory and improved
the theory of his teacher, Thomson. Rutherford and his two assistants discovered the
atomic nucleus in 1910. The atomic nucleus has a radius that is smaller than the atomic
radius. The theory discovered by Rutherford came from experiments on bombarding the
atomic nuclei of gold plates with alpha particles (a particle with a mass four times the mass
of a hydrogen atom and a positive charge twice the charge of an electron). This experiment
 is called Geiger-Marsden. The name of this experiment was taken from two of Rutherford's
students, namely Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden).
When conducting experiments, Rutherford created an experimental design for shooting
gold atoms with alpha particles emitted by radioactive elements. After being emitted, the
result is that radioactivity is reflected, transmitted and deflected. From the results of the
experiments carried out, Rutherford hoped that all alpha particles would penetrate straight
through the gold plate. However, this expectation did not match reality so the fact was that
there were alpha particles that were deflected between 900 and 1800. Based on the results
of the experiments carried out, Rutherford came to the conclusion that if an atomic nucleus
is hit by an alpha particle, a collision will occur which causes the alpha particle to deflect
or reflect. The cause of this is that the mass and charge of the atom are concentrated in the
nucleus. Thus, Rutherford argued that the charge of the atomic nucleus was equal to the
atomic mass in amu (atomic mass unit).
From the results of this experiment, it can be confirmed that Rutherford's atomic theory
disproved Thomson's atomic theory. The thing that caused Thomson's atomic theory to fail
was Rutherford's discovery of the atomic nucleus in the atom. This atomic nucleus has a
positive charge which is the center, mass, and is surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons or you could say it is like the shape of the solar system. The following
are some of the core or outlines of Rutherford's atomic theory.
From the results of this experiment, it can be confirmed that Rutherford's atomic theory
disproved Thomson's atomic theory. The thing that caused Thomson's atomic theory to fail
was that Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus in the atom. This atomic nucleus has a
positive charge which is the center, mass, and is surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons or you could say it is like the shape of the solar system.
The following are some of the core or outlines of Rutherford's atomic theory.
a. An atom consists of an atomic nucleus which has a positive charge and is surrounded
by electrons which have a negative charge like the model of the solar system.
b. Atoms are neutral because the positive charge is proportional to the negative charge.
c. While orbiting the nucleus, the centripetal force on electrons is formed by the attractive
force between electrons and the force of the atomic nucleus (Coulomb force).
d. Most of the volume of an atom is empty space (not solid). This is because the radius of
the atomic nucleus is much smaller than the radius of the atom.
Even though Rutherford's atomic theory has disproved Thomson's atomic theory,
Rutherford's theory still has shortcomings, namely.
a. This atomic theory cannot describe the rotation of the atomic nucleus and the position
of electrons.
b. This atomic theory cannot describe the line spectrum in the hydrogen atom.
c. Atomic energy becomes unstable because moving electrons emit energy. Lewi, 1916)
D. Bohr’s Atomic Theory
Niels Bohr was a physicist from Denmark and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1922. Bohr began research on atoms in 1913 and the name of the results of that research
was the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. After Rutherford's theory began to spread and be
used, scientists agreed that an atom consists of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Bohr's
atomic theory originated from the weaknesses of Rutherford's atomic theory. This
 weakness is that the electron trajectories presented by Rutherford are not yet perfect for
explaining the structure of an atom because they are considered to be in conflict with
Maxwell's classical electrodynamic theory.
From this weakness, Bohr attempted to develop and perfect Rutherford's atomic theory
by using Rutherford's nuclear atomic model and Planck's quantum theory and proposed an
atomic theory which is currently known as Bohr's Atomic Theory. The form of Bohr's
atomic theory can be said to be like the circulation of planets as they circle the solar system.
The experiments carried out by Bohr produced electrons that surround the atomic nucleus
consisting of protons and neutrons and in certain trajectories called electron shells or
energy levels. After surrounding the atomic nucleus, the electrons can move from one shell
to another by absorbing or emitting certain types of energy. Some experts call this theory
the Rutherford-Bohr Atomic Theory. This naming occurs because the Bohr atomic model
is a modification of the Rutherford atomic model.
The essence of Bohr's atomic theory can be summed up into four nuclei, namely:
a. Electrons revolve around atoms in certain orbits.
b. While in the trajectory, the electron's energy remains constant so that no energy is
absorbed or emitted.
c. Electrons can only move from one shell to another by absorbing or emitting energy.
d. The trajectories that electrons allow are those that have an angular momentum that is
an integer multiple of h2π (π=3.14)
In practice, Bohr's atomic theory has several weaknesses, namely
a. This atomic theory cannot explain the spectrum of atoms larger than hydrogen.
b. This atomic theory cannot explain the Zeeman effect.(Gao,J, 2021)
E. Quantum Mechanical’s Atomic Theory
The reason quantum mechanical theory was developed was to perfect Bohr's atomic
theory. The theory of quantum mechanics was perfected by Erwin Schrödinger who was a
physicist from Austria and Nobel Prize winner in Physics in 1933. Development of modern
atomic theory based on de Broglie's hypothesis. According to Louis de Broglie, dualism
applies to electrons, namely that electrons are not just particles, but also waves. In other
words, electrons will move like waves and have trajectories that are also waves.
It wasn't just Schrödinger who developed modern atomic theory, but there was a
researcher named Werner Heisenberg. Heisenberg and Schrödinger worked together to
develop modern atomic theory. The theory that has been developed by these two
researchers is currently called the quantum mechanical atomic theory. If Schrödinger's
research was based on de Broglie's hypothesis, then Heisenberg's research was based on
Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. From this principle, Heisenberg concluded that
there were limitations in determining the position and momentum of electrons. The atomic
theory of quantum mechanics can be said to be the most advanced theory of several atomic
theories that have been developed. (Brucat, 2008)
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
Dalton's atomic theory provided an important foundation for understanding chemical
reactions by introducing the concept of atoms as indivisible particles. However, the discovery
of subatomic particles such as protons, electrons, and neutrons revealed that atoms were indeed
divisible, thus challenging fundamental aspects of Dalton's theory.
Thomson's atomic theory built upon and corrected Dalton's model by introducing
subatomic particles. In 1897, Thomson discovered electrons, demonstrating that cathode rays
are negatively charged particles. His "plum pudding" model depicted atoms as positively
charged spheres with scattered negatively charged electrons, resembling raisins in bread. This
advancement significantly enhanced the understanding of atomic structure by recognizing the
existence of subatomic particles.
If an atomic nucleus is hit by an alpha particle, a collision will occur which causes the
alpha particle to bend or bounce. The reason is that the mass and charge of the atom are
concentrated in the nucleus. Thus, Rutherford argued that the charge of the atomic nucleus was
equal to the atomic mass in amu (atomic mass unit).The form of Bohr's atomic theory can be
said to be like the circulation of the planets around the solar system.
The theory of quantum mechanics was developed to improve Bohr's atomic theory. This
progress was led by Erwin Schrödinger, who integrated Louis de Broglie's hypothesis that
electrons exhibit both particle and wave characteristics.
 REFERENCE
Brucat, Philip J. (2008). "Quantum Atoms" University of Florida. Archived from the original
on 12-07-2006. Retrieved 01-04-2007.
Chang, Raymond. (2004). General Chemistry-The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-
Hill
Fang FZ (2020) Atomic and close-to-atomic scale manu-facturing: perspectives and measures.
Int J Extreme Manuf 2(3):030201
Gao J, Luo XC, Fang FZ et al (2021) Fundamentals of atomic and close-to-atomic scale
manufacturing: a review. Int J Extreme Manuf 4(1):012001.
Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916). "Atoms and Molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society.
38(4):762-786
 ATTACHMENT

NO Question Answer Name

1. Which atomic theory is The atomic theory currently used Ayu setianingrum
still used today? is the quantum mechanical atomic
theory, because this atomic model
is the most perfect and has the
accuracy and ability to explain the
chemical and physical
phenomena that occur.
2. What is meant by In quantum mechanical atomic Fitrah Nurhanifah
probability of existence theory, the concept of probability
in quantum mechanical refers to the possibility or chance
atomic theory? of finding an electron in a position
around the atomic nucleus. This
means that we cannot know for
sure where the electron is, but can
only estimate the probability of
finding it at a certain point.
3. Why is thomson’s Thomson's atomic theory, also Rizki amalia putri
atomic theory called known as the "plum pudding"
the plum pudding theory, was so named because his
theory? proposed model of the atom bore
similarities to the traditional
English dessert called "plum
pudding".